Tag: International Financial Reporting-2 Osmania University b.com Notes

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Advantages and Limitations of having a diverse workforce

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Workforce diversity represents both a challenge and an opportunity for business. A growing number of progressive organisations are realizing the need for valuing diversity in the workforce, so as to ensure strategic utilisation of human resources for the accomplishment of strategic goals.

Advantages

(i) An organisation or a company with well-managed diversity will solve the conflicts resulting from opposing viewpoints, into a more complete and inventive solutions.

(ii) An organisation that promotes equal employment opportunity for diverse groups will generally do better at attracting and retaining talent from all backgrounds, thereby increasing a pool of skilled employees. The differences among people lie a wide variety of talents and perspectives. The broader the range of talents and sweep of perspectives among the employees, the better would be the opportunity for the business to succeed.

(iii) Business with workforce from varied backgrounds can more effectively serve the customers, who are themselves diverse. Such employees can interact with local customers in an effective manner and pay careful attention to their customers’ sensitivities and expectations,

(iv) Companies with diverse workforce are able to present their product and services in a better way.

(v) Companies with effective diversity programs can avoid damage to their corporate reputation or costly lawsuits from charges of discrimination or cultural insensitivity.

(vi) The global market place of today demands a workforce with language skills, cultural sensitivity and awareness of national and other differences across the market in order to be successful. For example, the multinationals operate in different countries, where the cultural practices vary radically. Workforce which can fit in the cultural understanding of the country where the multinational is operating is a must.

Limitations

(i) Cultural Conflicts: Cultural differences may make an employee feel like an outsider. The other cultural groups may not accept him as a member of their groups. Such things affect the performance of the organisation adversely.

(ii) Problematic Gender Relations: Women often encounter many problems at the workplace. The difference in gender is used as a tool to exploit them and, at times, it leads to sexual harassment.

(iii) Discriminatory Treatment: Discriminatory treatment of diverse workforce by the top officials is very common.

For example, in many companies in the U.S.A., whites are generally given a preference over black in the matters of powers, facilities and promotions; in Japanese companies, Indian are not treated at par with the Japanese even if they hold a similar job profile; many companies don’t give similar wages to women employees as they give to men for the same work. Such discriminatory practices lower down the morale of the employees.

(iv) Religion/Racial differences are also a big reason of quarrels over petty issues, which, if not resolved in time, assume a bitter feud.

(v) Resistance to Change: Because of diversity, some groups of workers might resist change proposed by the management.

(vi) Where employees are parochial, there is a danger that they may form close and strong groups having same Carte, community or religion.

(vii) There is always Resistance to Change by employees. When there is diverse workforce, then the resistance becomes fierce, at times.

Workforce Diversity in India

The human resource managers in Indian organisations have to respond to a wide range of diversity issues due to a diverse workforce of varying socio-economic, ethnic and linguistic composition.

Various categories of employees in the Indian organisations include the following:

  1. Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs):

The candidates belonging to scheduled castes and tribes determined by a notification of the Central Government are given preferences to the extent of 15 percent and 7.5 percent respectively in case of jobs in the government departments and public sector enterprises. Recently, some political parties have called for reservation of jobs in the private sector also for the scheduled castes and tribes.

  1. Other Backward Castes (OBCs):

The Central Government has made provisions for reserving jobs upto 27.5% in the government departments and public sector undertakings for those who belong to other backward classes. Though there is no such compulsion in case of private enterprises, they already have employees belonging to the OBCs.

  1. Disabled or Physically Handicapped Persons:

Employees whose work assignments are limited by their physical abilities have in the past been referred to an “handicapped” or ‘disabled”. Today, the more politically correct term is ‘physically challenged’ for those individuals who have hearing, speech, visual, orthopaedic, or other health impairments.

The Central Government has provided for reservation of jobs in Group C and Group D posts for the blind, deaf and orthopedically handicapped persons. Socially responsible organisations in the private sector also offer employment to the physically challenged persons.

  1. Ex-Defence Personnel:

Ex-defence personnel or ex-servicemen who are trained and disciplined may also be offered jobs in the organisations. This would increase workforce diversity is the organisation.

  1. Displaced Persons:

The people who are displaced because of acquisition of land for public purpose or because of other causes like flood, militancy, etc. may be preferred for jobs in public enterprises on humanitarian grounds.

  1. Female Employees:

The ratio of women workers at the place of work is on the rise. This has been associated with the problems of discrimination and sexual harassment. The organisations need to take steps to deal with such problems

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Dimensions of Workforce Diversity

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Managing workforce diversity implies creating an organisational climate in which a heterogeneous workforce performs to its best potential; without the organisation favouring/dis-favouring any particular segment of workforce with a view to facilitating the best attainment of organisational goals.

Dimensions

(i) Gender:

Male workers are usually aggressive, bold and materialistic; while female workers possess sympathy for others and are more concerned with quality of life. What is important to observe is that people of both sex have material differences in outlook, nature, habits etc. as differences between males and females are the design of God who created mankind.

(ii) Age:

People belonging to different age groups cause diversity in workforce. Young people may be enriched with health, merit, capacity for hard-work etc.; while elderly people may possess more maturity than their junior counterparts and are full of experiences of life.

(iii) Culture:

Culture is a complex of race, religion, language, social traditions and values etc. People from different cultural backgrounds may have ethnic orientations i.e. a sense of favoritism towards their nation, race or tribe, which they belong to.

(iv) Education:

In an organisation people may range from less educated to highly educated. Educated people have a broad outlook and are open-minded. They are endowed with logic and rationality and usually dislike discrimination among individuals on petty grounds of caste, colour, religion etc.

(v) Psychology:

(Psychology is the kind of mind that one has that makes one think or behaves in a particular way). In a organisation, there are people with different psychology. Some may be optimistic or pessimistic; some may be bold or timid or so on. Psychology may be a gift of Nature or a manifestation of family background or social affiliations.

Factors Increasing Workforce Diversity

(1) Expansion of the services sector: The services sector jobs, such as banking, tourism, and retailing entail lots of inter­action with customers of diverse backgrounds and cultural moorings. In order to sell to a diverse customer base, and because customers tend to prefer to buy from people of the same background, organizations these days have realized the need of a diverse workforce.

