Tag: Profitability Ratios

Management Notes

Ratio Analysis, Meaning and Definition, Uses, Importance, Classification, Limitations

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes2

Ratio Analysis is a technique of financial analysis that involves calculating and interpreting quantitative relationships between two or more items of financial statements to evaluate an organization’s profitability, liquidity, solvency, and efficiency. It converts complex financial data into simple, comparable figures, enabling meaningful interpretation of performance. According to experts, a ratio is an expression of the quantitative relationship between two accounting figures, used to identify the financial strengths and weaknesses of an organization. It aids investors, creditors, and management in assessing overall financial health and supporting informed decision-making.

Uses of Ratio Analysis:

1. Measuring Profitability

Ratio analysis helps measure the profitability of a business by analysing the relationship between profit and sales, assets or capital employed. Ratios such as Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio and Return on Capital Employed indicate the earning capacity of the organisation. Management can compare these ratios with previous years, budgets or industry standards to identify improvements or declines in profitability. A rising profitability ratio generally indicates better operating performance, while a declining ratio may require corrective action. Thus, ratio analysis helps management evaluate earning efficiency, control costs and formulate appropriate strategies for improving business performance.

2. Measuring Liquidity

Ratio analysis is useful for assessing the liquidity position of a business. Current Ratio and Quick Ratio indicate the organisation’s ability to meet its short term obligations using available current assets. A satisfactory liquidity position ensures that the business can pay suppliers, employees and other current liabilities on time. Management can compare liquidity ratios over different periods to identify changes in working capital management. Very low liquidity may indicate difficulty in meeting obligations, while excessively high liquidity may suggest inefficient utilisation of resources. Therefore, ratio analysis helps management maintain an appropriate working capital position.

3. Measuring Solvency

Ratio analysis helps determine the long term solvency and financial stability of an organisation. Ratios such as Debt Equity Ratio and Proprietary Ratio show the relationship between borrowed funds and owners’ funds. A high level of debt may increase financial risk because the organisation has greater interest and repayment obligations. Management can use solvency ratios to assess the safety of its capital structure and determine the appropriate level of external financing. These ratios are also useful to lenders and investors when evaluating financial risk. Thus, ratio analysis supports effective capital structure decisions and long term financial planning.

4. Measuring Efficiency

Ratio analysis helps measure the operational efficiency with which an organisation uses its resources. Activity ratios such as Inventory Turnover Ratio, Debtors Turnover Ratio and Working Capital Turnover Ratio indicate how effectively assets and working capital are utilised. A higher turnover may indicate efficient utilisation, while a lower turnover may indicate idle resources or ineffective management. Management can compare these ratios across different periods to identify operational improvements or weaknesses. Such analysis helps control inventory, manage receivables and improve asset utilisation. Therefore, ratio analysis is an important tool for evaluating resource utilisation and operating efficiency.

5. Facilitating Comparison

Ratio analysis facilitates comparison between different accounting periods, departments, businesses and industry standards. Absolute financial figures may not provide a clear basis for comparison because businesses differ in size and scale. Ratios convert financial information into relative measures, making meaningful comparison easier. Management can compare current ratios with previous years to identify trends and assess performance. Similarly, comparison with industry averages can reveal the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses. This helps management identify areas requiring improvement and formulate suitable corrective measures. Thus, ratio analysis provides a useful basis for inter firm and intra firm comparison.

6. Supporting Decision Making

Ratio analysis provides useful information for managerial decision making by summarising complex financial data into understandable measures. Managers can use profitability, liquidity, solvency and efficiency ratios to evaluate different aspects of business performance. The results assist decisions relating to investment, financing, credit policies, cost control and working capital management. For example, a decline in inventory turnover may encourage management to review its inventory policy. Similarly, a high debt equity ratio may influence future borrowing decisions. Therefore, ratio analysis provides relevant financial information that helps management make informed decisions and improve overall organisational performance.

7. Helping Investors and Creditors

Ratio analysis helps investors and creditors evaluate the financial condition and performance of a business. Investors may examine profitability and return ratios to assess the organisation’s earning potential and investment attractiveness. Creditors may use liquidity and solvency ratios to determine the ability of the business to repay its obligations. These ratios provide a simplified view of financial performance and help external users assess financial risk. However, ratios should be interpreted along with other financial and non financial information. Thus, ratio analysis supports investment and credit decisions by providing meaningful information about the organisation’s financial position.

