Tag: Secondary Market

Management Notes

Certificate of Deposits, Features, Kinds

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

A Certificate of Deposit (CD) is a short-term, negotiable, money market instrument issued by banks and financial institutions to raise funds from the public. CDs are fixed-term deposits with a specified maturity period, ranging from 7 days to a few years, and they carry a fixed interest rate. In India, CDs are issued under RBI guidelines and are usually issued to investors with large sums of money, such as corporations, mutual funds, or high-net-worth individuals.

According to the RBI, a CD is “a time deposit receipt issued in dematerialized form or as a physical certificate, acknowledging the receipt of funds for a specified period at a predetermined interest rate.”

CDs are tradable in the secondary market, making them a flexible and liquid investment option. They are safer than market securities because they are backed by the issuing bank and provide predictable returns.

Features of Certificate of Deposits:

  • Issued by Banks and Financial Institutions

Certificates of Deposit (CDs) are issued only by scheduled commercial banks and financial institutions authorized by the RBI. They are a way for these institutions to raise short-term funds from the public. Individuals, corporations, mutual funds, and other investors can invest in CDs. The issuing bank guarantees the repayment of the principal along with interest at maturity. This makes CDs a secure instrument for both investors and banks. By issuing CDs, banks can meet their short-term liquidity requirements without relying solely on customer deposits, ensuring smooth financial operations.

  • Fixed Maturity Period

CDs are issued for a specific, fixed period, usually ranging from 7 days to a few years, depending on the investor’s and issuer’s requirements. The maturity period is clearly mentioned at issuance, and the principal amount is repayable only at the end of the term. This fixed tenure helps investors plan their short-term investment strategy while allowing banks to manage liquidity efficiently. CDs are not designed for early withdrawals unless traded in the secondary market, making them predictable for both the issuer and investor.

  • Fixed Interest Rate

CDs carry a predetermined fixed interest rate agreed upon at the time of issuance. The rate depends on the maturity period, amount invested, and prevailing market conditions. Unlike demand deposits, the interest on CDs is guaranteed, providing a stable and predictable return for investors. Banks benefit as they know the cost of funds in advance, while investors enjoy a risk-free income. The fixed interest makes CDs attractive for corporations, institutions, and individuals seeking secure short-term investments with assured returns in India.

  • Negotiable Instrument

A key feature of CDs is that they are negotiable instruments, meaning they can be sold or transferred in the secondary market before maturity. This provides liquidity to investors who may need funds before the CD matures. Negotiability also allows investors to trade CDs at market-determined prices, which may be higher or lower than the face value, depending on interest rates and demand. This flexibility makes CDs more attractive than regular fixed deposits, combining safety with tradability in India’s money market.

  • Minimum Investment Amount

CDs are typically issued for large sums of money, making them suitable for institutional investors, corporations, and high-net-worth individuals. In India, the minimum amount for a CD is usually ₹1 lakh or more, depending on RBI and bank guidelines. This ensures that CDs are primarily used as money market instruments for short-term funding needs. While retail investors may have limited access, the high minimum investment ensures significant funds for banks to manage liquidity efficiently while providing safe, fixed-interest returns to investors.

  • Short-Term Instrument

CDs are considered short-term financial instruments, designed for periods ranging from a few days to a few years. This short tenure helps banks meet temporary funding requirements and allows investors to park surplus funds temporarily. CDs are ideal for corporations and institutions seeking secure, liquid investment options with predictable returns. In India, their short-term nature aligns with the objectives of money market instruments, supporting liquidity management, financial stability, and short-term investment planning.

  • Risk and Safety

CDs are relatively safe investments because they are backed by the issuing bank. The principal and interest are guaranteed, making them less risky than equities or mutual funds. However, the safety depends on the creditworthiness of the issuing bank. Investors should check the bank’s rating and RBI authorization before investing. The low-risk nature of CDs makes them a preferred choice for conservative investors seeking secure short-term returns while providing banks with reliable short-term funds for operational and lending purposes.

  • Tradable in Secondary Market

CDs can be traded in the secondary market, providing liquidity to investors who may need early access to funds. The price in the secondary market may fluctuate based on prevailing interest rates and demand. This feature differentiates CDs from standard fixed deposits, allowing investors to adjust their investment portfolio according to market conditions. In India, this tradability ensures that even large investments remain flexible and accessible, while banks benefit from efficient fund management. Secondary market trading enhances CDs’ attractiveness as short-term, safe, and liquid instruments in the money market.