(2) Globalization of markets: To satisfy needs and preferences of global customers, organizations have to get closer to their customers. Some organizations have established a strong local presence (for example, American companies advertising their products like soft drinks) while others have forged international alliances (for example, Maruti Udyog Limited (MUL) having alliance with Suzuki of Japan for automobiles manufactures). Either way, diversity gets introduced and must be managed.

(3) Requirement of teamwork for successful implementation of business strategies: For success in business, organizations rely heavily on teamwork. Diversity is an inevitable by-product of teamwork, especially when teams are drawn from a diverse base of employees.

(4) Mergers and alliances: As mergers and alliances become commonplace, it has become impor­tant that the corporate culture of the merging entities work together. Workforce diversity, then, becomes inevitable and desirable for the success of such mergers and alliances.

(5) Changing labour market: The rapidly changing labour market is also responsible for injecting diversity in workforce. Increasing demand for knowledgeable workers and also more and more women taking up jobs add an important dimension in workforce diversity.

Management Notes

Positive and Negative effects of workforce diversity in workplace

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Positive effects

Productivity levels improve because of diversity in the workplace.

Even when a team doesn’t like the idea of being diverse, their productivity levels can rise by more than 30%. When people have co-workers who are different from them, then there is an increase in the sensitivity levels that are present in the workplace. People start to look for ways to find common ground. There is more time given to each team member to share ideas, and a higher emphasis on hiring women occurs.

Diversity in the workplace exposes societal bias.

Bias is what destroys diversity in the workplace before it can establish itself. Hiring managers tend to bring men on more than women, even if the qualifications of each candidate are equal. During a study funded by Harvard and Princeton, managers were given a set of applications and qualifications, but they did not reveal the gender of each identity. During this blind process, women were preferred over their male counterparts when gender was not part of the hiring process.

Diversity in the workplace creates more revenue-earning opportunities.

The companies which focus on diversification are the businesses which tend to see more sales and revenues because of their efforts. Emphasizing multiple language fluency for a team can boost their profits by 10% for every fluent language that is spoken. Gender diversity can help revenues grow by 40% in the first year of this effort. This advantage can open new markets for the organization that can help profits to start climbing as well without a significant increase in the work of the team.

Companies have access to more talent.

When diversity in the workplace is a top priority for an organization, then supervisors and hiring managers can expand their applicant screening processes to include more people. There are fewer restrictions on geographic location, educational accomplishments, or previous work histories. The top priority in the hiring process focuses on the talent and skills of the individual, and then how that person could fit into the team.

It increases the number of job opportunities for minority workers.

Diversity in the workplace looks at all population demographics when hiring for an open position. That means employers have an opportunity to find the best possible person for a job because they are not limited to a specific group of individuals. This advantage makes it possible to have more women working in society and promotes the hiring of minority groups. It applies at all levels of employment, from the local small business to multinational firms.

This design allows each team member to focus on their strengths.

If an employer can create diversity in the workplace, then each worker will have their strengths complement those of everyone else on the team. That means assignments can be handed out with greater specificity so that the quality of the work improves. Supervisors aren’t forced to guess at who might be the best option for an assignment because each person has a unique skill that they bring to the table.

Employers have more chances to cross-train workers and teams.

Diversity in the workplace creates teams where each person brings a unique strength to work every day. Individuals can specialize in their career, which means their skills and wisdom can be passed along to other team members. Everyone gets to learn and grow each day because there are higher levels of information exposure thanks to the varying backgrounds and educational opportunities each person accomplished.

Employers have more chances to cross-train workers and teams.

Diversity in the workplace creates teams where each person brings a unique strength to work every day. Individuals can specialize in their career, which means their skills and wisdom can be passed along to other team members. Everyone gets to learn and grow each day because there are higher levels of information exposure thanks to the varying backgrounds and educational opportunities each person accomplished.

This perspective can help companies to start growing bigger and faster.

Almost 70% of hiring managers in the United States say that the implementation of a diversity initiative was a contributing factor to the growth of their organization. This advantage helps the organization to create new opportunities for existing team members, install new positions, and raise wages as productivity and creativity levels rise to encourage a stronger sales atmosphere.

It is a way to increase the creativity of an entire team.

Almost 80% of employees working in the United States say that they are not using their creativity to its full potential. Diversity is one of the best environments to encourage this approach to a career because it offers numerous perspectives that can enhance the brainstorming sessions. The biggest complainers about a lack of creative energy in the modern workplace are those who limit the diversity of their teams.

Customers are attracted to diversity in the workplace.

Over 40% of employees say that their company has the right amount of diversity or that their teams should try to become more unique. Although it can be challenging to share a workplace environment with someone who is uniquely different, the advantages typically outweigh the problems which can develop over time. When everyone comes from the same perspective, then the daily routine becomes dull. Going to work becomes a boring experience. People can even lose their passion for what they do because there is a lack of diversity present on their team.

Negative effects

Unresolved Conflict

Greater differences in a workplace produces more potential for conflict among employees. People that come from different cultural backgrounds have different perspectives on how to handle issues or concerns that arise. An inability to see where the other person is coming from can prohibit effective resolution of conflicts. When employees feel like they cannot reach a point of agreement in conflict they may give up and simply let the ill feelings fester and create a negative tone.

Hiring managers focus on leadership qualities too often.

Diversity in the workplace seeks out experts who excel in their chosen career, job function, and team environment. The goal is to create a series of strengths that allows everyone to grow over time. These are all advantages, but it can become a problem if hiring managers are bringing in people who all want to be in charge. Competition can be healthy, but it can also be dangerous when it spirals out of control.

Potential Turnover

A significant bottom line effect of poorly managed diversity is high turnover. Dissatisfied employees that feel like the work environment is unsafe will leave. Constantly replacing employees lost to ill will or a general feeling of discontent is costly as the company has to pay to hire and train replacements. The business risks losing top talent to competitors if the workplace does not provide a safe and motivating culture where employees from diverse backgrounds are welcomed and treated fairly.

Diversity can create workers who are over-qualified for some jobs.