8. Identifying Trends

Ratio analysis helps identify financial trends by comparing ratios over several accounting periods. Management can observe whether profitability, liquidity, efficiency or solvency is improving or declining. For example, a continuous increase in the Net Profit Ratio may indicate improving profitability, whereas a continuous decline in the Current Ratio may signal weakening liquidity. Trend analysis enables management to identify potential problems at an early stage and take suitable corrective measures. It also helps in preparing future budgets and financial plans. Therefore, ratio analysis is useful for trend identification, performance monitoring and effective financial control.

Importance of Ratio Analysis:

1. Simplifies Financial Information

Ratio analysis simplifies large amounts of financial information by converting accounting figures into meaningful relationships. Absolute figures alone may be difficult to understand and compare. Ratios present information in a simple and understandable form, making it easier to evaluate financial performance and position. For example, the Current Ratio indicates the relationship between current assets and current liabilities and helps assess short term financial strength. Management, investors and creditors can therefore understand important aspects of the business more easily. Thus, ratio analysis converts complex accounting data into useful information for evaluation and decision making.

2. Helps in Performance Evaluation

Ratio analysis is important for evaluating the overall performance of a business. Profitability, liquidity, solvency and efficiency ratios provide information about different aspects of financial performance. Management can compare current ratios with previous years, budgets and industry standards to determine whether performance is improving or declining. Significant changes can be investigated and appropriate corrective measures can be taken. For example, a decline in the Net Profit Ratio may indicate increasing costs or reduced sales efficiency. Therefore, ratio analysis helps management identify strengths and weaknesses and take suitable steps to improve organisational performance.

3. Facilitates Comparison

Ratio analysis facilitates meaningful financial comparison between different years, departments and businesses. Since ratios express figures in relative terms, differences in the size of organisations do not create as much difficulty as when comparing absolute amounts. Management can compare its ratios with industry averages to determine its competitive position. Similarly, year to year comparison helps identify important financial trends. Such comparisons reveal areas where performance is satisfactory and areas requiring improvement. Therefore, ratio analysis provides a useful basis for intra firm and inter firm comparison and supports effective managerial evaluation.

4. Assists Management in Decision Making

Ratio analysis provides valuable information for managerial decision making. Managers can use financial ratios to evaluate profitability, liquidity, solvency and operational efficiency before taking important decisions. For example, a high Debt Equity Ratio may discourage additional borrowing, while a low Inventory Turnover Ratio may indicate the need to revise inventory policies. Ratios also assist decisions concerning pricing, investment, financing and working capital. By highlighting important financial relationships, ratio analysis reduces uncertainty and provides a better basis for selecting suitable alternatives. Thus, it supports informed decisions and contributes to effective business management.

5. Measures Financial Strength

Ratio analysis helps determine the financial strength and stability of an organisation. Liquidity ratios show the ability to meet short term obligations, while solvency ratios indicate the capacity to meet long term liabilities. Profitability ratios provide information about earning capacity, and activity ratios show how efficiently resources are being utilised. By examining these ratios together, management can obtain a comprehensive view of the organisation’s financial condition. A strong financial position supports business continuity and growth, whereas weaknesses can be identified and corrected. Therefore, ratio analysis is an important tool for assessing financial stability and strength.

6. Helps in Financial Planning

Ratio analysis supports financial planning by providing information about past and present financial performance. Management can analyse trends in profitability, liquidity, asset utilisation and capital structure to estimate future requirements. Historical ratios can help in preparing budgets and forecasts and setting realistic financial targets. For example, analysis of working capital ratios can help determine future requirements for inventory and receivables. Similarly, profitability ratios can assist in setting profit objectives. Thus, ratio analysis provides a useful foundation for future planning, resource allocation and financial control within the organisation.

7. Useful to Investors and Creditors

Ratio analysis is important to investors and creditors because it provides information about the financial condition of a business. Investors can use profitability and return ratios to assess earning potential and investment attractiveness. Creditors can examine liquidity and solvency ratios to determine whether the business is capable of repaying its obligations. These ratios help external users assess financial risk before making investment or lending decisions. However, ratios should be considered together with other financial and non financial information. Thus, ratio analysis improves the quality of investment and credit decisions.

