Author: indiafreenotes

Management Notes

Levels of Management

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes6

Management in any organization is typically structured into different levels, each with distinct roles, responsibilities, and decision-making authority. These levels are crucial in ensuring that the organization’s activities are coordinated, strategic objectives are achieved, and operations run smoothly.

  1. Top-Level Management
  2. Middle-Level Management
  3. Lower-Level Management

Each level plays a unique role in the overall functioning of the organization. Below is an in-depth analysis of each level, its functions, and its significance.

Top-Level Management

Top-level management, often referred to as the executive level, is the highest level of management in an organization. It includes positions such as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operating Officer (COO), and the Board of Directors. This level of management is responsible for the overall direction and long-term strategic planning of the organization.

Key Functions of Top-Level Management:

  • Strategic Planning:

Top-level management sets the vision, mission, and long-term objectives of the organization. It formulates overall strategies and policies that determine the future direction of the organization. For example, they may decide on new market entry, mergers, acquisitions, or diversification strategies.

  • Decision-Making:

These executives make high-level decisions that impact the entire organization. Their decisions are related to growth, investments, resource allocation, and overall organizational priorities.

  • Organizational Leadership:

Top-level managers provide leadership by establishing the organization’s culture, values, and work environment. They serve as role models, and their actions significantly influence employee behavior and organizational success.

  • Coordination with External Stakeholders:

They represent the organization to external entities such as investors, government agencies, and the general public. Their role involves building and maintaining relationships with key stakeholders.

  • Control and Evaluation:

Top-level managers establish control mechanisms to monitor organizational performance against objectives. They assess the overall progress of the organization and make necessary adjustments to policies and strategies to ensure alignment with long-term goals.

Significance of Top-Level Management:

The primary responsibility of top-level management is to ensure that the organization moves in the right strategic direction. They act as visionaries who not only set goals but also inspire others to follow those goals. Their role is crucial for long-term sustainability and growth.

Middle-Level Management

Middle-level management forms the bridge between top-level management and lower-level management. It consists of department heads, division managers, and branch managers, who are responsible for translating the strategic plans set by top management into operational actions.

Key Functions of Middle-Level Management:

  • Implementation of Strategies:

Middle managers take the strategies and policies formulated by top-level management and implement them within their respective departments or divisions. They break down complex goals into actionable tasks and ensure that they are executed.

  • Departmental Oversight:

These managers oversee the functioning of different departments (e.g., marketing, finance, HR, production) and ensure that all activities are aligned with the organization’s goals.

  • Resource Allocation:

Middle managers are responsible for allocating resources within their departments, including human resources, budgets, and materials, to ensure that departmental objectives are met.

  • Communication Channel:

Middle-level management acts as a communication conduit between top-level and lower-level managers. They ensure that instructions from top management are clearly communicated to the lower-level staff and that feedback from lower-level management is relayed back to the executives.

  • Motivating and Leading Teams:

Middle managers are responsible for leading teams and ensuring that employees are motivated and engaged. They provide guidance, mentorship, and performance feedback to their subordinates.

  • Monitoring Performance:

They monitor the day-to-day performance of their departments and ensure that everything is running smoothly. If there are any deviations from set targets, they take corrective action.

Significance of Middle-Level Management:

Middle-level managers are essential for the smooth functioning of an organization. They play a pivotal role in translating the broad vision of top management into practical plans and ensuring their execution. Their leadership at the departmental level is vital for achieving operational efficiency and organizational goals.

Lower-Level Management

Lower-level management, also referred to as supervisory management or frontline management, is the lowest level of the management hierarchy. It includes supervisors, foremen, section heads, and team leaders who oversee the day-to-day operations of the organization.

Key Functions of Lower-Level Management:

  • Supervising Daily Operations:

Lower-level managers are responsible for overseeing the execution of tasks by the employees. They ensure that day-to-day operations are carried out as planned and that any problems are addressed immediately.

  • Work Allocation:

They assign specific tasks to workers, ensuring that resources are utilized efficiently and that productivity targets are met.

  • Monitoring Performance:

Lower-level managers closely monitor employee performance. They provide immediate feedback and take corrective action when necessary to ensure that work is done efficiently and meets the organization’s standards.

  • Training and Development:

They are responsible for the on-the-job training of employees. Lower-level managers ensure that their teams have the necessary skills and knowledge to perform their tasks effectively.

  • Maintaining Discipline:

Frontline managers enforce organizational rules and policies. They ensure that employees adhere to company policies and maintain a disciplined work environment.

  • Communication with Workers:

Lower-level managers act as a link between the workforce and middle management. They ensure that the concerns, suggestions, and feedback of employees are communicated to higher management.

Significance of Lower-Level Management:

Lower-level managers are the foundation of the management structure. They directly interact with employees, ensuring that work is completed efficiently and that the organization’s day-to-day activities run smoothly. Their ability to maintain discipline, provide training, and resolve problems at the grassroots level is critical for operational success.

Interconnection Between Levels of Management

All three levels of management are interconnected and interdependent. Top-level management sets the overall direction, middle-level management translates that direction into actionable plans, and lower-level management ensures that these plans are executed effectively on the ground.

  • Coordination:

The success of any organization depends on the smooth coordination between these levels. For instance, if top-level management sets unrealistic goals, middle-level managers may struggle to implement them, leading to inefficiencies at the lower level.

  • Communication:

Clear communication between the levels is essential. Top-level management must communicate strategic goals, middle managers must relay these to lower managers, and lower managers must communicate operational feedback back up the chain.

Management Notes

Skills of Management

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Skills management is the practice of understanding, developing and deploying people and their skills. Well-implemented skills management should identify the skills that job roles require, the skills of individual employees, and any gap between the two.

Management skills can be defined as certain attributes or abilities that an executive should possess in order to fulfill specific tasks in an organization. They include the capacity to perform executive duties in an organization while avoiding crisis situations and promptly solving problems when they occur. Management skills can be developed through learning and practical experience as a manager. The skills help the manager to relate with their fellow co-workers and know how to deal well with their subordinates, which allows for the easy flow of activities in the organization.

Types of Management Skills

According to American social and organizational psychologist Robert Katz, the three basic types of management skills include:

  1. Technical Skills

Technical skills involve skills that give the managers the ability and the knowledge to use a variety of techniques to achieve their objectives. These skills not only involve operating machines and software, production tools, and pieces of equipment but also the skills needed to boost sales, design different types of products and services, and market the services and the products.