Communities grow and decline naturally as the economy settles into a comfortable pattern. Diversity in the workplace can create stable circumstances and more job security, but it can also create a series of problems where workers become over-qualified for what they are doing. If that individual were to lose their job for some reason, then it could become a struggle for them to find new employment elsewhere.

Poor Communication

Poor communication fuels conflict and can be one of the biggest negative effects of diversity in the workplace, according to This Way. If a workplace has employees from different countries with different native languages, communication is especially difficult. However, a number of barriers or filters can prohibit clear and meaningful communication between employees. It is imperative that companies train employees on cultural awareness and tolerance of differences to encourage them to openly discuss their different viewpoints on things as opposed to avoiding interaction or getting into conflict.

Diversity in the workplace can create too many opinions.

When hiring managers focus on diversity, then they are creating a series of differing opinions that can make it easier to find the right journey to take for forward progress. There are also times when the sheer number of available opinions can create a problem for the organization. When everyone gets a chance to be heard, then the speed of a project can slow down just as quickly as it can increase.

Time and Money

From the business’ perspective, the benefits of diversity must outweigh the time and expenses involved in managing it. Too many opinions can also be hard to sift through and waste valuable time, while potentially creating fog around the best answers, says FDI. Providing diversity training and creating a cooperative culture takes on going effort for time and management. Many companies hire trainers to come in and give background on differences and to teach the importance of accepting others and valuing their opinions.

Offshoring can become a point of emphasis with diversity in the workplace.

Domestic diversity can become an expensive proposition. It costs a lot, between salary and benefits, to hire the best people for your open positions. Because of this issue, it is not unusual for companies to look for offshoring opportunities that can help them to add unique perspectives to their corporate identity without a significant labor expense. This issue can create a lack of job security for existing workers, which can limit their focus and productivity.

Some teams become hostile during an increase in diversity.

Different perspectives create unique opinions and approaches to life that can create severe disagreements in the workplace. It is not unusual for every person to believe that their individual perspectives are the correct one, so they will share that information with others. If someone should happen to disagree, then some people will take that as a personal attack against their character, integrity, or even their spirituality.

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Workforce

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The workforce or labour force is the labour pool either in employment or unemployed. It is generally used to describe those working for a single company or industry, but can also apply to a geographic region like a city, state, or country. Within a company, its value can be labelled as its “Workforce in Place”. The workforce of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed (labour force). The labour force participation rate, LFPR (or economic activity rate, EAR), is the ratio between the labour force and the overall size of their cohort (national population of the same age range). The term generally excludes the employers or management, and can imply those involved in manual labour. It may also mean all those who are available for work.

Formal and Informal

Formal labour is any sort of employment that is structured and paid in a formal way. Unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that country’s gross national product. Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice. It can be paid or unpaid and it is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment. Generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women.

Informal Labour

The contribution of informal labourers is immense. Informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries. According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of the new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, and 93% of the new jobs in Africa.[8] Particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis which began in 1997.

Informal Labour and Gender

Gender is frequently associated with informal labour. Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the informal sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers and street vendors. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, and 14% in India. Overall, 60% of women workers in the developing world are employed in the informal sector.

The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America respectively. The percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector. Globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in the informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the hidden work force.

Workforce management (WFM) is an institutional process that maximizes performance levels and competency for an organization. The process includes all the activities needed to maintain a productive workforce, such as field service management, human resource management, performance and training management, data collection, recruiting, budgeting, forecasting, scheduling and analytics.

Workforce management provides a common set performance-based tools and software to support corporate management, front-line supervisors, store managers and workers across manufacturing, distribution, transportation, and retail operations. It is sometimes referred to as HRM systems, or Workforce asset management, or part of ERP systems.

As workforce management has developed from a traditional approach of staff scheduling to improve time management, it has become more integrated and demand-oriented to optimize the scheduling of staff. Besides the two core aspects of demand-orientation and optimization, workforce management may also incorporate:

  • Forecasting of workload and required staff
  • Involvement of employees into the scheduling process
  • Management of working times and accounts
  • Analysis and monitoring of the entire process.

The starting point is a clear definition of the work required through engineered standards and optimal methods for performing each task as efficiently and safely as possible. Based on this foundation and demand-based forecasts, workers are scheduled, tasks are assigned, performance is measured, feedback is provided and incentives are computed and paid. In addition, online training is provided along with supervisor-based coaching to bring all workers up to required levels of proficiency. Workforce management is a complete approach designed to make workforce as productive as possible, reduce labour costs, and improve customer service.

Field Service Management

Workforce management also uses the process of field service management in order to have oversight of company’s resources not used on company property. Examples include:

  • Demand Management: To help forecast work orders to plan the number and expertise of staff that will be needed.
  • Workforce Scheduler: Using predefined rules to automatically optimise the schedule and use of resources (people, parts, vehicles).
  • Workforce Dispatcher: Automatically assigning work orders within predefined zones to particular technicians
  • Mobile Solutions: Allowing dispatchers and technicians to communicate in real time.
Management Notes

Other Post-retirement benefits

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Other post-employment benefits (OPEB) are the benefits, other than pension distributions, that employees may begin to receive from their employer once they retire. Other post-employment benefits can include life insurance, health insurance, and deferred compensation. These benefits are also referred to as “other post-retirement benefits.”

Postretirement benefits are various types of assistance given by an employer to its retirees. These benefits may be promised through a standard benefits package, or via a union agreement.

Businesses and other organizations that may provide benefits to employees after they retire include private sector companies; state, county, and municipal governments; and religious and educational institutions. Although these benefits are mostly employer-paid, retired employees may have to share a portion of the costs through copayments and deductibles, as well as making contributions to the plan back when they were still working. Labor unions may also provide other post-employment benefits to their members.

Examples of postretirement benefits are health insurance, legal services, life insurance, and a pension plan.

Life insurance

Like health insurance, the life insurance that employers may provide to retirees is typically part of a group plan and generally comes in the form of term life insurance.

Health coverage

Retiree health insurance is generally provided as part of a group plan, much as it probably was when the employee was still working. The group plan may be the same one offered to current employees, or it may be a separate plan just for retirees.

