Author: indiafreenotes

Perception refers to our sensory experience of the world. It is through this experience that we gain information about the environment around us.

Perception relies on the cognitive functions we use to process information, such as utilizing memory to recognize the face of a friend or detect a familiar scent. Through the perception process, we are able to both identify and respond to environmental stimuli.

The perceptual process follows a series of steps which starts with an exposure to stimuli and ends with an interpretation of the stimuli. The perceptual process is usually unconscious which happens without our awareness and also for several times in a day. The process of perception passes through the following stages:

Selection: This is the first stage of perception which involves decision making about what needs to be attended to, which can be unconscious sometimes and on other occasions can be intentional. The world around us might present infinite stimuli, but our brain has the capacity to attend to the stimuli selectively, which depends upon the environmental factors or individual factors. When we attend to a stimulus selectively, it is considered as attended stimulus. Selection is influenced by various factors such as drives & motives, impulses and incentives for acting in a certain way. Emotional drive in a number of ways can influence how we selectively attend to stimuli. This has been explained with the help of the following examples:

• Selective Retention: It means, we have a tendency to recall or retain that information which is compatible with our interests, beliefs and values as opposed to those which conflict with our interests, values or belief system, as a result of which we selectively organize the information. For example, a consumer may rationalize the product purchase which they enjoy by considering only the health benefits or the positive aspects of that product.
• Selective Perception: It is the tendency to perceive only such information or things which we want to perceive and completely ignore the opposing factors which are against our beliefs, preferences or values. For example, a teacher may find all the good qualities in her favourite student and may completely ignore the negative one because of the perceptual bias.
• Selective Exposure: We select and organize only that information to which we want to be exposed to based on our past beliefs, perception or experiences.

Organization: Once the stimulus is selectively chosen, the second stage comes into play. In this stage, a series of reactions set in the brain. It starts with the process of activation of sensory receptors, which is then transmitted to the brain as neural energy and involves mental construction of the stimulus which is called as percept. In this stage, we tend to mentally organize the stimulus into meaningful patterns for being able to interpret the same properly. Perceptual schema helps in organizing information or grouping of the stimuli on the basis of the appearances, interactions, social roles and a lot of other factors. These schemas then determine how we perceive things about the world around us. We even do have a tendency to form stereotypes for making sense of the world around us, which is the tendency to simplify or group related stimuli together to be able to easily understand and interpret the information in the simplistic possible way. Stereotyping may have dangerous implications when it is based on unrealistic attribution of certain characteristics to the entire group. It may result in discriminatory behaviour or a bias or oppressive behaviour.

Interpretation: Once the stimulus is attended to selectively and the information is organized by the brain, the interpretation of the information takes place for providing some meaning to the stimulus to which we are exposed. We tend to categorize the stimulus for being able to acquire a proper understanding and take improved decisions accordingly. Interpretation is subjective in nature because different people might perceive the same stimuli differently in the influence of their past experiences, attitude, values or beliefs.

Perception Process

To better understand how we become aware of and respond to stimuli in the world around us, it can be helpful to look at the perception process. This varies somewhat for every sense.

• Environmental stimulus: The world is full of stimuli that can attract attention. Environmental stimulus is everything in the environment that has the potential to be perceived.
• Attended stimulus: The attended stimulus is the specific object in the environment on which our attention is focused.
• Image on the retina: This part of the perception process involves light passing through the cornea and pupil, onto the lens of the eye. The cornea helps focus the light as it enters and the iris controls the size of the pupils to determine how much light to let in. The cornea and lens act together to project an inverted image onto the retina.
• Transduction: The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals through a process known as transduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.

Neural processing: After transduction, the electrical signals undergo neural processing. The path followed by a particular signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).

Perception: In this step of the perception process, you perceive the stimulus object in the environment. It is at this point that you become consciously aware of the stimulus.

Recognition: Perception doesn’t just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary for the brain to categorize and interpret what you are sensing. The ability to interpret and give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition.

Action: The action phase of the perception process involves some type of motor activity that occurs in response to the perceived stimulus. This might involve a major action, like running toward a person in distress. It can also involve doing something as subtle as blinking your eyes in response to a puff of dust blowing through the air.

Educational psychology & Educational psychologists have identified several principles of learning, also referred to as laws of learning which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three “Laws of learning:” readiness, exercise and effect.

Readiness

Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, students may have little interest in learning. For example, we may identify the situation of an academic examination of a school, in which the cause of securing good marks in various subjects leads to mental and emotional readiness of students to do more hard labour in acquiring knowledge.

Exercise

Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review and summary and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal. But in some or many cases, there is no need for regular practice if the skill is acquired once. For instance if we have learnt cycling once, we will not forget the knowledge or skill even if we aren’t exercising it for a long time.

Effect

However, every learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with some good feelings. A student’s chance of success is definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one.

Primacy

Primacy, the instructor must present subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have already learned the preceding step. If the task is learned in isolation, if it is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and following a lesson plan facilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the very first time.

Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.

Intensity

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. Examples, analogies, and personal experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use of the senses (hearing, sight, touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception, and others).

Freedom

Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of action these are the three great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirements

The law of requirement states that “we must have something to obtain or do something.” It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting point or root’

Laws of Learning Applied to Learning Games

The principles of learning have been presented as an explanation for why learning games (the use of games to introduce material, improve understanding, or increase retention) can show such incredible results. This impacts flow and motivation and increases the positive feelings toward the activity, which links back to the principles of exercise, readiness, and effect. Games use immersion and engagement as ways to create riveting experiences for players, which is part of the principle of intensity. Finally, part of the primary appeal of games is that they are fun. Although fun is hard to define, it is clear that it involves feelings such as engagement, satisfaction, pleasure, and enjoyment which are part of the principle of effect.

Principles:

1. Participation

Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the learner. Participation improves motivation and apparently engages more senses that reinforce the learning process. As a result of participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning longer.

For example, most people never forget how to ride a bicycle because they actively participated in the learning process.

The learning activities should be experiential rather than just informational.

Therefore, the trainers should arrange the physical surroundings to facilitate small group interaction and promote the sharing of ideas.

2. Repetition

An important principle of the learning is to provide the learner with the opportunity for practice and repetition. To gain the full benefit of training learned behaviors must be overlearned to ensure smooth performance and minimum of forgetting at a later date.

Proficiency in learning and retaining new skills is improved when individuals visualize themselves performing the new behavior.

3. Relevance

Learning is helped when the material to be learned is meaningful. The learning should be problem-centered rather than content centered.

People are motivated to learn when training is immediately relevant to help them solve a current problem. Learning something just because someone says “it is important” is not as motivating.

4. Transference

Because the training occurs in a special environment, an important question to ask is whether learning will transfer to the actual job situation.

Understanding the environment in which the firm operates is the key to achieving organizational effectiveness.

Transfer of training occurs when trainees can apply the knowledge and skills learned in training course to their jobs. If the learning in one setting does not transfer to the actual job situation, the training has failed.

Three transfers training situations are possible

(1) Positive transfer of training when the training activities enhance performance in the new situation;

(2) Negative transfer of training, when the training activities inhibit performance in a new situation; and

(3) No observable effect of training.

5. Feedback

Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite for learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their mistakes but also by providing reinforcement for learning.

Knowledge of results is a positive reinforcement itself. Learning activities have more intrinsic interest if the feedback is available.

Cooperating conditioning follows a specific process. An athlete performs a behavior and the coach chooses how to respond to that behavior. If the goal is to increase the frequency of that behavior, the coach should provide reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive or negative (more about the difference later). If the goal is to decrease that behavior, the response should be punishment. However, extensive research has shown the limitations and problems of using punishment (it creates a short-term fix but creates long-term distress). The goal for a coach should be to use reinforcement to increase desirable behaviors and to drastically limit the amount of punishment, ideally never using it at all.

Positive reinforcement:

It should come soon after the behavior is performed. It is usually in the form of a quick vocal praise (“nice pass”), a clap, or a supportive gesture (like a head nod or fist-pump).

Negative reinforcement:

Follows a correct performance, but involves removing something undesirable to reinforce the desired behavior. A simple example is taking away a difficult conditioning workout if players perform well on some behavior, like paying attention during a tactical drill, or vocally encouraging their teammates).

Extinction

(with holding reinforcers): We have seen that responses followed by reinforcers tend to be repeated and that responses no longer followed by reinforcers will occur less and less frequently and eventually die out. In humans, extinction can lead to frustration or even rage. Consider a child having a temper tantrum. If whining and loud demands do not bring the reinforcer, the child may progress to kicking and screaming. It is what we expect and don’t get that makes us angry.

An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour is extension – the attempt to weaken behaviour by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the behaviour. The rationale for using extinction is that a behaviour not followed by any consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed for it to be effective.

This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behaviour, especially when such behaviours were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed from behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less frequent and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous and disturbs the class, he is probably asking for attention. If the attention is given to him, he will continue to exhibit that behaviour. However, if he is continuously ignored and not recognised, then such undesirable behaviour will vanish over a period of time.

Punishment:

Happens in response to an incorrect or undesirable behavior, and involves the presentation of something unpleasant (like making the player run or do push-ups). Punishment is usually psychological, like ridicule or embarrassment, and it often trends towards abuse.

Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. Punishment is usually wielded in an unpredictable and irrational manner when the coach loses control of a situation. Negative reinforcement gives players a chance to perform in a desirable way, with the consequence clearly defined. One of my favourite examples is the “get-out swim,” where a swimmer can end a grueling workout for the team if they can perform near a personal-best time standard. The goals and consequences are clear, and athletes often relish the opportunity to perform under pressure; in fact, players need to learn to perform under pressure in practice to help them when they experience pressure in game situations.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Any analysis of reinforcement shows that it is not provided in a consistent manner. The various ways by which the reinforcement can be administered can be categorized into two groups. These are continuous and partial reinforcement schedules.

