Tag: Production and Inventory Management Bangalore University BBA Notes

O.C. curves quantifies manufacturer’s (producer’s) risk and consumer’s (purchaser’s) risk. This is a graph of the percentage defective in a lot versus the probability that the sampling plan will accept a lot.

An O.C. Curve drawn for sampling plan of n = 300 and C = 10 at Fig. 60.1 indicates the following:

AQL = 0.02 or 2%

Manufacturer’s risk = 0.05

Consumer’s risk = 0.10

LTPD = 0.05 or more defectives.

All practical sampling plans have an operating characteristics curve, briefly called O.C. curve.

Following points need emphasis regarding O.C. curves:

(i) There is some chance that good lots will be rejected.

(ii) There is some chance that bad lots will be rejected.

(iii) These risks can be calculated by the theory of probability and depends on the number of samples inspected, the acceptance number, and the percent defectives in the lot offered for sample inspection. Given the amount of risks which can be tolerated, a sampling plan can be devised to meet these requirements.

(iv) The larger the sample used for inspection, the nearer the O.C. curve approaches the ideal. However beyond a certain point, the added cost in inspecting a large number of parts far exceeds the benefit derived.

In any acceptance sampling plan, three parameters are specified. The first parameter is number of articles N in the lot from which sample is to be drawn. The second parameter is the number of articles n in the random sample drawn from the lot, and the third is the acceptance number C.

This acceptance number C is the maximum allowable number of defective articles in the sample. If more than C defectives are found in a sample the lot is liable to be rejected. Since the lot size has little affect on the probability of acceptance, therefore lot size is generally ignored in deriving a sampling plan.

O.C. curve of an acceptance sampling plan (i.e. for a particular combination of n and C) shows how well the sampling plan discriminates between good and bad lots. In order to exam­ine the suitability of an acceptance sam­pling plan, it is necessary to compare their performance over a range of pos­sible quality levels of the product.

The graph of this performance is known as operating characteristic curve. Fig. 60.2 below shows an ideal O.C. curve where it is desired to accept all lots having 3% or less defectives, and to reject all lots having more than 3% defectives.

In this curve, all lots with less than 3% defectives have a probability of accep­tance of 100%, while all lots with more than 3% defectives have a probability of acceptance as 0%. However, such a plan does not exist in reality.

Zones of O.C. Curve:

O.C. curve can be divided into following 3 zones:

(a) Acceptance Zone:

In this zone all the batches are accepted, therefore, the O.C. curve should be so selected that its acceptance zone accepts what is considered to be satisfactory lot.

(b) Rejection Zone:

In this zone, all the batches are rejected. Hence the O.C. curve selected should be such that it rejects what is considered to be an unsatisfactory lot.

(c) Zone of Indecision:

This is the zone where there is no purity that whether any particular batch or lot will be accepted or rejected. This problem can be solved either by adopting 100% inspection or by taking larger sample, but these will increase the inspection costs.

A batch or lot in this zone is worse than acceptable lot, and better than those what is considered as unaccept­able. Thus its quality is border-line, and practically does not matter much whether a lot is finally accepted or rejected from this zone.

Credit: https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/production-management/operating-characteristic-o-c-curves/6960

Availability of Raw Materials:

Proximity of sources of raw materials is the obvious explanation of the location of majority of sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh. This means that the raw material should be available within the economical distance. Easy availability of supplies required for maintenance and operation of the plant should also be considered.

Proximity to Markets:

Cost of distribution is an important item in the overhead expenses. So it will be advantageous to be near to the center of demand for finished products. Importance of this is fully realized if the material required for the manufacturing of products are not bulk and fright charges are small.

Transport Facilities:

Since freight charges of raw materials and finished goods enter into the cost of production, therefore transportation facilities are becoming the governing factor in economic location of the plant. Depending upon the volume of the raw materials and finished products, a suitable method of transportation like rail, road, water transportation (through river, canals or sea) and air transport is selected and accordingly plant location is decided. Important consideration should be that the cost of transportation should remain fairly small in comparison to the total cost of production.

Location in Proximity of Cities:

First tendency is to locate the industries or enterprises in the proximity of cities rather than in rural or urban areas. These sub-urban sites offer today practically all advantages, facilities and services available in cities and towns with the added advantage of land required for future expansion on cheap rates.