In many cases, if the retiree has enrolled in Medicare, the retiree coverage will be secondary. That is, Medicare will pay its portion of medical bills and the retiree coverage will pick up some part of the remainder. But terms can vary widely from plan to plan, so retirees should check their employer’s Summary Plan Description (SPD) for details.

Deferred compensation

Deferred-compensation arrangements, which are also considered a post-employment benefit, pay the employee a salary or lump sum at some predetermined time, typically after they retire. These plans come in two distinct types qualified and non-qualified but serve the same basic purpose, which is to defer taxes while the employee is still working and provide income in the future, ideally when that person is in a lower marginal tax bracket.

Other Post-Retirement Benefits and Compliance

The rules governing how companies report pension costs and obligations, as well as the disclosure of pension assets and obligations, are covered under Accounting Standards Codification Section 715 (ASC 715), formerly called the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards Nos. 87/88/158. The American Society of Pension Professionals & Actuaries (ASPPA) provides a guide on how to manage the ASC 715 process, which describes the disclosure information for a client’s financial reports, as well as lists the methodology used to complete the required actuarial calculations.

Other Post-Retirement Benefits and Cost

Direct contributions that pay for any post-employment benefits can expose an employer to certain risks and liabilities. For example, take the example of a former worker who is granted health insurance coverage at the cost/premium rates as current employees.

Typically, a retired worker will be older than the average current employee, and will, therefore, be more likely to incur higher medical expenses. There is also the potential that the health insurance coverage they are offered will not cover the costs of their care, possibly leaving gaps in coverage.

As with other forms of retirement compensation, other post-retirement benefits can come with stringent reporting requirements due to their costs to an organization, as well as for the overall return on investment compared to the value of the work employees have performed before retirement.

Management Notes

Pension obligations

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A projected benefit obligation (PBO) is an actuarial measurement of what a company will need at the present time to cover future pension liabilities. This measurement is used to determine how much must be paid into a defined benefit pension plan to satisfy all pension entitlements that have been earned by employees up to that date, adjusted for expected future salary increases.

A pension benefit obligation is the present value of retirement benefits earned by employees. The amount of this obligation is determined by an actuary, based on a number of assumptions, including the following:

  • Estimated employee mortality rates
  • Estimated future pay raises
  • Estimated interest costs
  • Estimated remaining employee service periods
  • Amortization of actuarial gains or losses
  • Amortization of prior service costs

Companies can provide employees with a number of benefits, including a salary, when they retire from work. The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (FASB) Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 87 states that companies must measure and disclose their pension obligations, together with the performance of their plans, at the end of each accounting period. 

A projected benefit obligation (PBO) is one of three ways to calculate expenses or liabilities of traditional defined benefit pensions plans that take into account employee years of service and salary to calculate retirement benefits.

PBO assumes that the pension plan will not terminate in the foreseeable future and is adjusted to reflect expected compensation in the years ahead. As a result, it takes into account a number of factors, including the following:

  • Assumed salary rises.
  • The estimated remaining service life of employees.
  • A forecast of employee mortality rates.

Actuaries are responsible for establishing whether pension plans are underfunded. These qualified professionals, who specialize in the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty, determine the benefits needed through a present value calculation.

Actuaries are responsible for comparing the pension plan’s liabilities to its assets. In general, they provide a breakdown of the following:

  • Interest Costs: The annual interest accumulated on the unpaid balance of the PBO as an employee’s service time increases.
  • Service costs: The increase in the present value of the defined benefit obligation, resulting from current employees getting another year’s credit for their service.
  • Benefits paid: Obligations are reduced when benefits are paid out.
  • Actuarial Gains or Losses: The difference between the pension payments made by an employer and the anticipated amount. A gain occurs if the amount paid is less than expected. A loss occurs if the amount paid is higher than expected.

PBO is one of the three approaches firms use to measure and disclose pension obligations. The other measures are:

Vested benefit obligations (VBO): The portion of the accumulated benefit obligation that employees will receive, irrespective of their continued participation in the company’s pension plan.

Accumulated benefit obligations (ABO): Unlike PBO, accumulated benefit obligations (ABO) refers to the present value of retirement benefits earned by employees using current compensation levels.

Management Notes

Pension plan assets

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The assets of company pension plan also represent an important store of cash generating wealth, which under IAS 19 Employee Benefits are to be valued at fair value. These are, however, slightly different in that they do not (yet) appear directly in the balance sheet of the employer’s company but are offset against the pension obligation, and the net figure is shown. Plan assets occur when a company operates a defined benefit pension plan. This is a scheme where pensions are paid usually by reference to the employee’s salary when they retire or an average salary over a period. During employment, the employer company builds up a liability (pension obligation) for the amounts it will subsequently pay to the retired employee. This obligation is measured according to rules set out in the standard and is not at fair value as such.

The employer may put assets into a separate fund to meet the pension obligation. These assets, known as plan assets, are usually ring-fenced from the company and are not shown in the company balance sheet at present, even though some people think they should be. However, they do figure indirectly in the balance sheet because IAS 19 requires the employer to disclose the value of the pension obligation and the plan assets in the notes to the financial statements and then take the difference between the two  into the balance sheet.

Pension fund assets need to be prudently managed to ensure that retirees receive promised retirement benefits. For many years this meant that funds were limited to investing primarily in government securities, investment grade bonds, and bluechip stocks.

Changing market conditions and the need to maintain a high-enough rate of return have resulted in pension plan rules that allow investments in most asset classes. These are some of the most common investments to which pension funds allocate their substantial capital. Here, we take a look at some of the asset classes that pension funds are likely to own.

Inflation Protection

Inflation protection is a term used to refer to assets that tend to go up in value as inflation ramps up. These may include inflation adjusted bonds (e.g. TIPS), commodities, currencies, and interest-rate derivatives. The use of inflation adjusted bonds is often justified, but the increased allocation of pension fund assets in commodities, currencies, or derivatives has raised concerns by some due to the additional idiosyncratic risk that they carry.