• Continuous reinforcement Schedule: A continuous schedule is that one in which the desirable behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs and the reinforcement is immediate.

    This results in fast acquisition of the desired response and the learning is rapid. Continuous reinforcement strategy is not always feasible in the organizational environment where continuous observation of behaviour is not possible due to time constraints imposed upon management. Reinforcing every correct response is known as continuous reinforcement. It is the most efficient way to condition a new response. However, after a response has been conditioned, partial or intermittent reinforcement is more effective in maintaining or increasing the rate of response.

• Partial Reinforcement Schedule: A partial reinforcement schedule rewards desirable behaviour at specific intervals. It is believed that “behaviour tends to be persistent when it is learned under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement.

There are four kinds of partial reinforcement schedule. These are:

• Fixed Interval Schedule: In this type of schedule, a response is reinforced at fixed intervals of time. Fixed-interval schedules produce an uneven pattern of responses. The highest rate of response occurs fairly close to the time when reinforcement occurs. For example, if there are two tests announced at fixed intervals in a semester, you will see that the students will study harder as the time of the test approaches because the test itself is a reinforce and the studying behaviour is reinforced by the opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge and earn a good grade.
• Variable Interval Schedule: In this type of schedule, the reinforcement is administered at random times that cannot be predicted by the employee. For example: “Surprise Quizzes” in the classroom is one of the examples of variable interval schedules.
• Fixed Ratio Schedules: In a fixed ratio schedule, the reinforcement is administered only upon the completion of a given number of desirable responses. Reward is consistently tied to the output. The individual soon determines that reinforcement is based upon the number of responses and performs the responses as quickly as possible in order to receive the reward. For example, a professor may receive a promotion after a certain number of research articles have been published.
• Variable Ratio Schedules: It is similar to fixed ratio schedule except that the number of responses required before reinforcement is determined, are not fixed but vary from situation to situation. The variable ratio schedule elicits a rapid rate of response. The value of the reward and its unpredictability keeps the behaviour at high-level desirability.

Small group communication refers to interactions among three or more people who are connected through a common purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity. In this section, we will learn about the characteristics, functions, and types of small groups.

Shared Ideas

Without the ability to share ideas, the small group will likely suffer or fail. Creating the opportunity for the group to have regular meetings to brainstorm, discuss the variations on project directions and come up with creative solutions to existing problems will move the group closer together as a unit and is likely to result in a better finished product. If the group does not communicate ideas openly, one individual may feel responsible for the eventual success or failure of the project, which can affect his job and standing in the organization.

Creating Accountability

Accountability within a small group is part of the interaction process. If the group has six employees working together, each person should have roughly the same amount of time and work invested in each project the group works on. Establishing work flow grids, having established deadlines, and requiring the group to keep its manager up to date on each person’s progress will help ensure that everyone in the group contributes equally to the project. In addition to meeting project deadlines, the small group can fact-check each other’s work, which helps keep the project from failing or being delayed due to a small mistake in calculations or assumptions.

Communication Strategies

When setting up small groups, encourage the members to establish regular meeting times and teach them how to communicate in a supportive fashion. Consider holding an organization-wide training session on small group communication techniques, and include information on different communication and learning styles. Some ways of communicating include brainstorming, dialectical inquiry, and nominal group technique, according to Reference for Business.

When employees working in a group see another employee struggling, open communication and encouragement between the members of the group can give each employee confidence to do her best. Establish a clear path of communication from the group to upper level management in the event that one or more employees cause problems within the group by not performing to the group’s and organization’s expectations.

Characteristics of Small Groups

Different groups have different characteristics, serve different purposes, and can lead to positive, neutral, or negative experiences. While our interpersonal relationships primarily focus on relationship building, small groups usually focus on some sort of task completion or goal accomplishment. A college learning community focused on math and science, a campaign team for a state senator, and a group of local organic farmers are examples of small groups that would all have a different size, structure, identity, and interaction pattern.

Size of Small Groups

There is no set number of members for the ideal small group. A small group requires a minimum of three people (because two people would be a pair or dyad), but the upper range of group size is contingent on the purpose of the group. When groups grow beyond fifteen to twenty members, it becomes difficult to consider them a small group based on the previous definition. An analysis of the number of unique connections between members of small groups shows that they are deceptively complex. For example, within a six-person group, there are fifteen separate potential dyadic connections, and a twelve-person group would have sixty-six potential dyadic connections. As you can see, when we double the number of group members, we more than double the number of connections, which shows that network connection points in small groups grow exponentially as membership increases. So, while there is no set upper limit on the number of group members, it makes sense that the number of group members should be limited to those necessary to accomplish the goal or serve the purpose of the group. Small groups that add too many members increase the potential for group members to feel overwhelmed or disconnected.