Planned Industrial Centres:

While industrial towns may be planned and developed by big industrial houses or govt., the late trend is to develop areas as industrial estates and sell these to people interested in starting their units at various places. Noida and Faridabad are the examples of this type of development.

Competition for Development of Industries:

In order to generate the employment opportunities the state and central govt. offer concessions to attract industrialists to set up industries in their states or territories.

Appropriate Site Selection:

Appropriate site selection is important because of the following:

(i) A good location may minimize the cost of production and distribution to a considerable extent. Such reduction in the cost of production helps in elevating either the competitive strength or the profit margin of the business.

(ii) Initiation of an enterprise involve a relatively large permanent investment. If the selected site is not proper, all the money invested on factory building, installation of machinery etc. will go waste and the owner will have to suffer a great loss.

(iii) Location put constraints for the physical factors of the overall plant designs heating, ventilation requirements, storage capacity for raw materials, transportation requirements for input material and finished products, energy requirements cost of labour, taxes and construction costs.

(iv) Location of plant decides the nature of investment cost to be incurred.

(v) Government policies sometimes play an important role in site selection.

(vi) Probably no location is so perfect as to guarantee success but locations can be so bad as to bankrupt an enterprise.

Nearness to Markets:

It reduces the cost of transportation as well as the chances of the finished products getting damaged and spoiled in the way (especially perishable products). Moreover a plant being near, to the market can catch a big share of the market and can render quick service to the customers.

Availability of Labour:

Stable labour force, of right kind, of adequate size (number), and at reasonable rates with its proper attitude towards work are a few factors which govern plant location to a major extent. The purpose of the management is to face less boycotts, strikes or lockouts and to achieve lower labour cost per unit of production.

Availability of Fuel and Power:

Because of the wide spread use of electric power, in most cases fuel (coal, oil, etc.) has not remained a deciding factor for plant location. Even then steel industries are located near source of fuel (coal) to cut down the fuel transportation costs.

It is of course essential that electric power should remain available continuously, in proper quantity and at reasonable rates.

Availability of Water:

Water is used for processing, as in paper and chemical industries, and is also required for drinking and sanitary purposes. Depending upon the nature of plant, water should be available in adequate quantity and should be of proper quality (clean and pure). A chemical industry should not be set up at a location which is famous for water shortage.

Climatic Conditions:

With the developments in the field of heating, ventilating and air- conditioning, climate of the region does not present much problem. Of course, control of climate needs money.

Financial and Other Aids:

Certain states give aids as loans, feed money, machinery, built up sheds, etc., to attract industrialists.

Land:

Topography, area, the shape of the site, cost, drainage and other facilities, the probabil­ity of floods, earthquakes (from the past history) etc., influence the selection of plant location.

Community Attitude:

Success of an industry depends very much on the attitude of the local people and whether they want work or not.

(11) Presence of related industries.

(12) Existence of hospitals, marketing centres, schools, banks, post offices, clubs, etc.

(13) Local bye-laws, taxes, building ordnances, etc.

(14) Housing facilities.

(15) Security.

(16) Facilities for expansion.

Sargant Florence’s Theory

Another theory of location, which has assumed great importance and acquired a wide popularity during recent year, is the one put forward by Professor Sargent Florence. He observed that the relation of an industry to an area is not so important as the relation of the distribution of the occupied population as a whole. It means he does not accept relation between industry and geographical area.

An ideal location is one where the cost of the product is kept to a minimum, with a large market share, the least risk, and the maximum social gain. Every entrepreneur is faced with the problem of deciding the best site for locating of his plant or factory. Selection of plant location is important for the success of an organization. The various factors affecting plant location selection decision are discussed below:

• Nature of Product and Industry
• Nearness to raw material
• Proximity to market
• Workforce Requirement
• Availability of Power and Fuel
• Availability of Water
• Land
• Transport and communication facilities
• Climate
• Total costs
• Availability of Infrastructure
• Suppliers Industries Location
• Free Trade Zones
• Political Risk
• Government Policies
• Environmental Regulation
• Host Community
• Competitive Advantage
• Goodwill of Place
• Personal Factors
• Historical Religious Factors
• Other Factors