Types of Certificate of Deposits:

  • Negotiable Certificate of Deposit

Negotiable CDs are transferable instruments that can be sold or transferred in the secondary market before maturity. They are primarily issued to corporate investors, mutual funds, and high-net-worth individuals. These CDs provide liquidity to investors, as they can be traded at market prices depending on prevailing interest rates. Negotiable CDs are attractive because they combine the safety of bank-issued certificates with the flexibility of early liquidation. They are generally issued for large amounts and have fixed interest rates, making them predictable. In India, negotiable CDs are regulated by the RBI, ensuring secure issuance, standardization, and adherence to money market norms.

  • Non-Negotiable Certificate of Deposit

Non-negotiable CDs are non-transferable instruments, meaning the investor cannot sell or transfer them before maturity. They are meant for investors who plan to hold the CD until the maturity date to earn the agreed-upon interest. These CDs provide a fixed, guaranteed return and are safer for conservative investors who do not need immediate liquidity. They are widely used by individuals and small institutions with short-term surplus funds. In India, non-negotiable CDs are issued under RBI guidelines, with specified tenure and interest rates. While lacking secondary market flexibility, they remain a reliable investment tool for stable returns and predictable fund management.

  • Short-Term Certificate of Deposit

Short-term CDs are issued for a brief period, typically ranging from 7 days to 1 year. They are ideal for banks to raise temporary funds and for investors to park surplus money for a short duration. Short-term CDs provide flexibility and quick returns with minimal risk, as they are backed by the issuing bank. They are often issued to corporate clients, mutual funds, and individuals with short-term liquidity needs. In India, these CDs are regulated by the RBI and traded in the money market if negotiable. They are widely used for liquidity management and short-term investment strategies.

  • Long-Term Certificate of Deposit

Long-term CDs are issued for periods typically above 1 year, sometimes extending up to 3 years, depending on the bank’s requirements and investor preference. These CDs are suited for investors looking for stable, predictable returns over a longer duration. Long-term CDs usually offer higher interest rates compared to short-term CDs, compensating for the longer lock-in period. They can be negotiable or non-negotiable, depending on the terms of issuance. In India, long-term CDs help banks manage funds for planned lending and infrastructure projects, while providing investors with a safe investment option that earns assured interest over an extended period.

Management Notes

Stock Market, Meaning, Functions, Structure, Types

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

The Stock Market is a financial market where shares, stocks and other securities of companies are bought and sold. It provides a platform for companies to raise capital from investors and helps investors earn returns through dividends and capital appreciation. The stock market also provides liquidity, allowing investors to buy or sell securities when required.

In India, stock market transactions are mainly carried out through recognised stock exchanges such as the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and National Stock Exchange (NSE). The securities market is regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) under the SEBI Act, 1992. The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA) provides the legal framework for regulation of securities contracts and stock exchanges.

Functions of Stock Market:

1. Mobilisation of Savings

The stock market helps in mobilising savings from individuals, institutions and other investors and directs them towards productive investments. People can invest their surplus money in shares, bonds and other securities instead of keeping it idle. Companies receive these funds for business expansion, new projects and other capital requirements. Thus, the stock market connects savers with companies that require capital. This promotes investment and economic development. In India, the securities market operates under the regulatory framework of SEBI Act, 1992, which aims to protect investors and regulate the securities market.

2. Capital Formation

One of the major functions of the stock market is to promote capital formation. Companies can raise long term funds by issuing shares and other securities to the public. The money collected can be used for business expansion, modernisation, infrastructure and new projects. When savings are converted into productive investments, the overall productive capacity of the economy increases. Therefore, the stock market plays an important role in transforming financial savings into productive capital. The issue and trading of securities in India are governed by various securities laws and regulations administered by SEBI.

3. Providing Liquidity

The stock market provides liquidity to investments in securities. Investors can buy and sell shares through recognised stock exchanges without waiting for the company to return their money. This makes investment in securities more attractive because investors can convert their holdings into cash relatively easily. Stock exchanges provide an organised and transparent platform for such transactions. In India, recognised stock exchanges function under the regulatory framework of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 and SEBI regulations. Liquidity also encourages greater participation of investors in the securities market.