Structure of Small Groups

Internal and external influences affect a group’s structure. In terms of internal influences, member characteristics play a role in initial group formation. For instance, a person who is well informed about the group’s task and/or highly motivated as a group member may emerge as a leader and set into motion internal decision-making processes, such as recruiting new members or assigning group roles that affect the structure of a group (Ellis & Fisher, 1994, p. 57). Different members will also gravitate toward different roles within the group and will advocate for certain procedures and courses of action over others. External factors such as group size, task, and resources also affect group structure. Some groups will have more control over these external factors through decision making than others. For example, a commission that is put together by a legislative body to look into ethical violations in athletic organizations will likely have less control over its external factors than a self-created study group.

Interdependence

Small groups exhibit interdependence, meaning they share a common purpose and a common fate. If the actions of one or two group members lead to a group deviating from or not achieving their purpose, then all members of the group are affected. Conversely, if the actions of only a few of the group members lead to success, then all members of the group benefit. This is a major contributor to many college students’ dislike of group assignments, because they feel a loss of control and independence that they have when they complete an assignment alone. This concern is valid in that their grades might suffer because of the negative actions of someone else or their hard work may go to benefit group members who didn’t contribute enough. Group meeting attendance is a clear example of the interdependent nature of group interaction. Many of us have arrived at a group meeting only to find half of the members present. In some cases, the group members who are present have to leave and reschedule because they can’t accomplish their task without the other members present. Group members who attend meetings but withdraw or don’t participate can also derail group progress. Although it can be frustrating to have your job, grade, or reputation partially dependent on the actions of others, the interdependent nature of groups can also lead to higher-quality performance and output, especially when group members are accountable for their actions.

Shared Identity

The shared identity of a group manifests in several ways. Groups may have official charters or mission and vision statements that lay out the identity of a group. For example, the Girl Scout mission states that “Girl Scouting builds girls of courage, confidence, and character, who make the world a better place”. The mission for this large organization influences the identities of the thousands of small groups called troops. Group identity is often formed around a shared goal and/or previous accomplishments, which adds dynamism to the group as it looks toward the future and back on the past to inform its present. Shared identity can also be exhibited through group names, slogans, songs, handshakes, clothing, or other symbols. For instance, colleges typically have T-shirts and other clothing items in the college’s colours and carrying the college’s symbols for sale in campus stores, but smaller groups within the college (sports teams, various college clubs, etc.) also have their own such clothing or symbols.

A key element of the formation of a shared identity within a group is the establishment of the in-group as opposed to the out-group. The degree to which members share in the in-group identity varies from person to person/ group to group. Shared identity also emerges as groups become cohesive, meaning they identify with and like the group’s tasks and other members. The presence of cohesion and a shared identity leads to a building of trust, which can also positively influence productivity and members’ satisfaction.

Functions of Small Groups

Even with the challenges of group membership that we have all faced, we still seek out and desire to be a part of numerous groups. In some cases, we join a group because we need a service or access to information. We may also be drawn to a group because we admire the group or its members. Whether we are conscious of it or not, our identities and self-concepts are built on the groups with which we identify. So, to answer the earlier question, we join groups because they function to help us meet instrumental, interpersonal, and identity needs.

Groups Meet Instrumental Needs

Groups have long served the instrumental needs of humans, helping with the most basic elements of survival since ancient humans first evolved. Groups helped humans survive by providing security and protection through increased numbers and access to resources. Today, groups are rarely such a matter of life and death, but they still serve important instrumental functions. Labor unions, for example, pool efforts and resources to attain material security in the form of pay increases and health benefits for their members, which protects them by providing a stable and dependable livelihood. Individual group members must also work to secure the instrumental needs of the group, creating a reciprocal relationship. Members of labor unions pay dues that support the group’s efforts. Some groups also meet our informational needs. Although they may not provide material resources, they enrich our knowledge or provide information that we can use to then meet our own instrumental needs. Many groups provide referrals to resources or offer advice. For example, several consumer protection and advocacy groups have been formed to offer referrals for people who have been the victim of fraudulent business practices.

Groups Meet Interpersonal Needs

Group membership meets interpersonal needs by providing inclusion, control, and support.

In terms of inclusion, people have a fundamental drive to be a part of a group and to create and maintain social bonds (consider family and friendship groups, shared-interest groups, activity groups, etc.).

People also join groups because they want to have some control over a decision-making process or to influence the outcome of a group. Being a part of a group allows people to share opinions and influence others. Conversely, some people join a group to be controlled, because they don’t want to be the sole decision maker or leader and prefer to be given a role to follow.

Groups also provide support for members in ways that supplement the support given by significant others in interpersonal relationships. Some groups, like therapy groups for survivors of sexual assault or support groups for people with cancer, exist primarily to provide emotional support. While these groups may also meet instrumental needs through connections and referrals to resources, they fulfill the interpersonal need for belonging that is a central human need.

Groups Meet Identity Needs

Our affiliations are building blocks for our identities, because group membership allows us to use reference groups for social comparison in short, identifying us with some groups and characteristics and separating us from others. Some people join groups to be affiliated with people who share similar or desirable characteristics in terms of beliefs, attitudes, values, or cultural identities.