1. Nature of Product and Industry

Plant location decision is dependent on the nature of product to be produced and the nature of an industry. For example, if it is a chemical product, like sugar, where the manufacturing process emits a particular type of smell, this type of industry needs to be located far from the human communities. While if the industry is a chemical industry, which involves toxic element in manufacturing process, it must be located very far from cities to avoid tragedies like Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

2. Nearness to raw material

If a raw material is heavy then it is also difficult to transport and if it is required in large quantity then the manufacturing plant has to be located at the site where such material is available. Otherwise cost of loading and transportation is huge. The time consumed and managerial inputs are more. As a result the economics of manufacturing goes out of scale and the product become uncompetitive. This is the same reason why Steel mills are located at Bihar and Sugar Mills near the sugarcane producing fields like Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Further natural products like fruits, milk undergo changes after harvesting and milking respectively. Their quality starts deteriorating and contamination begins to multiply. This results in low recoveries and higher cost of production. In such cases plant is located at the origin of the raw materials.

3. Proximity to market

If the volume of a product is much bigger than the raw materials, like plastics products, or if the product is perishable, then the manufacturing plant is located near the market. Nearness to potential market minimizes the risk of deterioration and damage in transport. The organization needs to produce product which is close to the customer due to a time-based competition, trade agreements, and shipping costs benefits. Examples are, bottling plant of cold drinks, which are always near to the city. Some more examples are: Sub-contractors/Vendors-Automobile Industry (TATA,GM), Confectioneries, Food Products, Plastics Products, Electronic items (like T.V., Fridge) etc.

4. Workforce Requirement

Some of the manufacturing operations require skilled workforce in its manufacturing operations. Skilled workforce itself requires well-cultured surrounding, opportunities of advancement through further studies and experience sharing, opportunities of advancement through further studies and experience sharing, recognisation, competition and recreational facilities. Normally such a facilitating environment is there in urban areas. One can establish such environment in rural areas but it is very costly and time-consuming process. Skilled workforce is available are urban places. So such plants are located very near to city. For example most of the software industries are located in Bangalore, Hyderabad and Pune. These cities have good educational and training institutions along with other promotional factors. Which are providing ample skilled workforce for the software industry. Some manufacturing operations require unskilled labour force which is available in rural areas. Hence labour intensive plants are located very away from the city in rural area.

5. Availability of Power and Fuel

Industries consume power in large quantity. An industry will choose a site where there is uninterrupted and cheap power supply available. In place of power if coal or other materials are used as fuel their availability will locate the plants nearby.

6. Availability of Water

Chemical industries, food industries use lot of water in their process. similarly, waste and bi-products of these industries are hazardous and required to be discharged in flowing water after treatment, So, one finds that chemical and pharmaceutical industries are located near to sea or river.

7. Land

Locating a plant requires land. The land must be plane and good. Water should drain naturally. It should be free from all encroachments. It must have free and easy access. Land must be available not only as per present requirement but land must be available for future expansion. It should be available at very low cost, as it will reduce the capital investment.

8. Transport and communication facilities

To gain the advantages of the nearness to the raw material or market, the most important thing is transport and communication facility. Every industry requires transport of raw materials, finished products as well as their workforce and support services. Availability of transport network facilitates the site selection. Cheaper transport reduces production costs. Similarly communication facilities form an integral part of any business.

9. Climate

For the particular type of industry, the climate plays a very important role. Textile industries are located near coastal areas as the weaving of threads needs high humidity.

10. Total costs

The basic objective of a plant location is to maximize the profits by minimizing the total cost of production.

Total costs = Fixed costs + Operational costs

Fixed costs include land and building cost and machines costs. Operational costs are the expenditures incurred on inputs, transformation process cost, and the distribution cost. Hence, the location is selected where the total cost is kept at a minimum.

11. Availability of Infrastructure

Basic facilities of land, roads, power and water are called as infrastructure. Such facilities are not only essential but are backbone of the industry. Presence of these facilities makes management of manufacturing easy and at less cost whereas absence of the infrastructure makes manufacturing very difficult and costly.

12. Suppliers Industries Location

Many times the well-established industrial areas attract new industries. For example, when General Motors started its operation in India, they chose Pune as their location, as all necessary part suppliers are available in the region.

13. Free Trade Zones

India signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Thailand in October 2003. Under the FTA, 82 auto components are covered under the Early Harvest Scheme, which will have zero custom duty when traded between India and Thailand. Such an agreement attracts industries to establish plants in either of the countries to get benefit of it.