  1. Conceptual Skills

These involve the skills managers present in terms of the knowledge and ability for abstract thinking and formulating ideas. The manager is able to see an entire concept, analyze and diagnose a problem, and find creative solutions. This helps the manager to effectively predict hurdles their department or the business as a whole may face.

  1. Human or Interpersonal Skills

The human or the interpersonal skills are the skills that present the managers’ ability to interact, work or relate effectively with people. These skills enable the managers to make use of human potential in the company and motivate the employees for better results.

The following are six essential management skills that any manager ought to possess for them to perform their duties:

  1. Planning

Planning is a vital aspect within an organization. It refers to one’s ability to organize activities in line with set guidelines while still remaining within the limits of the available resources such as time, money, and labor. It is also the process of formulating a set of actions or one or more strategies to pursue and achieve certain goals or objectives with the available resources.

The planning process includes identifying and setting achievable goals, developing necessary strategies, and outlining the tasks and schedules on how to achieve the set goals. Without a good plan, little can be achieved.

  1. Communication

Possessing great communication skills is crucial for a manager. It can determine how well information is shared throughout a team, ensuring that the group acts as a unified workforce. How well a manager communicates with the rest of his/her team also determines how well outlined procedures can be followed, how well the tasks and activities can be completed, and thus, how successful an organization will be.

Communication involves the flow of information within the organization, whether formal or informal, verbal or written, vertical or horizontal, and it facilitates smooth functioning of the organization. Clearly established communication channels in an organization allow the manager to collaborate with the team, prevent conflicts, and resolve issues as they arise. A manager with good communication skills can relate well with the employees and thus, be able to achieve the company’s set goals and objectives easily.

  1. Decision-making

Another vital management skill is decision-making. Managers make numerous decisions, whether knowingly or not, and making decisions is a key component in a manager’s success. Making proper and right decisions results in the success of the organization, while poor or bad decisions may lead to failure or poor performance.

For the organization to run effectively and smoothly, clear and right decisions should be made. A manager must be accountable for every decision that they make and also be willing to take responsibility for the results of their decisions. A good manager needs to possess great decision-making skills, as it often dictates his/her success in achieving organizational objectives.

  1. Delegation

Delegation is another key management skill. Delegation is the act of passing on work-related tasks and/or authorities to other employees or subordinates. It involves the process of allowing your tasks or those of your employees to be reassigned or reallocated to other employees depending on current workloads. A manager with good delegation skills is able to effectively and efficiently reassign tasks and give authority to the right employees. When delegation is carried out effectively, it helps facilitate efficient task completion.

Delegation helps the manager to avoid wastage of time, optimizes productivity, and ensures responsibility and accountability on the part of employees. Every manager must have good delegation abilities to achieve optimal results and accomplish the required productivity results.

  1. Problem-solving

Problem-solving is another essential skill. A good manager must have the ability to tackle and solve the frequent problems that can arise in a typical workday. Problem-solving in management involves identifying a certain problem or situation and then finding the best way to handle the problem and get the best solution. It is the ability to sort things out even when the prevailing conditions are not right.  When it is clear that a manager has great problem-solving skills, it differentiates him/her from the rest of the team and gives subordinates confidence in his/her managerial skills.

  1. Motivating

The ability to motivate is another important skill in an organization. Motivation helps bring forth a desired behavior or response from the employees or certain stakeholders. There are numerous motivation tactics that managers can use, and choosing the right ones can depend on characteristics such as company and team culture, team personalities, and more. There are two primary types of motivation that a manager can use. These are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Management Notes

Approaches to Management Planning

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

All organizations plan; the only difference is their approach. Prior to starting a new strategic planning process, it will be necessary to access the past planning approach that has been used within the organization and determine how the organization’s cultural may have been affected. Addressing these cultural issues is critical to the success of the current planning process.

The four possible approaches to planning are:

Reactive past oriented

Reactive planning is an active attempt to turn back the clock to the past. The past, no matter how bad, is preferable to the present. And definitely better than the future will be. The past is romanticized and there is a desire to return to the “good old days.” These people seek to undo the change that has created the present, and they fear the future, which they attempt to prevent.

Inactive present oriented

Inactive planning is an attempt to preserve the present, which is preferable to both the past and the future. While the present may have problems it is better than the past. The expectation is that things are as good as they are likely to get and the future will only be worse. Any additional change is likely to be for the worse and should therefore be avoided.

Preactive predict the future

Preactive planning is an attempt to predict the future and then to plan for that predicted future. Technological change is seen as the driving force bringing about the future, which will be better than the present or the past. The planning process will seek to position the organization to take advantage of the change that is happening around them.

Proactive – create the future

Proactive planning involves designing a desired future and then inventing ways to create that future state. Not only is the future a preferred state, but the organization can actively control the outcome. Planners actively shape the future, rather than just trying to get ahead of events outside of their control. The predicted changes of the preactive planner are seen not as absolute constraints, but as obstacles that can be addressed and overcome.

Strategic Management Planning

  1. Top-Down Approach:

In a centralised company, such planning is done at the top of the corporation and the departments and outlying activities are advised straightway what to do.

In a decentralised company, the CEO or the President may give the divisions guidelines and ask for plans. The plans after review at the head office are sent back to the divisions for modifications or with a note of acceptance.

  1. Bottom-Up Approach:

The top management gives the divisions no guidelines but asks them to submit plans.

Such plans may contain information on:

(i) Major opportunities and threats;

(ii) Major objectives;

(iii) Strategies to achieve the objectives;

(iv) Specific data on sales/profits/market share sought;

(v) Capital requirements, etc.

These plans are then reviewed at top management levels and the same process, as in the top-down approach, is then followed.

  1. Mixture of the Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches:

This is practised in most large decentralised companies. In this approach, the guidelines given by the top management to the divisions are broad enough to permit the divisions a good amount of flexibility in developing their own plans. Sometimes, the top management may decide basic objectives by dialogue with divisional managers in respect of sales and return on investments especially when divisional performance is measured upon those criteria.

  1. Team Approach:

The chief executive, in a small centralised company, often use his line managers to develop formal plans. The same approach is used even by the president of a large company. In many other companies, the president meets and interacts with his group of executives on a regular basis to deal with all the problems facing the company so that the group can develop written strategic plans.

Within each of these approaches, there are many alternatives as follows:

(i) Complete SWOT analysis or not:

In some companies, the divisions supply the top management with perceived opportunities and threats and with the strategies to exploit opportunities and avoid threats.