The Broad Structure of the Organisation:

1) The Members of the Society (Board) include the Chairman, (nominated by the Govt. of India ), Representatives of Workers, Employers, Government ( both Central and State ) and Educational Bodies.

2) The Director of the Board is the Member Secretary and Principal Executive Officer.

3) The affairs of the Board are managed by a Governing Body elected annually from amongst the members of the Board.

Objectives of the Organisation:

The Board operates its activities at three levels viz; national, regional and unit level and conducts various training programmes for the organised, unorganised/small scale, rural and informal sector workers with the following objectives:

i) To strengthen among all sections of the working class, including rural workers, a sense of Patriotism, National Integrity, Unity, Amity, Communal Harmony, Secularism and pride in being an Indian.

ii) To equip all sections of workers including rural workers for their intelligent participation in social and economic development of the nation in accordance with its declared objectives.

iii) To develop among workers a greater understanding of the problems of their social and economic environment, their responsibilities towards family members, and their rights and obligations as citizens, as workers in industry, as members and officials of their Trade Union.

iv) To develop leadership from among the rank and file of workers themselves.

v) To develop strong, united and more responsible trade unions through more enlightened members and better trained officials.

vi) To strengthen democratic processes and traditions in the Trade Union Movement

vii) To enable Trade Unions themselves to take over ultimately the functions of Workers Education.

The national level programmes are conducted by the Indian Institute of Workers Education, an apex training institute of the Board established in 1970, while the regional and unit level programmes are conducted through a network of 48 Regional and 15 Sub-Regional Centres spread throughout the country. The four Zonal Directorates established by the Board superwise and monitor the activities of the Regional Centres under their respective zones at Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Chennai.

Important Activities /Schemes:

Initially the Board’s activities were concentrated on educating the workers employed in the organised sector. However, as recommended by the Workers Education Review Committee and agreed by the Govt. of India, the Board shifted its emphasis from organised sector to the education of workers in rural sector. Starting with seven pilot projects since 1977-78, the rural workers education of the Board has become a regular, continuing and countrywide programme. However the role of the Central Board for Workers Education is mainly educational and motivational through dialogic process to equip rural workers to appreciate and analyse their socio-economic problems through organised action. The categories of workers covered in these rural programmes are in conformity with ILO Convention No. 141 and Recommendation No.149 on rural workers.

Further the Board took initiative to educate the workers of Unorganised and Small Scale Sector industries since 1979 with a view to develop awareness about their problems, difficulties and protective labour laws at work place and help them in finding solutions as well as equip them in developing and strengthening their own organisations.

The Board has also been organising since 1984 periodic camps for the workers in the stone queries and stone crushers of Faridabad District to enlighten them about their rights and entitlements as per the directives of the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India.

In pursuance of the new directions and dimensions, the Board has evolved several specialised short term programmes to meet the growing needs of the workers at grass-root. Short-term programmes on productivity education, population education, and participative education are organised at enterprise level while tailor-made programmes were also structured to meet the educational needs of weaker section workers.

Joint Educational Programmes have been introduced at the Plant Level for the representatives of workers and management who come together for a purposeful dialogue on selected theme which affect the both. The joint educational programmes have become popular as it gives opportunity for the worker to meet at a common forum.

The Board has recently launched a new programme “Quality of Life for Workers and their Spouses” with a view to mould their attitudes, develop motivation, build up personality, raise family status, maintain good neighbourhood relations, develop awareness about environmental cleanliness, develop a spirit of team work, human relations, productivity consciousness, commitment to discipline, mutual trust and hygiene etc.

Collaboration:

Since 1971, the Board organised several tripartite seminars, workshops and symposia in collaboration with ILO, UNFPA and Department of Family Welfare, Ministry of Health, Government of India.

Grants-In-Aid:

The Board encourages trade unions and educational institutions to undertake their own workers education programmes with the financial assistance under the Grants-in-Aid Scheme of the Board.

International Projects:

The International Labour Organisation entrusted the Board with the following projects.

1) ILO-UNFPA Project on curriculum development and Teaching Aids on Population Education and Family Welfare.

2) ILO-UNFPA Project on Population Education in the organised sector for production of Educational and Motivational material for Population Education.

3) ILO-UNFPA Project on Population Education Phase-II.

Through these projects, Manuals, Monographs, Pictorial Booklets, Fact Sheets, Talking Points and Visual Aids have been produced for worker educators, teaching institutes, trade union leaders, local union representatives and active worker motivators in Asia and India.

Recently the Board has successfully completed the ILO /IPEC-CBWE Project on “Elimination of Child Labour” under which an action programme was formulated for raising the awareness of workers by developing and inputting capsules on Child Labour into the on-going training programmes of the Board. This Project was limited to 12 Regional Centres of the Board.