Liability matching, also known as “immunization“, is an investment strategy that matches future assets sales and income streams against the timing of expected future expenses. The strategy has become widely embraced among pension fund managers, who attempt to minimize a portfolio’s liquidation risk by ensuring asset sales, interest, and dividend payments correspond with expected payments to pension recipients. This stands in contrast to simpler strategies that attempt to maximize return without regard to withdrawal timing.

Fixed Income Investments

U.S. Treasury securities and investment grade bonds are still a key part of pension fund portfolios. Investment managers seeking higher returns than what is available from conservative fixed-income instruments have expanded into high yield bonds and well secured commercial real estate loans. Portfolios including asset backed securities (ABS), such as student loans and credit-card debt, are increasing. However, the risk associated with those securities tends to be quite a bit greater than typical corporate or government bonds.

As an example of the prevalence of fixed-income securities in pension portfolios, the largest pension plan in the US the California Public Employees’ Retirement System (“CalPERS”), seeks an annual return of 7%,1 with approximately one-third of its $385.1 billion portfolio was allocated to fixed-income investments as of March 2020.

Private Equity

Institutional investors, such as pension funds, and those classified as accredited investors invest in private equity a long-term, alternative investment category suited for sophisticated investors. In fact, pension funds are one of the largest sources of capital for the private equity industry.

In its purest form, private equity represents managed pools of money invested in the equity of privately-held companies with the intention of eventually selling the investments for substantial gains. Private equity fund managers charge high fees based on promises of above-market returns.

Real Estate

Pension fund real estate investments are typically passive investments made through real estate investment trusts (REITs) or private equity pools. Some pension funds run real estate development departments to participate directly in the acquisition, development, or management of properties.

Long-term investments are in commercial real estate, such as office buildings, industrial parks, apartments, or retail complexes. The goal is to create a portfolio of properties that combine equity appreciation with a rising stream of inflation-adjusted income to balance the ups and downs of the markets.

Stocks

Equity investments in U.S. bluechip common and preferred stocks are a major investment class for pension funds.

Managers traditionally focus on dividends combined with growth. The search for higher returns has pushed some fund managers into riskier small-cap growth stocks and international equities.

Larger funds, such as CalPERS, self-manage their stock portfolios. Smaller funds are likely to seek outside management or else invest in institutional versions of the same mutual funds and exchange traded funds (ETFs) as individual investors. The prime difference here is that the institutional share classes do not have front-end sales commissions, redemption, or 12b-1 fees, and they charge a lower expense ratio.

Management Notes

Difference between Salary and Wages

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Salary

Salary is a fixed regular payment, typically paid on a monthly basis, for the performance of work or services. Unlike wages, which are often calculated on an hourly or weekly basis, salaries provide employees with a consistent and predetermined amount of compensation, regardless of the number of hours worked.

Components:

  1. Base Salary:

The core, fixed amount of money paid to an employee on a regular basis, forming the foundation of the overall salary. Reflects the employee’s role, responsibilities, and experience.

  1. Bonuses:

Additional monetary rewards provided to employees, often based on performance, company profits, or specific achievements. Motivates employees and aligns their efforts with organizational goals.

  1. Allowances:

Supplementary payments intended to cover specific expenses or costs related to the job, such as housing, transportation, or meals. Addresses the financial impact of job-related requirements.

  1. Benefits:

Non-monetary compensation, including healthcare, retirement plans, and other perks, provided to enhance employees’ overall well-being. Contributes to employee satisfaction and work-life balance.

  1. Overtime Pay:

Additional compensation for hours worked beyond the standard workweek, often calculated at a higher rate than the regular hourly pay. Compensates employees for extra effort and time invested in work.

  1. Performance–Based Incentives:

Variable payments linked to individual or team performance, encouraging employees to achieve specific goals or targets. Aligns compensation with results and fosters a performance-driven culture.

  1. Profit Sharing:

Sharing company profits with employees, providing them with a stake in the organization’s financial success. Aligns the interests of employees with the overall success of the business.

  1. Commissions:

Payments based on sales or revenue generated by an employee, common in roles with direct sales responsibilities. Rewards employees for their contribution to revenue generation.

  1. Retirement Benefits:

Contributions made by the employer to retirement plans, such as 401(k) or pension schemes. Supports employees in building financial security for their post-work years.

  • Stock Options:

The right to purchase company stock at a predetermined price, offering employees a share in the company’s ownership. Aligns employees’ interests with the company’s long-term success.

  • Education and Training Support:

Financial assistance provided by the employer for the education and skill development of employees. Promotes continuous learning and professional growth.

  • Health and Wellness Programs:

Initiatives and benefits aimed at promoting employees’ physical and mental well-being. Enhances employee health, productivity, and job satisfaction.

  • Vacation and Leave Benefits:

Paid time off from work, including vacation days, holidays, and other types of leave. Supports work-life balance and employee well-being.

  • Severance Pay:

Compensation provided to employees upon termination of employment, often based on factors like length of service. Offers financial support during transitions and provides a safety net for employees.

  • Other Perquisites (Perks):

Additional benefits or privileges provided to employees, such as company cars, memberships, or flexible work arrangements. Enhances the overall employment experience and contributes to employee satisfaction.

Wages

Wages refer to the compensation paid to an employee for the hours worked or services rendered, often calculated on an hourly, daily, or weekly basis. Unlike salaries, which provide a fixed amount irrespective of hours worked, wages are directly tied to the time spent on the job.

Components:

  1. Hourly Rate:

The amount paid for each hour worked by an employee. Forms the basic unit for calculating wages based on time.

  1. Overtime Pay:

Additional compensation provided for hours worked beyond the standard workweek or regular working hours. Compensates employees for extra effort and time beyond the standard working hours.

  1. Piece-Rate Pay:

Compensation based on the number of units produced or tasks completed. Directly links pay to productivity and output.

  1. Commission:

A percentage of sales or revenue earned by an employee, common in sales roles. Rewards employees based on their contribution to generating business.

  1. Tips and Gratuities:

Additional payments received by employees, often in service industries, as a form of appreciation from customers. Augments income and is often based on customer satisfaction.

  1. Holiday Pay:

Compensation for hours worked on recognized holidays. Encourages employees to work during holiday periods and compensates for the disruption to personal time.