8. Helps Identify Financial Weaknesses

Ratio analysis helps management identify financial weaknesses at an early stage. A continuous decline in profitability, liquidity or asset turnover may indicate problems requiring immediate attention. For example, a declining Current Ratio may indicate difficulties in meeting short term obligations, while a falling Debtors Turnover Ratio may indicate ineffective receivables management. By regularly monitoring ratios, management can detect unfavourable trends and take corrective action before problems become serious. Therefore, ratio analysis acts as an important control mechanism and helps management maintain financial efficiency and improve the long term performance of the organisation.

Classification of Ratio Analysis:

Ratio analysis can be classified into different categories according to the purpose for which ratios are calculated. The major classifications are liquidity ratios, solvency ratios, activity ratios and profitability ratios. Each category helps management and other users understand a specific aspect of the financial performance and position of a business.

1. Liquidity Ratios

Liquidity ratios measure the ability of a business to meet its short term obligations as they become due. They are useful for assessing the adequacy of working capital and the firm’s short term financial strength. Important liquidity ratios include Current Ratio and Quick Ratio. A satisfactory liquidity position enables a business to pay suppliers, employees and other current liabilities on time. However, excessively high liquidity may also indicate inefficient utilisation of current assets. Therefore, these ratios help management maintain an appropriate balance between liquidity and profitability.

Formulas:

Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities

Quick Ratio = Quick Assets ÷ Current Liabilities

2. Solvency Ratios

Solvency ratios measure the ability of a business to meet its long term obligations and assess its long term financial stability. These ratios indicate the relationship between owners’ funds and borrowed funds and help determine the level of financial risk. Important solvency ratios include Debt Equity Ratio, Proprietary Ratio and Interest Coverage Ratio. A high dependence on borrowed funds may increase financial risk, while adequate owners’ funds provide greater financial stability. These ratios are particularly useful to long term creditors, investors and management when evaluating the organisation’s capital structure.

Formulas:

Debt Equity Ratio = Outsiders’ Funds ÷ Shareholders’ Funds

Proprietary Ratio = Shareholders’ Funds ÷ Total Assets

Interest Coverage Ratio = EBIT ÷ Interest

3. Activity or Turnover Ratios

Activity ratios, also called turnover ratios, measure how efficiently a business uses its assets and working capital. They indicate the speed at which different assets are converted into sales or cash. Important activity ratios include Inventory Turnover Ratio, Debtors Turnover Ratio, Creditors Turnover Ratio and Working Capital Turnover Ratio. Higher turnover generally indicates better resource utilisation, although the appropriate level varies according to the nature of the business. These ratios help management identify inefficient asset utilisation and improve inventory, receivables and working capital management.

Formulas:

Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold ÷ Average Inventory

Debtors Turnover Ratio = Net Credit Sales ÷ Average Trade Receivables

Creditors Turnover Ratio = Net Credit Purchases ÷ Average Trade Payables

Working Capital Turnover Ratio = Net Sales ÷ Working Capital

4. Profitability Ratios

Profitability ratios measure the earning capacity of a business and show the relationship between profit and sales, assets or capital employed. They help management assess operational efficiency and determine whether the organisation is generating adequate returns. Important profitability ratios include Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio, Operating Ratio, Return on Capital Employed and Return on Equity. These ratios are useful for management, investors and creditors in evaluating financial performance. A rising profitability ratio generally indicates improved efficiency, while a declining ratio may require investigation and corrective action.

Formulas:

Gross Profit Ratio = (Gross Profit ÷ Net Sales) × 100

Net Profit Ratio = (Net Profit ÷ Net Sales) × 100

Operating Ratio = (Cost of Goods Sold + Operating Expenses) ÷ Net Sales × 100

ROCE = (EBIT ÷ Capital Employed) × 100

ROE = (Net Profit after Tax ÷ Shareholders’ Funds) × 100

Limitations of Ratio Analysis:

1. Based on Historical Financial Data

Ratio analysis relies entirely on historical financial statements, which reflect past performance rather than current or future conditions. Since figures are recorded at historical cost, ratios may not represent the organization’s present market value or economic reality, especially during inflationary periods. This limitation means conclusions drawn from ratios can become outdated quickly, reducing their relevance for forward-looking decisions. Stakeholders relying solely on historical ratios risk making decisions based on conditions that no longer hold true, making it essential to supplement ratio analysis with current market information and forward-looking indicators for more accurate assessment.