14. Political Risk

Political uncertainties have great impact on plant location decision. Political stability is essential for industrial growth. That political stability fosters industrial activity. The political stability builds confidence and political instability causes lack of confidence among the prospective and present entrepreneurs to venture into industry which is filled with risks.

15. Government Policies

The policies of the state governments and local bodies concerning labour laws, building codes, safety, etc., are the factors that demand attention. In order to have a balanced regional growth of industries, both central and state governments in our country offer the package of incentives to entrepreneurs in particular locations. The incentive package may be in the form of exemption from a safes tax and excise duties for a specific period, soft loan from financial institutions, subsidy in electricity charges and investment subsidy. Some of these incentives may tempt to locate the plant to avail these facilities offered.

16. Environmental Regulation

Due to recent issues of global warming, it is mandatory for all type of industries to follow the environmental regulation. Hence, the organizations are selecting locations decisions.

17. Host Community

Plant location decision is greatly dependent on the nature of host community/society. It is political, supportive, or non-supportive.   Community’s perception about a factory is that either the product is for their development, if not they are against the product. What type of community facilities are provided in the region is also taken into consideration for a plant location. For example:

1. Accommodation for employees
2. Public transport like railway station, bus stand etc.
3. Schools, post, banks, telephone, medical facilities

18. Competitive Advantage

When new markets are coming up, organizations are selecting a plant location in that area to get competitive advantages. For example many MNCs are coming to India and China to tap this new upcoming market. Indian Management Institutes started their first offshore centers in UAE. Similarly Harvard Business School started MDO centre in Hyderabad.

19. Goodwill of Place

Apart from all above factors, sometimes plant location is selected at some well-known places or prestigious places. Some examples are:

1. Offices at Nariman Point In Mumbai
2. IT industry in Pune/Bengaluru
3. A company in Silicon Valley.

20. Safety Requirements

Plant location must meet all essential safety requirements. Due to air, water and sound pollution, some factories have a bad effect on the health of the people. Therefore, these factories must be located away from residential areas. Safety of environment must also be given priority in this regards.

21. Personal Factors

Sometimes personal factors play a very important role in selecting plant location. For example, Henry Ford started his factory in Detroit (USA) because he started his career there, where he created his Quadricycle. Most of the cooperative sugar factories are located in the political constituency of the chairman of the factory.

22. Historical Religious Factors

With respect to service industry or related industry, where visitors number is important, he plant location is selected near a historical/religious places. For example, idol carving factory is always near historical temples.

23. Other Factors

Apart from the above discussed factors, there may be one or more factors which can influence plant location decision. For example, special grants or Import.Export needs, the location might be selected in memories of someone for the purpose of rural development as part of a corporate social responsibility of big industrial houses or any other reason, availability of finance, facilities for expansion  etc.

Weber’s Theory of Location

Alfred Weber was a German Scientist who gave a systematic theory on industrial location. Weber, after a great lot of analysis and investigation, discovered the factors that causes and determine the location of industry into two broad divisions:

1. Primary causes of regional distribution of industry (Regional Factors) and
2. Secondary (agglomerative and deglomerative factors) that are responsible for location of industry.
3. The Primary factors involve cost element as follow,

• Cost of land
• Cost of building, machines and other fixed cost
• Cost of procuring materials, power and fuel
• Cost of labour
• Cost of transportation
• Interest rates
• Rate of depreciation of fixed capital

Secondary Factors

An agglomerative factor is an advantage or a cheapening of production or marketing which results from the fact that production is carried on to some considerable extent at one place while a deglomerative factor is a cheapening of production which results from the decentralization of production (production in more than one place).

Principles of Plant Layout:

While designing the plant layout, the following principles must be kept in view:

(i) Principle of Minimum Movement:

Materials and labour should be moved over minimum distances; saving cost and time of transportation and material handling.

(ii) Principle of Space Utilization:

All available cubic space should be effectively utilized – both horizontally and vertically.

(iii) Principle of Flexibility:

Layout should be flexible enough to be adaptable to changes required by expansion or technological development.

(iv) Principle of Interdependence:

Interdependent operations and processes should be located in close proximity to each other; to minimize product travel.

(v) Principle of Overall Integration:

All the plant facilities and services should be fully integrated into a single operating unit; to minimize cost of production.