  1. Shift Differentials:

Additional pay for working shifts that fall outside regular daytime hours. Compensates for inconveniences associated with non-standard working hours.

  1. Bonuses (Variable):

Additional payments beyond regular wages, often tied to performance, project completion, or other achievements. Acts as an incentive and recognition for exceptional contributions.

  1. Piecework Bonuses:

Additional payments for meeting or exceeding production targets in piecework arrangements.  Motivates employees to achieve or surpass production goals.

  • Travel Allowances:

Compensation for work-related travel expenses, such as mileage or transportation costs. Addresses additional costs incurred while traveling for work.

  • Uniform or Tool Allowances:

Payments provided to cover the cost of uniforms, tools, or equipment required for the job. Supports employees in meeting job-specific requirements.

  • Incentive Pay:

Additional compensation tied to achieving specific targets, often related to productivity or efficiency. Encourages employees to meet or exceed performance expectations.

  • Danger Pay:

Additional compensation for employees working in hazardous conditions or environments. Recognizes the risks associated with certain jobs.

  • Call-out Pay:

Compensation for employees called in to work outside their regular schedule, often applicable to on-call positions. Compensates for the inconvenience of being available on short notice.

  • Benefits (Limited):

Some wage-related benefits, such as health insurance or retirement contributions, may be provided, but to a lesser extent compared to salary packages. Enhances the overall compensation package, albeit on a more limited scale compared to salaried positions.

Difference between Salary and Wages

Basis of Comparison

 Salary

Wages
Payment Frequency Monthly Hourly or Weekly
Consistency Fixed, stable Variable, fluctuates
Calculation Basis Annual rate / 12 Hourly rate x Hours worked
Overtime Compensation Typically included Paid separately
Employment Level Often for salaried employees Common for hourly workers
Work Hours Impact Irrelevant to pay Directly affects earnings
Benefits Often includes benefits Limited or no benefits
Professional Positions Common for white-collar jobs Common for blue-collar jobs
Skill-Based Reflects skills and qualifications Often skill-independent
Administrative Work Common for managerial roles Common for administrative roles
Unionization Less common for unionized jobs Common in unionized settings
Job Complexity Reflects job responsibilities May not directly reflect complexity
Job Stability Generally perceived as stable Can be influenced by job market
Performance Impact Less direct impact on pay Directly impacts pay through hours
Perception in Society Often associated with higher status May not carry the same status

Management Notes

Effect of Various Labour Laws on Wages

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Labour laws play a pivotal role in shaping the employment landscape and influencing wage structures within a country. These laws are designed to regulate the relationship between employers and employees, ensuring fair treatment, safe working conditions, and just compensation. The impact of labour laws on wages is multifaceted, encompassing aspects such as minimum wage regulations, overtime pay, equal pay for equal work, and various other provisions aimed at protecting workers’ rights. Labour laws wield substantial influence over wage structures, seeking to establish a balance between the interests of employers and the rights of workers. While these laws are crafted with the intention of promoting fairness, equity, and worker protection, their impact is subject to various challenges. Striking the right balance between regulation and flexibility, addressing regional disparities, and adapting to evolving workforce dynamics are ongoing challenges for policymakers and businesses alike. Nevertheless, a well-crafted and effectively enforced legal framework is essential for fostering a work environment where wages are just, working conditions are safe, and the rights of workers are upheld.

Minimum Wage Regulations:

Intended Benefits:

  • Fair Compensation:

Minimum wage laws are enacted to ensure that workers receive a baseline level of compensation deemed necessary for a decent standard of living. This promotes economic justice by preventing the exploitation of vulnerable workers.

  • Poverty Alleviation:

Setting a minimum wage helps lift workers out of poverty, providing them with the means to cover essential living expenses. This has broader societal implications, contributing to poverty reduction.

Challenges:

  • Impact on Small Businesses:

Critics argue that higher minimum wages can impose financial burdens on small businesses, potentially leading to job cuts or increased prices for goods and services.

  • Regional Disparities:

Minimum wage regulations may not adequately account for regional variations in living costs, creating challenges in finding a one-size-fits-all solution that addresses the diverse economic landscapes within a country.

Equal Pay for Equal Work:

Intended Benefits:

  • Gender Pay Equity:

Labour laws promoting equal pay for equal work aim to eliminate gender-based wage disparities. This contributes to gender equality in the workplace, fostering a fair and inclusive environment.

  • Fair Treatment:

The principle of equal pay extends to all forms of discrimination, ensuring that employees are not subjected to wage disparities based on race, ethnicity, or other protected characteristics.

Challenges:

  • Data Accuracy and Transparency:

Implementing equal pay measures requires accurate and transparent data on employees’ roles, responsibilities, and compensation. Some organizations may face challenges in collecting and disclosing this information.

  • Subjectivity in Job Evaluation:

Determining what constitutes “equal work” can be subjective, and variations in job roles may complicate efforts to ensure equal pay. Standardizing job evaluation methodologies is a complex task.

Overtime Pay and Working Hours:

Intended Benefits:

  • Fair Compensation for Extra Effort:

Overtime pay regulations are intended to compensate employees for working beyond standard hours. This ensures that employees are fairly rewarded for their additional efforts.

  • Limiting Exploitative Practices:

Labour laws prescribing limits on working hours and overtime seek to prevent exploitative practices and promote a healthy work-life balance. This contributes to employee well-being and job satisfaction.

Challenges:

  • Operational Constraints:

Industries with fluctuating workloads may face challenges in accommodating strict working hour regulations. Flexibility in working hours may be crucial for certain sectors.

  • Compliance Monitoring:

Ensuring compliance with overtime regulations requires effective monitoring mechanisms, which can be resource-intensive for regulatory authorities.

Collective Bargaining and Trade Union Laws:

Intended Benefits:

  • Negotiating Power for Workers:

Collective bargaining laws empower workers to negotiate wages and working conditions collectively. This enhances their bargaining power, leading to more equitable agreements with employers.

  • Labour Market Stability:

By providing a structured framework for negotiations, collective bargaining laws contribute to labour market stability, reducing the likelihood of widespread strikes or industrial unrest.