4. Price Discovery

The stock market performs the important function of price discovery. The prices of shares are determined through the interaction of demand and supply. When more investors want to buy a particular share, its price may increase. When selling pressure is higher, its price may decrease. Market prices also reflect information about the company’s performance, profitability, future prospects and economic conditions. Stock exchanges provide an organised system where orders are matched electronically. The process is subject to regulations framed by SEBI to promote fair and transparent trading in the securities market.

5. Encouraging Investment

The stock market encourages people to invest their surplus funds in financial securities. It provides investors with different investment opportunities according to their risk and return preferences. Investors may earn returns through dividends, interest and capital appreciation. The availability of an organised market makes investment easier because securities can be purchased and sold through recognised intermediaries and exchanges. Investor protection is an important objective of SEBI under the SEBI Act, 1992. By creating confidence among investors, the stock market helps increase participation and supports the growth of the financial system.

6. Transfer of Ownership

The stock market facilitates the transfer of ownership in companies. When an investor purchases shares of a company, ownership rights associated with those shares are transferred to the buyer according to applicable laws and regulations. Similarly, an existing shareholder can sell shares to another investor through the stock exchange. This makes ownership in listed companies transferable and flexible. The trading and settlement process is carried out through recognised exchanges, brokers, clearing corporations and depositories. The legal framework includes the Companies Act, 2013, the SCRA, 1956 and regulations issued by SEBI.

7. Promotes Corporate Governance

The stock market promotes corporate governance by requiring listed companies to follow disclosure and compliance requirements. Companies whose securities are listed must provide important information to investors regarding their financial performance, corporate decisions and material events. Such disclosures help shareholders make informed investment decisions and improve transparency. In India, listed entities are required to comply with the SEBI (Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements) Regulations, 2015, commonly known as SEBI LODR Regulations. These requirements encourage companies to maintain accountability towards shareholders and other stakeholders.

8. Indicator of Economic Conditions

The stock market acts as an important indicator of economic conditions. Movements in share prices and major stock market indices such as the Nifty 50 and Sensex can reflect investor expectations about economic growth, corporate profitability, interest rates and business conditions. A rising market may indicate positive expectations, while a declining market may reflect uncertainty or negative expectations. However, stock market movements do not always represent the exact condition of the economy. Market data can therefore provide useful information to investors, businesses, policymakers and researchers while assessing economic and financial trends.

Structure of Stock Exchanges:

1. Regulatory Authority

The regulatory authority provides the legal and regulatory framework for the functioning of stock exchanges. In India, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is the principal regulator of the securities market. SEBI was established under the SEBI Act, 1992 and is responsible for protecting investors, promoting development and regulating the securities market. Stock exchanges must comply with SEBI regulations and applicable provisions of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956. SEBI also supervises trading practices, disclosure requirements, investor protection measures and market intermediaries to ensure a fair, transparent and efficient market.

2. Stock Exchange Management

The management of a stock exchange is responsible for its overall administration, policy implementation and day to day functioning. A recognised stock exchange operates through a properly constituted governing structure consisting of a Board of Directors and key management personnel. The management ensures compliance with applicable laws, rules and regulations and maintains proper trading facilities. It also supervises market operations, technology, risk management and investor services. Under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956, recognised stock exchanges are subject to regulatory requirements. The management therefore plays an important role in maintaining the efficiency and integrity of the exchange.

3. Trading System

The trading system is the core operational part of a stock exchange through which securities are bought and sold. Modern Indian stock exchanges use electronic trading systems that automatically match buy and sell orders according to prescribed rules. Investors generally place orders through registered stock brokers, who execute them on the exchange. The system provides transparency regarding prices and trading volumes and helps ensure orderly transactions. The trading process operates under rules prescribed by the exchange and regulations issued by SEBI. Efficient trading systems contribute to liquidity, price discovery and transparency in the securities market.

4. Listed Companies

Listed companies form an important part of the structure of a stock exchange. These are companies whose securities have been admitted for trading on a recognised stock exchange after fulfilling applicable listing requirements. Listed companies must comply with disclosure and corporate governance requirements. The SEBI (Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements) Regulations, 2015, commonly called SEBI LODR Regulations, prescribe important obligations for listed entities. Companies are required to disclose relevant financial and other material information to investors. This structure promotes transparency, accountability and informed investment decisions in the stock market.