(ii) Depth of analysis:

Some companies, at the initial stage, do not make in-depth analysis of all aspects of planning. They increase the intensity of analytical exercise gradually as experience is gained.

(iii) Degree of formality:

Divergent practices are in vogue as regards formality. For some large companies having centralised organisation structures, and comparatively stable environment and homogeneous product lines, planning is less formal than large diversified companies with decentralised and semi-autonomous product division structures.

High technology companies usually have more formal systems; yet, they recognise informality in decision making and managerial activities associated with planning.

(iv) Reliance on staff:

It is up-to the managers to decide the extent of delegation.

(v) Corporate planner or not:

Large corporations employ corporate planners to help in the planning process. Smaller companies cannot afford to this luxury.

(vi) Linkage with plans.

(vii) Getting the process started:

Strategic planning may begin with an effort to solve a particular problem. It may begin with a SWOT analysis or simply with a review of current strategy.

(viii) Degree of documentation:

A balance has to be struck between too little and too much paper work.

(ix) Role of CEO:

The chief executive officer’s role is critical depending on the degree of complexity of organisations.

Management Notes

Factors influencing the Span of Supervision

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1
  1. The Capacity and Ability of the Executive:

The characteristics and abilities such as leadership, administrative capabilities, ability to communicate, to Judge, to listen, to guide and inspire, physical vigour etc. differ from person to person. A person having better abilities can manage effectively a large number of subordinates as compared to the one who has lesser capabilities.

  1. Competence and Training of Subordinates:

Subordinates who are skilled, efficient, knowledgeable, trained and competent require less supervision, and therefore, the supervisor may have a wider span in such cases as compared to inexperienced and untrained subordinates who require greater supervision.

  1. Nature of Work:

Nature and importance of work to be supervised is another factor that influences the span of supervision. The work involving routine, repetitive, unskilled and standardized operations will not call much attention and time on the part of the supervisor. As such, the supervisors at the lower levels of organization can supervise the work of a large number of subordinates. On the other hand, at higher levels of management, the work involves complex and a variety of Jobs and as such the number of subordinates that can be effectively managed should be limited to a lesser number.

  1. Time Available for Supervision:

The capacity of a person to supervise and control a large number of persons is also limited on account of time available at his disposal to supervise them. The span of control would be generally narrow at the higher levels of management because top managers have to spend their major time on planning, organizing, directing and controlling and the time available at their disposal for supervision will be lesser. At lower levels of management, this span would obliviously be wide because they have to devote lesser time on such other activities.

  1. Degree of Decentralization and Extent of Delegation:

If a manager clearly delegates authority to undertake a well- defined task, a well-trained subordinate can do it with a minimum of supervisor’s time and attention. As such, the span could be wide. On the contrary, “if the subordinate’s task is not one, he can do, or if it is not clearly defined, or if he does not have the authority to undertake it effectively, he will either fail to perform it or take a disproportionate amount of the manager’s time in supervising and guiding his efforts.”

  1. Effectiveness of Communication System:

The span of supervision is also influenced by the effectiveness of the communication system in the organization. Faulty communication puts a heavy burden on manager’s time and reduces the span of control. On the other hand, if the system of communication is effective, larger number of managerial levels will be preferred as the information can be transmitted easily. Further, a wide span is possible if a manager can communicate effectively.

  1. Quality of Planning:

If plans and policies are clear and easily understandable, the task of supervision becomes easier and the span of management can be wider. Effective planning helps to reduce frequent calls on the superior for explanation, instructions and guidance and thereby saves in time available at the disposal of the supervisor enabling him to have a wider span. Ineffective plans, on the other hand, impose limits on the span of management.

  1. Degree of Physical Dispersion:

If all persons to be supervised are located at the same place and within the direct supervision of the manager, he can supervise relatively more people as compared to the one who has to supervise people located at different places.

  1. Assistance of Experts:

The span of supervision may be wide where the services of experts are available to the subordinate on various aspects of work. In case such services are not provided in the organization, the supervisor has to spend a lot of time in providing assistance to the workers himself and as such the span of control would be narrow.

  1. Control Mechanism:

The control procedures followed in an organization also influence the span of control. The use of objective standards enables a supervisor ‘management by exception’ by providing quick information of deviations or variances. Control through personal supervision favours narrow span while control through objective standards and reports favour wider span.

  1. Dynamism or Rate of Change:

Certain enterprises change much more rapidly than others. This rate of change determines the stability of policies and practices of an organization. The span of control tends to be narrow where the policies and practices do not remain stable.

  1. Need for Balance:

According to Koontz and O ‘Donnel, “There is a limit in each managerial position to the number of persons an individual can effectively manage, but the exact number in each case will vary in accordance with the effect of underlying variable and their impact on the time requirements of effective managing.”

Depending on the number of employees that can be supervised or controlled by managers, there can be two kinds of structures in the organisation:

  1. Tall structures
  2. Flat structures

Tall structures:

These structures are found in classical bureaucratic organisations. In this structure, a manager can supervise less number of subordinates. He can, therefore, exercise tight control over their activities. This creates large number of levels in the organisation. This is also known as narrow span of control. A tall structure or a narrow span of control appears like this.

Merits of a Tall Structure:

  1. Managers can closely supervise activities of the subordinates.
  2. There can be better communication amongst superiors and subordinates.
  3. It promotes personal relationships amongst superiors and subordinates.
  4. Control on subordinates can be tightened in a narrow span.

Limitations of a Tall Structure:

  1. It creates many levels in the organisation structure which complicates co-ordination amongst levels.
  2. More managers are needed to supervise the subordinates. This increases the overhead expenditure (salary etc.). It is, thus, a costly form of structure.
  3. Increasing gap between top managers and workers slows the communication process.
  4. Decision-making becomes difficult because of too many levels.
  5. Superiors perform routine jobs of supervising the subordinates and have less time for strategic matters.
  6. Employees work under strict control of superiors. Decision-making is primarily centralised. This restricts employees’ creative and innovative abilities.
  7. Strict control leads to low morale and job satisfaction. This can affect productivity in the long-run.

To overcome the limitations of a tall structure, many organisations reduce the number of levels in the hierarchy by downsizing the organisation. Downsizing is “the process of significantly reducing the layers of middle management, expanding spans of control and shrinking the size of the work force.”

Many companies downsize their work force through the process of restructuring. Restructuring is “the process of making a major change in organisation structure that often involves reducing management levels and also possibly changing some major components of the organisations through divestiture and/or acquisition.”