2. Affected by Differing Accounting Policies

Ratio analysis is significantly influenced by the accounting policies an organization adopts, such as methods for depreciation, inventory valuation, or revenue recognition. Since different organizations may apply varying policies for similar transactions, comparability across companies becomes difficult, even within the same industry. Changes in accounting standards or estimates can also distort ratios calculated over time within a single organization. This limitation means ratio analysis outcomes are not entirely objective, requiring careful understanding of underlying accounting assumptions, as differing policies can significantly alter reported ratios and mislead stakeholders about true financial performance.

3. Ignores Qualitative Factors

Ratio analysis focuses exclusively on quantitative data, ignoring important qualitative factors such as management quality, employee morale, brand reputation, and customer loyalty that significantly influence organizational success. Elements like innovation capability, market positioning, and corporate governance practices remain unmeasured despite their critical impact on long-term performance. This limitation means ratio analysis alone provides an incomplete picture of organizational health. Stakeholders relying exclusively on numerical ratios may overlook crucial factors affecting future competitiveness and sustainability, making it necessary to combine ratio analysis with qualitative assessments for a comprehensive evaluation of true business potential.

4. Lacks Standardized Benchmarks

Ratio analysis often lacks universally accepted benchmarks for interpretation, as acceptable ratio levels vary significantly across industries, company sizes, and economic conditions. A current ratio considered healthy in one industry might signal problems in another, making cross-industry comparisons challenging. Additionally, different analysts may interpret identical ratios differently based on their judgment and experience, introducing subjectivity into conclusions. This limitation means ratio analysis requires contextual understanding and cannot be applied mechanically. Without proper industry-specific benchmarks, stakeholders risk drawing inaccurate conclusions about an organization’s true financial performance relative to appropriate standards.

5. Susceptible to Window Dressing

Ratio analysis can be misleading when underlying financial statements are manipulated through window dressing, where management temporarily improves figures around reporting dates to present a more favorable picture. Techniques like delaying expense recognition or overstating revenue distort key ratios, misleading investors and creditors about actual financial health. Despite auditing processes, sophisticated manipulation may go undetected, compromising the reliability of ratios calculated. This limitation underscores that conclusions drawn from ratio analysis are only as trustworthy as the integrity of underlying data, requiring analysts to exercise caution and cross-verify findings with additional independent sources.

6. Ignores Price Level Changes

Ratio analysis typically fails to account for price level changes or inflation, comparing figures across different periods without adjusting for changing purchasing power of money. This means ratios calculated over several years may show apparent improvement in profitability or asset efficiency that actually reflects inflationary effects rather than genuine operational improvement. Without adjustments like inflation accounting, comparisons between historical and current ratios can be misleading. This limitation is particularly significant in economies experiencing high inflation, where nominal figures may misrepresent real performance, requiring analysts to consider inflation-adjusted metrics for more accurate long-term trend evaluation.

Management Notes

Profitability Ratios, Importance, Types

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Profitability ratios are financial metrics used to evaluate a company’s ability to generate earnings relative to its revenue, assets, equity, or operating costs over a given period. These ratios reflect the overall financial performance and operational efficiency of a business, indicating how effectively management utilizes resources to create profit. They are essential tools for investors, creditors, and management to assess a company’s earning capacity, cost control, and long-term sustainability. Common profitability ratios include Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio, Operating Profit Ratio, Return on Investment (ROI), Return on Equity (ROE), and Return on Assets (ROA). Higher profitability ratios generally indicate stronger financial performance, better cost management, and greater value creation for shareholders, making them critical benchmarks in comparative and trend analysis.

Importance of Profitability Ratios:

1. Measures Profit Earning Capacity

Profitability Ratios are important for measuring the profit earning capacity of a business. They show the relationship between profit and sales, capital, assets, or investment and help determine how effectively the organisation generates profits from its resources. Ratios such as Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio, and Return on Capital Employed provide useful information about the overall profitability of the business. Management can compare these ratios with previous years to identify changes in earning performance. A satisfactory profitability position indicates efficient business operations. Therefore, profitability ratios are useful for evaluating earning capacity, operational efficiency, and financial performance.