Literature and A.V.Aid :

The Board publishes simple literature and study material in form of textual and pictorial booklets in English and Indian Languages in a lucid style on subjects such as Trade Unionism, Labour-Management Relations, Labour Economics, Labour Laws, Population and Family Welfare etc., To sustain the interest of of participants in the class and also to make teaching more interesting, the Board has brought out various types of audio-visual aids such as posters, flipcharts, flannel graphs, posters, stickers etc., on different themes.

Programmes:

The Board conducts the following training programmes at the national, regional and unit/village levels.

1. National Level
2. Training of Education Officers at the Indian Institute of Workers Education, Mumbai (5 months) and Re-training (1 month ).
3. Workshops/Refresher Courses for Education Officers ( 1 week ).
4. Training Programmes for Trade Union Officials ( 1 week).
5. National Seminars on Important topics ( 2 days).
6. Regional Level
7. Worker-Teachers Training Course ( 3 months)
8. Leadership Development Course (1 month)
9. Refresher Course for Worker Teachers ( 1 week)
10. Course for Rural Educators/Organisers ( 1 month)
11. Orientation Programme for Rural Educators/Organisers ( 1week)
12. Joint Educational Programme on Participative Management ( 3 days)
13. Need Based Seminar ( 2 days)
14. Joint Educational Programme for Members of Joint Councils and Bipartite Committees (2 days)
15. Quality of Life for Workers and their Spouses (2/5 Days)
16. Special Seminar at Plan Level ( 1 Day )
17. Unit Level
18. Two day Awareness Camps for Rural Workers.
19. Camp for Workers in Unorganised Sector/Weaker Section (5 days).
20. Special Seminars for Unorganised/Weaker Section ( 2 Days).
21. Special Seminar for Women Labour ( 2 days )
22. Special Seminar for SC/ST Workers ( 2 days)
23. Special Seminar for Parents of Child Labour/ Child Labour ( 2 days)
24. Part-Time Unit Level Class ( 3 months)
25. Part-time Unit Level Class ( 1 month)
26. Functional Adult Literacy Class ( 6 months)
27. Need Based Special Programme at the Unit Level ( 3-5 days)
28. Week-end Unit Level Class ( 3 months)

The machineries for labour administration in the states are similar to those operating at the center. As explained earlier in the chapter, most of the important labour subjects in the concurrent list of the constitution. The central government is empowered to give direction to the state government and to delegate powers and impose duties on them. Many central labour laws are enforced both by the central and state government in industries or establishments falling under their respective jurisdictions.

Generally speaking, labour administration of the state governments is on a pattern similar to central labour administration with slight variations relating to implementing agencies and the requirements of the state enactments and non-statutory labour programmes. the main organizations for labour administration in the states comprise, department of labour and employment (secretariat), office of labour commissioner chief inspectorate of factories, chief inspectorate of boilers, office of chief inspector, shops and establishments, directorate, employment and training, directorate, medical services ESI scheme), social security directorate and adjudication authorities.

Labour Administration Machinery

The machineries for labour administration in the states are similar to those operating at the center. As explained earlier in the chapter, most of the important labour subjects in the concurrent list of the constitution. The central government is empowered to give direction to the state government and to delegate powers and impose duties on them. Many central labour laws are enforced both by the central and state government in industries or establishments falling under their respective jurisdictions.

Generally speaking, labour administration of the state governments is on a pattern similar to central labour administration with slight variations relating to implementing agencies and the requirements of the state enactments and non-statutory labour programmes. the main organizations for labour administration in the states comprise, department of labour and employment (secretariat), office of labour commissioner chief inspectorate of factories, chief inspectorate of boilers, office of chief inspector, shops and establishments, directorate, employment and training, directorate, medical services ESI scheme), social security directorate and adjudication authorities.

Department of Labour and Employment (Secretariat)

The responsibility for labour administration in the states generally vests in the department of labour and employment, the secretariat of which represents the government side. It is generally in charge of a minister, who may occasionally be assisted by a minister of state and deputy minister. on the official side, the secretary or the principal secretary is the chief executive. his team generally includes an additional secretary, and a few joint secretaries, deputy secretaries and under secretaries according to requirements. it is this organization that formulates the labour policy of the state, establishes liaison with the central ministry of labour coordinates and guides the activities of enforcing machineries and takes decisions on behalf of the government.

Office of The Labour Commissioner

The Labour Department, Government of N.C.T. of Delhi is headed by Secretary (Labour), who is assisted by Commissioner, Special Labour Commissioner, Deputy Labour Commissioners, Assistant Labour Commissioners, Chief Inspector of Factories, Electrical Inspector, Chief Inspector of Boilers, Chief Inspector of Shops and Establishments, Labour Officers, Welfare Officer and other supporting staff. With a view to make the administration responsive to the needs of the people and bring governance to their doorsteps, the department has been organized on territorial basis into nine districts. Each district is headed by a Deputy Labour Commissioner who is assisted by Asstt. Labour Commissioners and Labour Officers.