“The most common and most serious symptom of mal-organisation is multiplication of the number of management levels. A basic rule of organisation is to build the least possible number of management levels and forge the shortest possible chains of command.” :Peter F. Drucker

Flat Structures:

These structures have a wide span of control. When superior supervises a larger number of subordinates, flat structure is created with lesser number of hierarchical levels. A departure was made from tall structures to flat structures by James C. Worthy who was a consultant in the L. Sears, Roebuck and company.

Merits of a Flat Structure:

  1. There is low cost as less number of managers can supervise organisational activities.
  2. The decision-making process is effective as superiors delegate authority to subordinates. They are relieved of routine matters and concentrate on strategic matters. The decision-making is decentralised.
  3. Subordinates perform the work efficiently since they are considered worthy of doing so by the superiors.
  4. There is effective communication as the number of levels is less.
  5. It promotes innovative abilities of the top management.

Limitations of a Flat Structure:

  1. Superiors cannot closely supervise the activities of employees.
  2. Managers may find it difficult to co-ordinate the activities of subordinates.
  3. Subordinates have to be trained so that dilution of control does not affect organisational productivity.

Both tall and flat structures have positive and negative features and it is difficult to find the exact number of subordinates that a manager can effectively manage. Some management theorists like David D. Van Fleet and Arthur G. Bedeian assert that span of control and organisational efficiency are not related and many empirical studies have proved that span of control is situational and depends on a variety of factors.

Some studies proved that flat structures produce better results as decentralised decision making has less control from the top, promotes initiative and satisfaction at work. Large number of members in a group can better solve the complex problems as group decision making is based on greater skill variety.

Other studies proved that people working in tall structures produce better results as less number of members in a group can come to consensus of opinion and evaluate their decisions more thoroughly. Group cohesiveness is high and, thus, commitment to decisions is also high. Members feel satisfied with their decisions and conflicts are reduced.

Management Notes

Functional Organization, Meaning, Characteristics, Importance, Limitations

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Functional Organization is a type of organizational structure where the company is divided into departments based on specific functions or areas of expertise, such as marketing, finance, production, human resources, and IT. Each department is headed by a functional specialist who has authority over all activities related to that function. Employees within each department perform similar tasks and report to the department head. This structure promotes specialization, efficiency, and clarity of roles. It is commonly used in large organizations where technical expertise is critical. However, it may create coordination challenges across departments and can slow interdepartmental communication.

Characteristics of Functional Organization:

  • Departmentalization Based on Functions

In a functional organization, the entire structure is divided into departments such as marketing, finance, production, human resources, and IT, each headed by a functional expert. This method of departmentalization by specialization allows employees to focus on one set of tasks, leading to efficiency and clarity. Each department operates as a separate unit with its own goals and responsibilities, contributing to the overall objectives of the organization. This clear grouping simplifies coordination within departments and enhances operational focus.

  • Clear Hierarchical Structure

Functional organization maintains a well-defined hierarchy within each department. Every employee knows their direct supervisor and reporting relationships, creating a clear chain of command. This helps in delegating tasks, assigning responsibilities, and maintaining control. The hierarchy ensures that communication flows smoothly within departments, and decisions can be made effectively. It also allows for efficient supervision and accountability, as roles and authority are distributed according to the functional levels of each department.

  • Specialization and Expert Leadership

Each function in a functional organization is headed by a functional manager or expert who possesses deep knowledge and experience in that specific area. These specialists provide technical guidance and direction to their teams, ensuring high-quality outputs. The presence of expert leadership improves decision-making, efficiency, and innovation within departments. This emphasis on specialization enhances the performance of individual employees and contributes to the competitive advantage of the organization.

  • Centralized Decision-Making Within Functions

In a functional structure, decision-making is often centralized within each department, with department heads making key decisions related to their functions. This results in quick and informed decisions due to the functional manager’s expertise. It also provides consistency in handling department-specific issues. However, for company-wide matters, coordination among functional heads is required. This centralized functional control streamlines operations but requires effective interdepartmental communication to avoid delays or overlaps.

  • Efficiency Through Standardization

Functional organizations promote efficiency by standardizing procedures and practices within each function. Repetition of similar tasks allows departments to develop best practices, reduce errors, and train employees more easily. For instance, the finance department might standardize budgeting processes, while HR standardizes hiring procedures. This consistency leads to predictable outcomes, cost savings, and improved performance. It also supports scalability, as standardized processes can be easily extended across branches or locations.

  • Limited Cross-Functional Interaction

One of the defining features of a functional organization is that communication and collaboration between departments are limited. Employees primarily interact within their functional units, which can lead to departmental silos. While this encourages focus and efficiency within departments, it may hinder cross-functional innovation, agility, and a unified organizational culture. Projects requiring input from multiple departments might face delays or miscommunication unless proper coordination mechanisms are established.

  • Clear Career Path within Functions

Employees in a functional organization often have a well-defined career path within their area of specialization. With opportunities for promotion and growth based on technical skills and experience, employees are motivated to develop expertise in their field. This structure encourages long-term professional development and fosters loyalty. It also helps organizations retain talent by offering a clear advancement ladder within functional roles.

Importance of Functional Organization:

  • Specialization and Expertise

Functional organization enables employees to focus on a specific area of work, promoting a high degree of specialization and technical expertise. Individuals are grouped based on their job functions such as marketing, finance, HR, or production, allowing them to develop deep skills and mastery in their field. This leads to greater efficiency, better decision-making, and high-quality outputs. Functional heads also become experts in managing their departments, contributing to the overall competence and professionalism of the organization.

  • Clarity in Roles and Responsibilities

In a functional structure, each employee’s role, duties, and reporting lines are clearly defined within their respective departments. This clarity eliminates confusion, avoids duplication of work, and enhances accountability. Employees understand what is expected of them and who their supervisors are, which improves performance and discipline. Managers also find it easier to assign tasks and monitor progress. With defined responsibilities, workflows become more streamlined and conflicts over job boundaries are minimized, leading to smoother operations.

  • Operational Efficiency

Functional organization promotes cost-effectiveness and efficiency through streamlined processes and resource optimization. Since similar tasks are grouped together and handled by specialized departments, there is minimal redundancy, and repetitive work can be standardized. Functional departments can also share resources, tools, and expertise, which reduces wastage and improves productivity. This organizational design allows companies to scale up operations more easily, as departments can grow with minimal disruption to others. Efficient workflows ultimately lead to better output and customer satisfaction.