5. Stock Brokers and Trading Members

Stock brokers and trading members act as intermediaries between investors and the stock exchange. Investors generally cannot directly participate in exchange trading and therefore place their orders through registered brokers or trading members. They provide services such as order execution, trading accounts, market information and transaction support. Brokers must comply with the regulatory requirements prescribed by SEBI and the respective stock exchange. Their activities are governed by applicable securities laws and regulations, including the SEBI Act, 1992. They help connect investors with the organised trading platform and facilitate smooth buying and selling of securities.

6. Clearing Corporation

A clearing corporation is responsible for determining the obligations of buyers and sellers after trades are executed. It performs clearing and settlement functions and helps ensure that securities and funds are transferred properly between the parties. It also manages risks associated with trading by applying mechanisms such as margin requirements and settlement guarantees. In India, clearing corporations operate under the regulatory framework of SEBI. Their functions are important for maintaining confidence in the market because they reduce counterparty risk and ensure timely settlement. Thus, the clearing corporation forms an essential part of the post trading structure.

7. Depositories

Depositories hold securities in electronic or dematerialised form and facilitate their transfer between investors. In India, the two major depositories are NSDL and CDSL. Investors hold securities through Demat accounts maintained with Depository Participants. When securities are bought or sold, the depository system facilitates their electronic transfer during settlement. The legal framework for depositories is provided by the Depositories Act, 1996, along with regulations issued by SEBI. Depositories have reduced paperwork, improved settlement efficiency and increased the security and convenience of securities transactions.

8. Investors

Investors are the participants who provide funds to the securities market by purchasing financial securities. They may include individual investors, institutional investors, mutual funds, insurance companies, foreign portfolio investors and other financial institutions. Investors buy securities with different objectives such as earning dividends, capital appreciation or other returns. They participate through registered intermediaries and use Demat and trading accounts for transactions. Investor protection is a major responsibility of SEBI under the SEBI Act, 1992. Investors are therefore an essential component of the stock exchange structure because their participation provides capital and liquidity to the market.

Types of Stock Markets:

1. Primary Market

The Primary Market is the market where companies and other eligible issuers raise funds by issuing new securities to investors. Securities may be issued through methods such as Initial Public Offer (IPO), Further Public Offer (FPO), rights issue and private placement. The money raised goes directly to the issuing company and may be used for expansion, modernisation, working capital or other business purposes. In India, public issues are regulated mainly by SEBI under the SEBI Act, 1992 and applicable issue regulations. The primary market therefore helps companies obtain long term capital and promotes capital formation.

2. Secondary Market

The Secondary Market is the market where existing securities are bought and sold among investors. The issuing company does not directly receive money from these transactions. Recognised stock exchanges such as the NSE and BSE provide an organised platform for secondary market trading. Investors can sell their securities and obtain liquidity or purchase securities of listed companies. The secondary market also performs important functions such as price discovery and liquidity. Trading is regulated by SEBI under the SEBI Act, 1992, the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 and applicable regulations.

3. Organised Stock Market

An Organised Stock Market operates through a recognised stock exchange having established rules, regulations, trading systems and settlement mechanisms. In India, major organised stock markets include the National Stock Exchange (NSE) and BSE Ltd. Securities are traded through electronic systems, while clearing corporations and depositories facilitate settlement. Investors generally participate through registered stock brokers or trading members. The functioning of recognised stock exchanges is governed by the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 and regulations issued by SEBI. Organised markets promote transparency, liquidity, fair trading and investor protection.

4. Over the Counter (OTC) Market

The Over the Counter (OTC) Market refers to trading in securities or financial contracts that takes place outside a traditional stock exchange trading system. Transactions are generally conducted directly between parties through dealers or other intermediaries. OTC markets can provide flexibility in terms of contract features, quantity and maturity. However, they may involve greater counterparty risk and lower transparency compared with exchange traded markets. In India, different OTC activities are subject to applicable laws and regulatory frameworks depending on the security or financial product involved. SEBI, RBI and other regulators may have jurisdiction over different segments.

5. Equity Market

The Equity Market is the market where shares representing ownership in companies are issued and traded. It consists of both the primary and secondary markets. Investors purchase equity shares to participate in the ownership of companies and may earn returns through dividends and capital appreciation. Equity securities can be traded on recognised exchanges such as NSE and BSE. The equity market helps companies raise long term funds and provides investors with investment opportunities. In India, equity market activities are regulated primarily by SEBI under the SEBI Act, 1992 and other applicable securities laws and regulations.

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