Chief Inspectorate of Factories

The Chief Inspector of Factories is assisted by Deputy Chief Inspectors of Factories, Inspectors of Factories and Inspector of Factories (Medical). The Chief Inspector of Factories, who heads this Inspectorate works under the administrative control of Labour Commissioner cum Secretary (Labour) of Government of NCT of Delhi. The Inspectors work under the supervisory control of Dy. Chief Inspectors of Factories. The Dy. Chief Inspectors of Factories and Inspector of Factories (Medical) operate from Headquarters.

Chief Inspectorate of Boilers

The boilers are inspected by the Boiler Inspectorate as per the procedure laid under Indian Boilers Regulations –1950, during use, and if found satisfactory are allowed to be worked for a maximum period of 12 months as per the provisions of Indian Boiler Act – 1923. The boilers are also casually visited to check the validity of the certificate, their safe and efficient operation. The Inspectorate also guides the boiler owners to work the boilers more efficiently keeping in view Basic Objective of the Act i.e. the “Protection of Human Life & Property from the explosions of the Boilers”.

Office of Chief Inspector, Shops and Establishments

The object of Delhi Shops and Establishments Act, 1954, is to give some minimum benefits and relief to the vast unorganized sector of employees, employed in Shops and Establishments. Industrial Dispute Act 1947 and Delhi Shops & Establishments. Act, 1954 are supplemental to each other.

The Act is enforced through the Chief Inspector of Shops (CIS) and various inspectors under the Act, who are posted in nine districts of the capital who function under the supervision and control of Dy./ Asstt. Labour Commissioners of the concerned district. Chief Inspector functions under the supervision of Dy. Labour Commissioners (CIS) who in turn functions under the supervision of LC.

Directorate, Employment and Training

The organization primarily looks after the operation of employment exchanges, industrial training institutes, vocational guidance programme and some other institutions. The activities of the directorate are essentially governed by the policies, standards and procedures set by the central directorate general, employment and training. Other activities of the organization include employment market information, vocational rehabilitation centers, and training of handicapped groups such as women and physically handicapped. The training wing of the department also looks after the implementation of the apprentices act, 1961. Generally, the directorate functions independently of the organizing of labour commissioner.

Directorate, Medical Services (ESI Scheme)

The main responsibility for the operation of medical benefit under the employees’ state insurance act, 1948 lies with the state governments which are required to make available the services of the medical and para-medical personnel. In most the states a special wing has been established for the purpose. As the medical benefit under the ESI scheme has been extended also to the family members of the insured persons and superannuated employees, the responsibility of the state governments in this regard has increases. A director, administrative medical officer or a chief medical officer under the labour department has been made in charge of the wing.

Social Security Directorate

A few states have established social security directorates for implementing certain social security schemes for the poor, unorganized workers, rehabilitation of bonded labourers and implementation of the interstate migrant workmen (regulation of employment and conditions of services) act, 1979. They also look after the implementation of national old age pension scheme, national family benefit scheme and national maternity benefit scheme.

Adjudication Authorities

The state governments have also constituted labour courts and tribunals under the industrial disputes act, 1947, and a few of them have set up other adjudication authorities such as industrial courts and wages boards under state laws. As on October 31, 1998, as many as 214 labour courts, 97 tribunals and 22 labour courts-cum-tribunals were functioning in the states.

International Labour Organization

 International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency dealing with labour problems, particularly international labour standards, social protection, and work opportunities for all.[1] The ILO has 187 member states: 186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO. In 1969, the organisation received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving peace among classes, pursuing decent work and justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations.  The ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules; however, it does not impose sanctions on governments.

The objectives of the I.L.O The objectives of the I.L.O are enunciated in the preamble to its Constitution, supplemented by Article 427 of the Peace Treaty of Versailles, 1919; as well as by the Philadelphia Declaration of 1944. The Declaration of Philadelphia set for 10 objectives, which the International Labour Organization was to further promote among the Nations of the world. The theme underlying these objectives is social justice. The objectives are as follows:

(a) Full employment and the revising of standards of living,

(b) The employment of workers in the occupation in which they can have the satisfaction of giving the fullest measure of their skill and make their contribution to the common well being

(c) The provision, as means to the attainment of this end, and under adequate guarantees for all concerned, of facilities for training and the transfer of labour, including migration for employment and settlement.

 (d) Policies in regard to wages and earning forms and other conditions of work. Calculate to ensure a just share of the fruits of progress to all, and a minimum living wage to all employed and in need of protection.

(e) The effective recognition of the right of collective bargaining, the co-operation of management and labour in the continuous improvement of productive efficiency and the collaboration of workers and employers in social and economic measures,

 (f) The extension of social security measures to provide a basic income to all in need of such protection and comprehensive

Conventions and Recommendations of I.L.O. in regard to Basic Human Rights the Conventions and Recommendations of the International Labour Organization relate to verify the subject on basic Human Rights of working class having a direct bearing on the cause of social justice and everlasting universal peace which is most focused objectives of the International Labour Organization. The following Conventions/Recommendations of I.L.O. are important in recurring to basic human rights. (a) Freedom of association and protection of the right to organise (b) Forced labour (c) Equality of opportunity and treatment

Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Convention (No.87) 1948:

This Convention provides that workers and employers shall have the right to establish and join organizations of their own choosing without previous authorization. The public authorities are to refrain from any interference which would restrict the right to form organisation or impede its lawful exercise.