  • Better Supervision and Control

Since employees are grouped based on their specialized functions, managers can focus on supervising a specific type of work, making oversight more effective. Managers become adept at understanding the tasks and challenges of their function, allowing them to guide, evaluate, and improve performance accurately. This focused supervision also aids in identifying problems early and implementing targeted solutions. Clear chains of command and responsibility within each department enhance control, discipline, and productivity across the organization.

  • Facilitates Training and Development

A functional organization makes it easier to design and deliver training programs specific to each department’s needs. Employees receive function-specific education and mentoring, which enhances their capabilities and confidence. This focused development prepares them for future promotions or leadership roles within the function. Departments can also track employee progress more effectively and identify skill gaps quickly. This structured approach to learning improves employee morale and strengthens the organization’s talent base in each functional area.

  • Logical Growth and Expansion

As an organization grows, a functional structure provides a logical and scalable framework for expansion. New functions or sub-departments can be added without disrupting the existing structure. For example, a growing company can add digital marketing under the marketing department or payroll under HR. This ease of scaling helps organizations maintain order during growth, improve coordination within functions, and allocate resources more effectively. A functional setup is particularly useful for firms in stable environments focusing on efficiency and specialization.

Limitations of Functional Organization:

  • Lack of Coordination Between Departments

In a functional organization, departments often work in isolation, focusing only on their specific goals. This silo mentality results in poor interdepartmental coordination and communication. For instance, the production team may proceed without aligning with marketing or finance, leading to mismatch in supply and demand or budget issues. Such departmental barriers hinder collaboration, delay decision-making, and can cause conflicts. Without a centralized integration mechanism, the overall efficiency and responsiveness of the organization suffer, especially when dealing with cross-functional projects or customer-focused outcomes.

  • Delay in Decision-Making

Because employees must often report to multiple managers for different functions, decision-making can become slow and bureaucratic. Functional heads may focus only on their department’s priorities, leading to conflicting recommendations. When decisions require input from multiple departments—such as launching a new product—it can take considerable time to reach consensus. This lack of speed can be detrimental in competitive markets where rapid responses are essential. The vertical hierarchy within each function also adds extra layers, which further slow down approvals and execution.

  • Over-Specialization and Narrow Focus

While functional organizations promote expertise, they can also lead to over-specialization, where employees become too focused on their own roles and lose sight of the bigger organizational picture. This tunnel vision may hinder innovation and adaptability, as employees are less likely to understand or contribute outside their function. Cross-functional thinking is essential in modern business environments, especially for strategic initiatives, customer satisfaction, and organizational flexibility—areas that may suffer when each function operates in a vacuum.

  • Difficulties in Accountability and Responsibility

In a functional structure, accountability can become blurred because multiple managers influence decisions and outcomes. If a problem arises—such as a delay in product delivery—it can be challenging to pinpoint whether it was a failure in production, marketing, or finance. This lack of clear responsibility can lead to blame-shifting between departments rather than problem-solving. Furthermore, it can demotivate employees who are unsure about their reporting structure or evaluation criteria, leading to reduced morale and inefficiency.

  • Reduced Flexibility and Adaptability

Functional organizations are generally rigid and hierarchical, which makes it difficult for them to adapt quickly to changes in the business environment. When market conditions shift or customer needs evolve, functional managers may resist changes that affect their domains. As a result, the organization becomes slow to innovate or adopt new strategies. The structure also limits employee movement between functions, which reduces cross-functional learning and the ability to form agile teams for new initiatives or problem-solving.

  • Potential for Interdepartmental Conflicts

Since each department in a functional organization often competes for resources, recognition, and influence, it can lead to internal conflicts. These rivalries may arise when departments disagree over priorities, budgets, or strategic direction. For example, the marketing department may demand aggressive promotion, while finance insists on cost-cutting. Without a strong coordinating authority, such conflicts can result in inefficiency, delays, and a toxic organizational culture. Long-term friction between departments can reduce collaboration and create barriers to organizational success.

Management Notes

Line and Staff Conflicts

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Line and staff managers are supposed to work harmoniously to achieve the organizational goals. But their relationship is one of the major sources of conflict in most organizations. Since such conflicts lead to loss of time and organizational effectiveness, it is always desirable to identify the sources of such conflicts and initiate necessary action to overcome them.

Theoretically, it is impossible to differentiate between line and staff functions and because of this, conflicts cannot be avoided. However, line and staff conflicts can be grouped into three categories conflicts due to line viewpoint, conflicts due to staff viewpoint, and conflicts due to the very nature of line and staff relation­ships.

The important causes of line and staff conflict as reported by line men:

(a) Staff does not know its place and wants to assume line authority. This feeling is generated more where the staff advisor forgets his position of having to be helpful rather than being in position to dictate.

(b) Staff officers encroach upon the line authority. They interfere in the work of line managers and try to tell them how to do their work.

(c) Staff takes full credit for successful programmes and hold line people wholly responsible for unsuccessful schemes.

(d) Staff men generally fail to see the whole picture objectively as they are specialists in their particular areas.

(e) The advice of the staff is academic, and is devoid of reality. Since they are not involved in the real work situations, their ideas are impractical. They emphasise about their area of specialisation rather than the interest of the organisation. In essence, they are armed-chair theoreticians, living in their own ivory towers, and totally cut-off from the realities obtaining in the organisation.

Conflicts due to Line Viewpoint:

  1. Lack of accountability:

Line managers generally perceive that staff managers are not accountable for their actions. Such lack of account­ability on the part of staff leads to ignoring of the overall organizational objectives. Staff takes the credit for achieving the results, which is actu­ally achieved by the line people. But if anything goes wrong, they blame the line. Such perception among the line managers is one of the most important sources of line and staff conflict.

  1. Encroachment on line authority:

Line managers often allege that staff managers encroach upon their authority by giving recommendations on matters that come within their purview. Such encroachments influ­ence the working of their departments and often lead to hostility, resent­ment, and reluctance to accept staff recommendations.

  1. Dilution of authority:

Staff managers often dilute the authority and be- little the responsibilities of line managers. Line managers fear that their responsibilities may be reduced and they even suffer from a feeling of insecurity.

  1. Theoretical basis:

Staff being specialists, they generally think within the ambit of their specialization. They fail to relate their suggestions to the actual reality and are unable to understand the actual dimensions of the problems. This is because staff is cut-off” from the day-to-day opera­tions. This results in impractical suggestions, making it difficult to achieve organizational goals.