2. Helps in Performance Evaluation

Profitability ratios are useful for evaluating the financial performance of an organisation over different accounting periods. Management can compare current profitability ratios with those of previous years to determine whether business performance is improving or declining. Ratios such as Gross Profit Ratio and Net Profit Ratio help identify changes in profit margins and operating efficiency. Management can investigate the reasons for unfavourable changes and take corrective measures. These ratios also help assess the effectiveness of management policies relating to cost control, pricing, production, and sales. Thus, profitability ratios provide an important basis for measuring and improving the organisation’s overall performance.

3. Assists Management in Decision Making

Profitability Ratios provide useful information for various managerial decisions. Management can use profitability information while making decisions relating to pricing, cost control, product selection, production levels, and investment. For example, declining profit margins may indicate the need to reduce costs or revise selling prices. Similarly, higher returns from a particular product or business segment may encourage management to allocate more resources to it. By analysing profitability trends, managers can identify profitable and less profitable activities. Therefore, profitability ratios support informed decision making, efficient resource allocation, cost management, and profit improvement within the organisation.

4. Helps in Cost Control

Profitability ratios help management evaluate the effectiveness of cost control measures. Ratios such as the Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio, and Operating Ratio provide information about the relationship between revenue and different categories of costs. A decline in profit margins may indicate an increase in material costs, labour expenses, operating expenses, or other costs. Management can analyse these changes and take suitable corrective action. Regular comparison of profitability ratios helps determine whether cost reduction and control measures are producing satisfactory results. Thus, profitability ratios assist management in identifying unnecessary expenses, improving efficiency, and maintaining better control over operating costs.

5. Useful for Investors

Profitability Ratios are important to investors because they provide information about the organisation’s earning capacity and return on investment. Investors are generally interested in knowing whether a business can generate adequate profits from the funds invested in it. Ratios such as Net Profit Ratio, Return on Capital Employed, and Return on Equity help investors evaluate financial performance. Comparison of these ratios over several years can indicate the stability and growth of profitability. Investors can use this information while making investment decisions and comparing different investment opportunities. Therefore, profitability ratios help assess the financial attractiveness and earning potential of a business.

6. Helps in Comparison

Profitability ratios facilitate meaningful comparison of the profit performance of a business. Management can compare profitability ratios across different accounting periods to identify trends in earnings and operational performance. Ratios can also be compared with industry averages, competitors, or established standards, where appropriate. Such comparisons help management determine whether the organisation is performing better or worse than similar businesses. Differences in profitability can highlight areas requiring further investigation and improvement. Therefore, profitability ratios provide a useful basis for inter period and inter firm comparison and help management understand the relative profitability and competitive position of the organisation.

7. Measures Efficiency of Resource Utilisation

Profitability ratios help determine how efficiently a business uses its financial and operational resources to generate profits. Ratios such as Return on Capital Employed indicate the return earned on the capital invested in the organisation. A satisfactory return suggests that available capital and other resources are being utilised effectively. A declining return may indicate inefficient use of assets, excessive costs, or inadequate revenue generation. Management can analyse these ratios to identify areas where resources are not being used productively. Thus, profitability ratios help management improve resource utilisation, operational efficiency, productivity, and overall profitability of the organisation.

8. Assists in Profit Planning

Profitability Ratios are useful in profit planning and forecasting. By studying historical profitability ratios, management can identify trends in sales, costs, and profit margins and use this information while preparing future plans. Ratios help management establish realistic profitability targets and evaluate the expected impact of changes in selling prices, costs, and sales volume. If profitability is declining, management can introduce suitable measures for cost reduction, sales improvement, or pricing adjustments. Regular monitoring of profitability ratios also helps assess whether planned profit objectives are being achieved. Therefore, these ratios provide useful information for future planning, forecasting, and profit control.

Types of Profitability Ratios:

1. Gross Profit Ratio

Gross Profit Ratio shows the relationship between Gross Profit and Net Sales. It indicates the profit earned after covering the direct cost of goods sold. A higher ratio generally indicates better control over production costs, purchasing, and pricing policies. Management can compare this ratio over different periods to identify changes in gross profitability. A decline may indicate an increase in the cost of goods sold, reduction in selling prices, or inefficient purchasing. It is particularly useful for evaluating the basic profitability of trading and manufacturing activities.