Challenges:

  • Power Imbalances:

In situations where there is a significant power imbalance between employers and workers, collective bargaining may be challenging. This is particularly relevant in industries with limited unionization.

  • Potential for Disruption:

While collective bargaining aims for mutually beneficial agreements, disputes can arise, leading to work stoppages and disruptions that impact both workers and employers.

Social Security and Benefits:

Intended Benefits:

  • Worker Well-being:

Labour laws pertaining to social security and benefits, such as healthcare, retirement plans, and disability insurance, aim to enhance the overall well-being of workers.

  • Attracting and Retaining Talent:

Competitive benefit packages can attract skilled workers and contribute to employee retention. Labour laws often prescribe minimum standards for these benefits.

Challenges:

  • Financial Strain on Employers:

Mandating certain benefits can place a financial burden on employers, especially smaller businesses. Striking a balance between worker welfare and business viability is crucial.

  • Changing Workforce Dynamics:

The rise of the gig economy and non-traditional employment arrangements poses challenges in adapting social security and benefit regulations to accommodate diverse work structures.

Child Labour and Forced Labour Laws:

Intended Benefits:

  • Protecting Vulnerable Populations:

Laws prohibiting child labour and forced labour are designed to protect vulnerable populations from exploitation. These regulations prioritize the well-being of children and individuals subjected to coercion.

  • Ethical Business Practices:

Compliance with child labour and forced labour laws is integral to promoting ethical business practices. Organizations adhering to these regulations contribute to global efforts against human rights abuses.

Challenges:

  • Enforcement and Monitoring:

Effectively enforcing laws against child labour and forced labour requires robust monitoring systems, especially in industries where such practices may be prevalent.

  • Global Supply Chain Complexity:

Addressing child labour and forced labour becomes complex in global supply chains, where products may pass through multiple jurisdictions with varying regulations and enforcement capacities.

Management Notes

The Impact of Information Technology in Retailing

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Information technology (IT) has had a profound impact on the retail industry, transforming various aspects of the business from operations and customer interactions to supply chain management and overall strategic decision-making. The integration of IT in retailing has led to increased efficiency, improved customer experiences, and enhanced competitiveness.

Technology has always played a major role, creating a massive impact in reviving the retail industry, bringing it reknown and repute. It is assisting retailers to become highly-equipped and advanced in the way they enhance the experience for consumers.

The Industry Growth

As per Euromonitor International’s recent retailing research, the market size of Modern Grocery Retailers in retail value sales at current prices (including inflation) was Rs 603 billion in 2017. Modern Grocery Retailers grew at 13.2 percent in 2016- 17. The category is forecast to grow by CAGR 9.2 percent through 2017-22.

The search for a one-stop shopping destination keeps making consumers shift from traditional to modern retailing stores. Modern retail stores attract footfalls in their physical store in Tier I and Tier II equally, albeit for different reasons. Aspirational Tier II consumers look at modern retailers as places to experience the new age retail. Equally Tier II & III cities have lucrative geographies for expansion of modern retail.

Retailers are tapping on to this new market of aspirational consumers increasingly. The lack of presence of most of the international and a major portion of national brands in these areas, have led consumers to resort to online channels in Tier II cities.

IT in Retail Importance

  • To collect and analyze customer data while enhancing differentiation.
  • To increase the company’s ability to respond to the evolving marketplace through enhanced speed and flexibility.
  • To work effectively; retailers need one system working across stores (or even across national borders) to make sure the most effective use of stock and improve business processes.

Helpful for Retailer:

  • Transparency and tracking

Retailers must increase transparency between systems, as well as obtain better tracking to integrate systems from manufacturer through to the consumer while obtaining customer and sales information.

  • Customer data

Many retailers struggle with information overload because they’re required to collect and sift through mass amounts of data, then convert it into useful information in a customer-centric industry.

  • PCI Security Compliance

PCI Security Compliance addresses the retailer’s internal security setup and practices, in order to mitigate payment security risks. Every business engaged in credit card payment processing is required to comply with PCI Security Standards. If a retailer collects or stores credit card information that becomes compromised, the retailer may lose the ability to accept credit card payments. Other possible consequences include lawsuits, insurance claims, cancelled accounts, and government fines.

  • Global data synchronization

Due to radio frequency identification/electronic product coding, the entire supply chain has become more intelligent. Retailers must enable the use of real-time data to watch inventory levels. In addition, radio frequency identification tagging positions the company to be able to safeguard its shipments by allowing products to be tracked from manufacturer through the entire supply chain.

Advantages of Information Technology in Retailing

  • Automating processes

Automating a process render many advantages to the retailers. It reduces costs, increases accuracy, reduces processing times, enables quick decision and speeds up customer service.

For example, EPOS (electronic point of sales) uses scanning systems. It ensures accurate prices, enables checkout staff to work faster, and it eliminates the need to fix price label to goods. All these factors reduce the cost considerably.

  • Collecting data about the customer

The purchase details of individual shoppers are collected and analyzed. Product extensions and promotions are based on the analysis of purchasing patterns of different types of shoppers.

Demographic information about the customers is known from a loyalty card database. The entries in the loyalty card are related to transactions data furnished by EPOS. These data can be further used to profile a customer base. This facilitates specific offers to be made to certain types of customers.

A retailer may send mail order catalogue to all loyalty card holders who have bought in the previous year. Moreover, internet and e-commerce sites use previous transactions information to personalize their sites for each shopper by offering them product items that have been related to their last few transactions. They automatically greet them by name when they enter the site.

  • Feedback on marketing decisions

Analysis of EPOS data helps the retailer in knowing the effect of promotion, prices, new products and packaging changes. Retailers can assess the impact of changes in layout or merchandising of stores in terms of category sales, competitor brands, gross profit and sales in the store. Innovative product ideas may be tested against the realities prevailing in the market. In short, the EPOS data analysis helps the company in

  • Evaluating its promotions
  • Calculating customer price responsiveness for core and seasonal products.
  • Predicting the outcome of its newly adopted policies.
  • Planning its promotional measures.