Conflicts due to Staff Viewpoint:

  1. Lack of proper use of staff:

Staff managers allege that line managers often take decisions without any input from them. Line just informs staff after taking decisions. This makes staff managers feel that line do not need staff. But even in such cases (where line takes its own decisions without consulting staff), if anything goes wrong, staff is made respon­sible.

  1. Resistance to new ideas:

Line managers resist new ideas as they feel implementing new ideas means something is wrong with the present way of working. Such rigidity of line managers dissuades staff from implementing new ideas in the organization and adds to their frustra­tion.

  1. Lack of proper authority:

Staff often alleges that despite having the best solutions to the problems being faced in their areas of specialization, they fail to contribute to organizational goals. This is because the staff lack the authority to implement the solutions and are unable to persuade the line managers (who have the authority) to implement them.

Conflicts Due to the Very Nature of Line and Staff Relationships:

  1. Different backgrounds:

Line and staff managers are usually from dif­ferent backgrounds. Normally line managers are seniors to staff in terms of organizational hierarchy and levels. On the contrary, staff managers are relatively younger and better educated. Staff often looks down upon the line. Such complexes create an atmosphere of mistrust and hatred between the line and staff.

  1. Lack of demarcation between line and staff authority:

In practice it is difficult to make a distinction between line and staff authority. Overlap­ping and duplication of work creates a gap between the authority and responsibility of line and staff. Each tries to shift the blame to the other.

  1. Lack of proper understanding of authority:

Failure to understand au­thority causes misunderstandings between the line and staff. This leads to encroachment and creates conflict.

To overcome the line and staff conflict, it is necessary for an organization to follow certain approaches:

  1. Clarity in relationships:

Duties and responsibilities of both line and staff should be clearly laid down. Relationships of staff with the line and their scope of authority need to be clearly defined. Similarly, line man­agers should also be made responsible for decision making and they should have corresponding authority for the same. Line should enjoy the freedom to modify, accept, or reject the recommendations or advice of the staff.

  1. Proper use of staff:

Line managers must know how to maximize orga­nizational efficacy by optimizing the expertise of staff managers. They need to be trained on the same. Similarly, staff managers should also help the line to understand how they can improve their activities.

  1. Completed staff work:

Completed staff work denotes careful study of the problem, identifying possible alternatives for the problem, and pro­viding recommendations based on the compiled facts. This will result in more staff work and pragmatic suggestions.

  1. Holding staff accountable for results:

Once staff becomes accountable, they would be cautious about their recommendations. Line also would have confidence on staff recommendations, as staff is accountable for the results.

Grievances of Line against Staff:

(a) The staff authorities try to encroach upon the line authority and interfere with the work of line managers.

(b) Staff does not know its place in the structure and wants to assume line authority. This feeling is generated more when the staff authority forgets his position and begins to dictate.

(c) Attitude:

Staff wants to take full credit for success of programmes and hold line men fully responsible for unsuccessful programmes.

(d) Approach:

The advice of the staff authority may lack practicality as their advice purely academic and they do not understand the reality of the situation.

(e) Capriciousness:

The staff authorities may fail to study the problem fully and objectively as they are specialists in their respective areas. So, the staff authorities are considered to be short-sighted.

(f) Accountability:

As the staff authority is not vested with accountability for performance, they tend to be over-jealous and recommend a course of action which is not practicable.

Grievances against Line by Staff:

The staff authorities also complain against line executives.

The causes of conflict as reported by the staff are:

(a) Ego:

The advice of staff is resorted to as the last step as the line executives feel that asking for advice is defeat.

(b) Frustration:

The advice suggested by the staff may not be implemented. This causes resentment and frustration among staff.

(c) Indifferent:

The line authority often resists the new ideas given by the staff specialists and at times they are not prepared to listen to the staff proposals.

(d) Sabotage:

Line authorities are not making use of staff authorities full and try to sabotage the programmes.

Besides these there are other reasons are also exist which are responsible for the conflict:

(a) Inefficient Staff:

The inefficient and incompetent authorities may create conflict.

(b) Unity of Command:

Violation of this concept also may create conflict.

(c) Poor Delegation:

This is another source of conflict due to ambiguity in authority delegation and lack of clarity in defining line and staff relationship.

Resolving of the Conflict:

The conflict disturbs the peace and harmony in the organisation and this should be resolved peacefully.

(a) Well defined Authority:

It should be made clear that the line authority is ultimately responsible for implementation of the decisions and the staff is responsible only for providing advice and service to the line executives.

(b) Due Consideration:

Due consideration is to be to staff proposals to act upon and the line executives are to give reasons where they disagree with staff and convince them.

(c) Co-Operation:

Both the authorities should try to understand the orientation of each other. They should try to achieve and secure co-operation among themselves.

Management Notes

Planning Advantages and Disadvantages

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Advantages of Planning

Planning is an important per-requisite for attaining the cherished goals of a business enterprise. Of all the managerial activities, it comes first because of the following benefits:

  1. Planning leads to more effective and faster achievements in any organization.
  2. Since planning foresees the future and also makes a provision for it, it gives an added strength to the business for its steady growth and continuous prosperity.
  3. It secure unity of purpose, direction and effort by focusing attention on the objectives. Hence, unnecessary duplication, overlapping and cross-purpose workings are eliminated.
  4. It has the effect of minimizing the cost of operations
  5. It ensures an even flow of work, minimizes false steps and protects against unwanted deviations.
  6. It enhances the efficiency of other managerial functions.
  7. It provides an effective basis for control in all organizations whether small or big.
  8. It facilitates the process of decision-making.
  9. It enables the management to implement future programmes in a systematic way so that the management may get the maximum benefit out of the programmes framed. It enables all the activities to be conducted in an orderly and coordinated manner in order to achieve the common goals of the enterprise.
  10. With the rapid growth of technological development, it is essential for a manager to keep abreast of the up-to-date technology. Otherwise, the products are likely to become obsolete. Planning helps in this process.

Limitations/Disadvantages of Planning

  1. Lack of Reliable Data:

Planning is based on various facts and figures supplied to the planners. If the data on which decisions are based are not reliable then decisions based on such information will also be unreliable. Planning will lose its value if reliable facts and figures are not supplied.

  1. Time Consuming Process:

Practical utility of planning is sometimes reduced by the time factor. Planning is a time- consuming process and actions on various operations may be delayed because proper planning has not yet been done. The delay may result in loss of opportunities. When time is of essence then advance planning loses its utility. Under certain circumstances an urgent action is needed then one cannot wait for the planning process to complete.