Formula:

Gross Profit Ratio = Gross Profit / Net Sales × 100

Gross Profit = Net Sales − Cost of Goods Sold

2. Net Profit Ratio

Net Profit Ratio measures the relationship between Net Profit and Net Sales. It indicates the overall profitability of a business after considering operating and other expenses. A higher ratio generally indicates better control over total costs and efficient business operations. Management can compare the ratio with previous years, industry standards, or competitors to evaluate performance. A declining ratio may indicate increasing expenses, lower selling prices, or reduced operational efficiency. Thus, Net Profit Ratio is useful for measuring the overall earning capacity and profitability of the organisation.

Formula:

Net Profit Ratio = Net Profit / Net Sales × 100

3. Operating Ratio

Operating Ratio shows the relationship between Operating Cost and Net Sales. It indicates the proportion of sales revenue consumed by the cost of goods sold and operating expenses. A lower operating ratio is generally considered favourable because it indicates that a smaller portion of sales is used to cover operating costs. Management can use this ratio to evaluate cost control and operating efficiency. Changes in the ratio may result from variations in production costs, operating expenses, or selling prices. Therefore, Operating Ratio helps management analyse the efficiency of regular business operations.

Formula:

Operating Ratio = Operating Cost / Net Sales × 100

Operating Cost = Cost of Goods Sold + Operating Expenses

4. Operating Profit Ratio

Operating Profit Ratio measures the relationship between Operating Profit and Net Sales. It shows the profit earned from the normal operating activities of the business before considering non operating items. A higher ratio generally indicates better operating efficiency and cost control. Management can compare this ratio over different periods to determine whether operating profitability is improving or declining. It is useful for evaluating the performance of the core business activities without the influence of non operating income and expenses. Therefore, Operating Profit Ratio helps management assess the efficiency and profitability of regular business operations.

Formula:

Operating Profit Ratio = Operating Profit / Net Sales × 100

5. Return on Capital Employed

Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) measures the return generated by a business from the capital employed in its operations. It indicates how efficiently long term funds are being utilised to generate operating profit. ROCE is useful for management and investors in evaluating the overall efficiency of capital utilisation. A higher ROCE generally indicates better utilisation of available capital. It can also be compared with previous years or the cost of capital to assess performance. Thus, ROCE is an important profitability measure for evaluating long term financial performance and capital efficiency.

Formula:

ROCE = Operating Profit / Capital Employed × 100

Capital Employed = Total Assets − Current Liabilities

6. Return on Equity

Return on Equity (ROE) measures the return earned by the business on the shareholders’ equity invested in the organisation. It indicates how effectively shareholders’ funds are being used to generate profit. A higher ROE generally indicates better profitability and efficient utilisation of owners’ capital. Investors commonly use this ratio to evaluate the earning performance of their investment. Management can also compare ROE over different periods to assess whether shareholder returns are improving. Therefore, Return on Equity is an important profitability ratio for measuring shareholder returns and efficiency in using owners’ funds.

Formula:

ROE = Net Profit After Tax / Shareholders’ Equity × 100

7. Return on Investment

Return on Investment (ROI) measures the return generated from a particular investment or investment programme. It helps management evaluate whether the benefits obtained from an investment justify the amount invested. ROI can be used for comparing different investment opportunities and assessing the efficiency of capital allocation. A higher ROI generally indicates that an investment is generating better returns relative to its cost. Management can use this ratio for investment planning, performance evaluation, and resource allocation. It is particularly useful when comparing the profitability of different projects, divisions, or investment alternatives.

Formula:

ROI = Return from Investment / Cost of Investment × 100

8. Earnings Per Share

Earnings Per Share (EPS) indicates the amount of profit attributable to each equity share of a company. It is an important measure of profitability from the perspective of equity shareholders. A higher EPS generally indicates greater earning capacity available to shareholders. Management and investors can compare EPS over different accounting periods to evaluate changes in profitability. EPS is also useful when comparing the earning performance of companies, although differences in capital structure should be considered. Therefore, EPS provides useful information about the profitability attributable to equity shareholders and supports investment analysis.

Formula:

EPS = (Profit After Tax − Preference Dividend) / Number of Equity Shares

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