 

  • Communication

The stores manager indulges in effective communication with his suppliers. He sends documents such as purchase orders, stock and sales information over third party communication networks. This is electronic commerce. This method works fast and costs less. It is sufficient for stores to place their orders one or two days and in advance against seven days earlier in the traditional paper based method.

Store computers transmit EPOS data to the head office on daily basis. So, the senior manager is able to assess the performance of every store and product group.

Stock replenishment is done automatically. The computer system receives daily EPOS data from each store and next day’s stock requirements are known.

The system automatically sends the requirement electronically overnight to the distribution centre. So, delivery of merchandise is possible the very next day.

Effective communication reduces the lead time. It is the time taken between sending an order and receiving the merchandise.

Tools for Planning the business

(i) With the use of sophisticated computer software packages, retailers are able to

  • Plan, budget and forecast,
  • Choose the most successful location; and
  • Control their business.

(ii) Model decision making, statistical packages of sales forecast and data mining tools are available for retailers.

(iii) Retailers can also use geographic information systems (GIS).

(iv) Socio demographic data along with company transactions data and intelligent analytical tools are used to forecast sales in different stores.

  • Adding value to the retail transaction

Customers prefer IT assisted transactions to traditional retailing because IT assisted transactions provide speed, accuracy and convenience. For example, ATMs are used at any time of day. Thus, use of IT adds value to retailing.

  • Technology enabled shopping

Selling goods over the internet is becoming popular. Electronic means of selling include the following.

  • Products: Grocery, clothing, footwear, music, books, videos, cameras, photographic goods, computer hardware and software, pharmacy goods etc.
  • Services: Retail banking, personal insurance, financial service, real estate, stocks and shares, Tourism, florists, entertainment tickets, virtual education, information services, etc.

Thus, IT is transforming the nature of products, processes, companies, industries and even competition itself. The spectacular reach of IT is widely accepted today.

Components

  • E-commerce and Online Retailing:

Information technology has fueled the growth of e-commerce, enabling retailers to establish online platforms for buying and selling products. E-commerce platforms provide a convenient and accessible way for customers to browse, shop, and make transactions.

  • Point-of-Sale (POS) Systems:

POS systems, powered by IT, have replaced traditional cash registers. These systems streamline transactions, track sales, manage inventory, and provide valuable data for decision-making.

  • Supply Chain Management:

IT has revolutionized supply chain management in retail. Technologies like RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification), barcoding, and advanced analytics help in real-time tracking of inventory, reducing stockouts and overstock situations.

  • Customer Relationship Management (CRM):

CRM systems leverage IT to manage and analyze customer data. Retailers can personalize marketing efforts, track customer interactions, and enhance customer loyalty through targeted promotions and communication.

  • Data Analytics and Business Intelligence:

Retailers use data analytics and business intelligence tools to gain insights into consumer behavior, market trends, and operational efficiency. This data-driven approach supports informed decision-making and strategy formulation.

  • Mobile Commerce (m–commerce):

The rise of smartphones and mobile apps has given birth to mobile commerce. Retailers leverage IT to create mobile-friendly platforms, enabling customers to shop, compare prices, and make transactions using their mobile devices.

  • Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR):

AR and VR technologies enhance the shopping experience. Retailers use these technologies for virtual try-ons, interactive product displays, and creating immersive environments that engage customers.

  • Social Media Integration:

IT facilitates the integration of social media platforms into retail strategies. Retailers use social media for marketing, customer engagement, and gathering insights into consumer preferences.

  • Automated Checkout Systems:

Self-checkout systems and automated kiosks, driven by IT, offer an efficient and convenient alternative for customers. These systems reduce wait times and enhance the overall shopping experience.

  • Personalized Marketing:

IT enables retailers to implement personalized marketing strategies. Through data analysis, retailers can create targeted promotions, personalized recommendations, and individualized communication based on customer preferences.

  • Cloud Computing:

Cloud computing technologies have streamlined data storage, processing, and collaboration. Retailers use cloud-based solutions for inventory management, data analytics, and overall business operations.

  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML):

AI and ML technologies are used for predictive analytics, demand forecasting, chatbots for customer service, and enhancing the overall efficiency of retail operations.

  • Voice Commerce:

 Voice-activated technologies, such as virtual assistants, have introduced new ways of shopping. Customers can use voice commands to search for products, place orders, and receive personalized recommendations.

  • Cybersecurity:

As retail operations become more digitized, the importance of cybersecurity has grown. IT is crucial in implementing robust security measures to protect customer data and secure online transactions.

  • Internet of Things (IoT):

IoT devices, such as smart shelves and connected devices in stores, contribute to real-time monitoring of inventory, temperature control, and other operational aspects, improving overall efficiency.

  • Feedback and Reviews Platforms:

IT facilitates the collection and analysis of customer feedback and reviews.

Limitations of Using Information Technology in Retailing

  • Originally IT was used by retailers to automate control services such as finance, pay roll, and management accounts. Electronic point of sales systems can be afford only by a very few department stores. Basically, retailing is a highly dispersed business. Retailers have to incur enormous amount of expenditure on installation of IT equipment in their retail business.

  • Retailing involves a wide array of products. So, a complex system is required to handle a large number of product lines.
  •  In retail stores, staff may have limited knowledge about computers. So, computer specialists are to be employed to deal with the automation process. Only the largest retailers can afford to employ technically qualified people.
  • The costs of routine investment in automation process is very high.
  • Many IT projects fail and the risk of such failure is too high for retailers.
  • According to Prof. John Sawson, many retailers concentrate on operational improvement rather than transformational ones. The expected pay off from IT has not been fully realized. Retailers devote only a small amount of their budgets to IT.
  • Getting the full benefits of IT may actually take a longer time. Retailers should learn how best to exploit the new systems. Many U.K. grocers invested in EPOS in the 1980s. But only a few made effective use of information about customer’s shopping behavior. Only after making heavy investments and learning from experience, retailers could create IT based stock replenishment system.

  • IT alone has not produced performance advantage in the retail industry.

Inspite of the above limitations in using Information Technology for competitive advantages, firms have gained advantages such as flexible culture, strategic planning and improved supplier relationships. Advantage lies in people and systems rather than systems alone. To derive full competitive advantage of IT requires long-term investment.

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