  1. Expensive:

The planning process is very expensive. The gathering of information and testing of various courses of action involve greater amounts of money. Sometimes, expenses are so prohibitive that small concerns cannot afford to use planning. The long-term planning is a luxury for most of the concerns because of heavy expenses. The utility derived from planning in no case should be less than expenditure incurred on it.

According to Hainman, “The cost of planning should not be in excess of its contribution, and wise managerial judgment is necessary to balance the expense of preparing the plans against the benefits derived from them.”

  1. External Factors may Reduce Utility:

Besides internal factors there are external factors too which adversely affect planning. These factors may be economic, social, political, technological or legal. The general national and international climate also acts as limitation on the planning process.

  1. Sudden Emergencies:

In case certain emergencies arise then the need of the hour is quick action and not advance planning. These situations may not be anticipated. In case emergencies are anticipated or they have regularity in occurrence then advance planning should be undertaken for emergencies too.

  1. Resistance to Change:

Most of the persons, generally, do not like any change. Their passive outlook to new ideas becomes a limitation to planning. McFarland writes. “The principal psychological barrier is that executives, like most people have more regard for the present than for the future. The present is not only more certain than the future, it is also more desirable. Resistance to change is commonly experienced phenomenon in the business world. Planning often implies changes which the executive would like to ignore, hoping they would not materialize.” The notion that things planned for future are unlikely to happen is not based on logical thinking. It is the planning which helps in minimizing future uncertainties.

Management Notes

Span of Management Meaning, Components, Factors, Limitations

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Span of Management, also known as Span of Control, refers to the number of subordinates that a manager can effectively supervise and control. It determines the number of direct reports under a single manager and influences the organization’s structure. A narrow span of management results in more levels of hierarchy, leading to close supervision but slower communication. A wide span involves fewer levels and more subordinates under one manager, promoting autonomy but requiring strong leadership skills. The ideal span depends on factors like the complexity of tasks, skills of employees, and the management style employed.

Components of Span of Management:

  1. Nature of Work

The complexity and nature of the tasks performed by subordinates greatly affect the span of management. Simple, repetitive tasks typically allow for a wider span, as they require less supervision. Conversely, complex tasks requiring specialized skills may necessitate a narrower span to ensure effective oversight.

  1. Managerial Skills

The skills and experience of the manager play a crucial role in determining the effective span of control. A highly skilled and experienced manager may handle a wider span because they can effectively delegate, communicate, and motivate their team. In contrast, a less experienced manager may need a narrower span to maintain control.

  1. Employee Competence

The competence and skill level of subordinates also influence the span of management. If employees are highly skilled and experienced, a manager can supervise more of them effectively. However, if employees require more guidance and training, a narrower span may be necessary to provide adequate support.

  1. Geographic Dispersion

The physical location of employees can impact the span of management. If subordinates are geographically dispersed, it may be challenging for a manager to maintain effective communication and control over a wide span. This scenario may necessitate a narrower span to ensure effective supervision.

  1. Communication Systems

Effective communication is vital for managing a wider span. If an organization has strong communication systems and tools in place, a manager can oversee more employees. Poor communication can hinder a manager’s ability to supervise effectively, leading to a preference for a narrower span.

  1. Organizational Structure

The overall structure of the organization influences the span of management. Flat organizations with fewer hierarchical levels may encourage wider spans, while tall organizations with multiple levels of management may have narrower spans. The organizational culture also impacts how spans are perceived and implemented.

  1. Nature of Relationships

The interpersonal dynamics between managers and employees can affect the span of control. A strong rapport and trust between a manager and their subordinates may enable a wider span, as employees feel more empowered and capable. In contrast, strained relationships may necessitate closer supervision, resulting in a narrower span.

  1. Time Constraints

Time constraints faced by managers can also dictate the span of control. If managers are required to make quick decisions or oversee time-sensitive tasks, a narrower span may be necessary to ensure close oversight and timely action.

  1. Technological Tools

The availability and use of technology can impact the span of management. Tools that facilitate communication, task management, and monitoring can enable managers to effectively oversee a larger number of subordinates. Conversely, a lack of technological support may limit the span.

Factors Affecting Span of Management:

  1. Complexity of Tasks

The complexity and nature of the tasks being performed play a significant role in determining the span of management. Simple, routine tasks that require less supervision can be managed by a larger number of subordinates. Conversely, complex tasks that require specialized skills or significant oversight may necessitate a narrower span to ensure effective supervision and guidance.

  1. Managerial Skills and Experience

The skills and experience of the manager significantly influence the span of control. An experienced manager with strong leadership, communication, and delegation skills can effectively supervise a larger team. In contrast, a less experienced manager may struggle to manage many subordinates, resulting in the need for a narrower span of control.

  1. Employee Competence

The competence and skill level of employees also impact the span of management. If employees are highly skilled and capable of performing their tasks independently, a manager can oversee more subordinates effectively. However, if employees require more guidance, training, or supervision, a narrower span may be necessary to provide adequate support and development.

  1. Geographic Dispersion

The physical location of employees affects how effectively a manager can supervise them. When employees are located in different geographical areas, managing a wider span can be challenging due to communication barriers and the inability to provide immediate supervision. In such cases, a narrower span may be more effective to ensure close monitoring and support.

  1. Organizational Structure

The overall structure of the organization significantly influences the span of management. In flat organizations with fewer hierarchical levels, managers may oversee a larger number of employees due to reduced layers of management. Conversely, tall organizations with multiple management levels may require a narrower span to maintain effective supervision and communication.

  1. Technology and Communication Tools

The availability of technology and communication tools can enhance a manager’s ability to oversee a larger team. Effective communication systems, task management software, and monitoring tools enable managers to manage multiple subordinates more efficiently. Without such technological support, a narrower span may be necessary to ensure effective management.

  1. Time Constraints

Time pressures faced by managers can dictate the span of control. When managers need to make quick decisions or handle urgent tasks, they may require a narrower span to ensure close oversight and prompt action. Time constraints can limit the ability to supervise a large team effectively.

  1. Interpersonal Relationships

The dynamics of relationships between managers and subordinates also impact the span of management. A strong rapport and trust can enable a manager to supervise more employees effectively, as employees feel empowered and supported. Conversely, strained relationships or a lack of trust may require closer supervision, leading to a narrower span.