Right to organise and collective bargaining convention (No.98) 1949:

This convention enjoins on workers to join or not to join union with full freedom without fear of dismissed. It calls upon the member states to create conditions and institutions for promoting land ensuring the right to organise, negotiate between employers and workers organizations with a view to the regulation of terms of employment and conditions of employment by means of collective agreement.

Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (convention 105, 1957):

It may be said that Article 23 of the Indian Constitution prohibits forced labour or involuntary labour and so an indirect constitutional compliance of the above convention. However, Article 23(2) empowers the state government to impose compulsory for public purposes like flood and other national calamities

Convention No. 100 of 1951:

Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value: The International Labour Organisation adopted the much needed Convention No. 100 in its 34th session held at Geneva on 6th June, 1951. The convention contains 14 Articles and is ratified by 161 member countries. Equal remuneration to men and women workers for work of equal value, in fact, refers to rates of wages determined without any discrimination based on sex.

Hours of Work:

The convention of Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 adopted in the first session of the International labour conference limits the hours of work in industrial undertakings to 8 hours in a day and 48 hours in a week.

Weekly Rest:

The Weekly Rest (Industry) Convention (No. 14), 1921 was ratified by India in 1923. The Convention provides that the entire personnel employed in any industrial undertaking is to enjoy in every period of 7 163 days, a period of rest amounting to at least 24 consecutive hours. Most of the protective labour laws in the country such as Factories Act, 1948

Protection of wages:

The Protection of Wage Convention (No. 95), 1949 provides that wages payable in money must be paid regularly in legal tender and deductions may be permitted only under conditions and to the extent prescribed by national enactments, collective agreements or arbitration awards, Recommendation for Protection of Wages (No.85) was adopted in the same year, contains detailed rules relating to deductions from wages, fixation of wage periods and so forth

Labour Administration:

India has ratified the labour inspection convention No. (81), 1947. The existing protective labour laws such as those relating to factories, mines, plantations, shops and establishments, motor transport, payment of wages, minimum wages, child labour, maternity benefit and others contain the provisions of the convention and influenced legislative clauses relating to labour administration and inspection.

Definitions of Labour Welfare:

Some important definitions given by eminent economist are discussed below: Prof. Richardson, (1954) an eminent economist defines; labour welfare work as, “any arrangement of working conditions, organization of social and sports club and establishment of funds by a firm which contribute to workers’ health and safety, comfort, efficiency, economic security, education and recreation.

Important Features of Labour Welfare:

On the basis of the various definitions, the basic characteristics of labour welfare work may be noted thus: 1. It is the work which is usually undertaken within the premises or in the vicinity of the undertakings for the benefit of the employees and the members of their families. 2. The work generally includes those items of welfare which are over and above what the employees expect as a result of the contract of service from the employers. 3. The purpose of providing welfare amenities is to bring about development of the whole personality of the worker -his social, psychological, economic, moral, cultural and intellectual development to make him a good worker, a good citizen and a good member of the family. 4. These facilities may be provided voluntarily by progressive and enlightened entrepreneurs at their own accord out of their realization of social responsibility towards labour, or statutory provisions may compel them to make these facilities available; or these may be undertaken by the government or trade unions, if they have the necessary funds for the purpose

Constitutional Provision of Labour Welfare in India

The Constitution of India not only guarantees some of the fundamental rights to its citizens but also has embodied Directive Principle of the state policy for the attainment of a social order based on Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Therefore the Constitution maintains a list of fundamental rights and Directive Principle of the state policy which refers generally to the upliftment and promotion of the welfare of the

People. The necessity of labour welfare work in India was emphasized in Directive Principle of State Policy through some of the articles are, mentioned below: Article 41: The state shall within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, education and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old-age, sickness and disablement and in other cases of undeserved want. Article 42: The state shall make provisions for security and human conditions of work and to maintain relief. Article 43: The state shall endeavor to secure, by suitable legislation or economic organization or in any other way, to all workers, agricultural, industrial work and conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure, social and cultural opportunities and in particular, the state shall endeavor to promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.

A Report on Labour Welfare Investigation Committee viewed concept of labour welfare as being a dynamic subject, no rigid limits could be laid down for scope of labour welfare for all industries and for all times. It can be elastic enough to include all essential prerequisite of life that a worker as human being reasonably stands in need ,it can be confined to the extremely omitted domain of basic minimum amenities without which a worker cannot work. Quite close and sensitive to political and social changes, are the concept of labour welfare that can also get inevitably togged to development in these fields, primarily because of the environment in which the workers work and live, than what is available to them in social services as a citizen