Limitations Span of Management:

  1. Reduced Supervision

A wider span of management can lead to reduced supervision of employees. When a manager oversees too many subordinates, they may not have enough time to provide individual attention or guidance. This can result in a lack of support for employees, leading to decreased motivation and performance.

  1. Increased Workload

Managers with a large span of control often face an increased workload. With more subordinates to supervise, managers may find it challenging to manage their time effectively. This can lead to burnout and stress, affecting the manager’s performance and decision-making abilities.

  1. Communication Challenges

Effective communication becomes more challenging as the span of management increases. Managers may struggle to relay information effectively to a larger number of employees, which can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunication. This can hinder teamwork and collaboration, ultimately affecting overall organizational performance.

  1. Limited Feedback

With a wider span of control, managers may find it difficult to provide and receive feedback. Individual feedback is essential for employee development, but when a manager oversees many subordinates, it becomes harder to give personalized guidance. This can hinder employees’ growth and limit their potential.

  1. Less Cohesion

A larger span of management can reduce the cohesion within teams. When employees feel disconnected from their manager due to the sheer number of subordinates, it may create an environment where teamwork and collaboration suffer. This lack of cohesion can negatively impact morale and productivity.

  1. Difficulty in Delegation

Managers may encounter difficulties in effectively delegating tasks when they oversee too many employees. With numerous tasks to manage, it can be challenging to identify which subordinates are best suited for specific responsibilities. This can result in inefficiencies and reduced effectiveness in task completion.

  1. Limited Employee Development

A wider span of management may limit opportunities for employee development. Managers may not have enough time to mentor or coach employees, hindering their professional growth. This lack of development can lead to employee dissatisfaction and high turnover rates.

  1. Potential for Conflict

When a manager supervises a large number of employees, the likelihood of conflicts arising may increase. With more personalities and opinions to manage, conflicts can become more frequent and harder to resolve. This can lead to a toxic work environment if not handled properly.

  1. Reduced Control Over Quality

A broader span of control can result in diminished quality control. With a manager overseeing too many employees, it may become difficult to ensure that all work meets the required standards. This can lead to inconsistencies in output and a decline in overall quality.

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Life Skills Meaning, Definitions

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Any skill that is useful in your life can be considered a life skill. Tying your shoe laces, swimming, driving a car and using a computer are, for most people, useful life skills. Broadly speaking, the term ‘life skills’ is usually used for any of the skills needed to deal well and effectively with the challenges of life.

Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable humans to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life. This concept is also termed as psychosocial competency. The subject varies greatly depending on social norms and community expectations but skills that function for well-being and aid individuals to develop into active and productive members of their communities are considered as life skills.

Certain skills may be more or less relevant to you depending on your life circumstances, your culture, beliefs, age, geographic location, etc. However, in 1999, the World Health Organization identified six key areas of life skills:

  • Communication and interpersonal skills. This broadly describes the skills needed to get on and work with other people, and particularly to transfer and receive messages either in writing or verbally.
  • Decision-making and problem-solving. This describes the skills required to understand problems, find solutions to them, alone or with others, and then take action to address them.
  • Creative thinking and critical thinking. This describes the ability to think in different and unusual ways about problems, and find new solutions, or generate new ideas, coupled with the ability to assess information carefully and understand its relevance.
  • Self-awareness and empathy, which are two key parts of emotional intelligence. They describe understanding yourself and being able to feel for other people as if their experiences were happening to you.
  • Assertiveness and equanimity, or self-control. These describe the skills needed to stand up for yourself and other people, and remain calm even in the face of considerable provocation.
  • Resilience and ability to cope with problems, which describes the ability to recover from setbacks, and treat them as opportunities to learn, or simply experiences.
University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Elements of life skills: Behavior, attitude, mannerism, manners, etiquette, ethos, morality, determination commitment, courageousness, perseverance

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Behavior

Behavior is the actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

Taking a behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of behavior actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. A behavior can be represented as a behavior vector.

Attitude

Attitude refers to feelings, beliefs, and behavior predispositions directed towards people, groups, ideas, or objects. It influences the behavior of the individuals. It decides how to act or behave in a particular situation. Attitude is a kind of habit. It is the usual way of doing things.

Everything in an organization will get better if the attitude of everyone gets better. Successes and failures in life depend upon the attitude of the individuals. If attitudes are positive, then human relations will be positive. It is internal and challenging to change.

Mannerism

Mannerism, also known as Late Renaissance, is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century.

Manners

A person with good manners shows respects towards feelings and sentiments of others living in the surroundings. He/she never differentiates people and shows equal regard to everyone. Modesty, humbleness, kindness, and courtesy are the essential traits of a well-behaving person. Hence, a well-behaved person never feels proud or arrogant and always take care of the feelings of others. Practicing good manners and following them all through the day will definitely bring sunshine and add qualities to life.

Etiquette

Etiquette in simpler words is defined as good behaviour which distinguishes human beings from animals. Human Being is a social animal and it is really important for him to behave in an appropriate way. Etiquette refers to behaving in a socially responsible way.

Ethos

Ethos in Management refers to the values and practices that the culture of India can contribute to service, leadership and management. These values and practices are rooted in Sanathana Dharma, and have been influenced by various strands of Indian philosophy.

Morality

Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with “goodness” or “rightness“.

Moral philosophy includes meta-ethics, which studies abstract issues such as moral ontology and moral epistemology, and normative ethics, which studies more concrete systems of moral decision-making such as deontological ethics and consequentialism. An example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states that: “One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself.”

Immorality is the active opposition to morality while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any particular set of moral standards or principles.

Determination commitment, Perseverance

Entrepreneurs are married to their ideas. They are passionate about these ideas and are ready to do anything to make things happen. When they face rough weather, entrepreneurs are willing to go to extreme lengths such as mortgaging their house, taking a cut in pay, ignoring their families and walking a stressful, lonely and deserted path. They are usually at their best when challenged by circumstances.

They are fired by situations that truly burn their candle of energies. In the face of heavy odds, they show tremendous amount of grit, determination, and perseverance. They are not prepared to come back empty handed and so they hang on to what they believe is right. They exhibit unwavering commitment to a cause that they believe to be beneficial to the company, as well as the society.

Courageousness

Courage is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship, even death or threat of death, while moral courage is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition, shame, scandal, discouragement, or personal loss.

The classical virtue of fortitude is also translated “courage”, but includes the aspects of perseverance and patience.

error: Content is protected !!