(vi) Principle of Safety:

There should be in-built provision in the design of layout, to provide for comfort and safety of workers.

(vii) Principle of Smooth Flow:

The layout should be so designed as to reduce work bottlenecks and facilitate uninterrupted flow of work throughout the plant.

(viii) Principle of Economy:

The layout should aim at effecting economy in terms of investment in fixed assets.

(ix) Principle of Supervision:

A good layout should facilitate effective supervision over workers.

(x) Principle of Satisfaction:

A good layout should boost up employee morale, by providing them with maximum work satisfaction.

Township Selection:

The factors to be considered regarding township selection are:

(i) Availability of men power of requisite skill

(ii) Competitive wage rates of workers

(iii) Other enterprises which are complementary or supplementary regarding raw materials, other input, labour and skill required.

(iv) Moderate taxes and the absence of restricting laws.

(v) A favourable cooperative and friendly attitude towards the industry.

(vi) Favourable living conditions and standards keeping in view the availability of medical and educational facilities, housing, fire service, recreational facilities, cost of living etc.

Advantages of Rural Area:

(i) The initial cost of land, erection cost of building and plant is less in rural area as compared to urban or city area.

(ii) Acquisition for additional area for extension work expansion of plant is possible without much difficulty whereas urban area being congested; the additional land is not easily available.

(iii) Rural areas are free form labour trouble which is most common in towns and cities.

(iv) Over crowding of working class population in cities is avoided.

Advantages of Urban Area:

(i) Better modes of transportation for collection and distribution of materials and finished products.

(ii) Availability to requisite type of labour for special and specific jobs is there.

(iii) Utilities like water, power, fuels etc. are easily available.

(iv) Industries do not need to construct colonies to provide residential facilities to their workers since houses are available on rental basis whereas in rural areas, houses have to be build for workers.

Layout

Product Layout (or Line Layout):

In this type of layout, all the machines are arranged in the sequence, as required to produce a specific product. It is called line layout because machines are arrange in a straight line. The raw materials are fed at one end and taken out as finished product to the other end.

Special purpose machines are used which perform the required jobs (i.e. functions) quickly and reliably.

Advantages:

1. Reduced material handling cost due to mechanized handling systems and straight flow
2. Perfect line balancing which eliminates bottlenecks and idle capacity.
3. Short manufacturing cycle due to uninterrupted flow of materials
4. Simplified production planning and control; and simple and effective inspection of work.
5. Small amount of work-in-progress inventory
6. Lesser wage cost, as unskilled workers can learn and manage production.

Process Layout (or Functional Layout):

In this type of layout, all machines performing similar type of operations are grouped at one location i.e. all lathes, milling machines etc. are grouped in the shop and they will be clustered in like groups.

Advantages:

1. Greater flexibility with regard to work distribution to machinery and personnel. Adapted to frequent changes in sequence of operations.
2. Lower investment due to general purpose machines; which usually are less costly than special purpose machines.
3. Higher utilisation of production facilities; which can be adapted to a variety of products.
4. Variety of jobs makes the work challenging and interesting.
5. Breakdown of one machine does not result in complete stoppage of work.

Combination Layout:

In practice, plants are rarely laid out either in product or process layout form. Generally a combination of the two basic layouts is employed; to derive the advantages of both systems of layout. For example, refrigerator manufacturing uses a combination layout.

Process layout is used to produce various operations like stamping, welding, heat treatment being carried out in different work centres as per requirement. The final assembly of the product is done in a product type layout.

Fixed Position Layout:

It is also called stationary layout. In this type of layout men, materials and machines are brought to a product that remains in one place owing to its size. Ship-building, air-craft manufacturing, wagon building, heavy construction of dams, bridges, buildings etc. are typical examples of such layout.

Advantages of Operations Management

Overall, operations management is a key factor for manufacturing organizations that wish to take their production to the next level.  Some notable advantages include:

Better Resource Management: Operations management processes focus on effectively managing all of your resources to ensure that their potential is being maximized. Resources can include physical machines as well as labor resources.

Profitability Management: When your operations are properly managed, it is easier for your company’s executives to rely on the production activity to get a better understanding of your revenue stream. They are then able to rely on that consistent information to find new ways to increase sales or come up with new product ideas.

Competitive Advantage: Being able to coordinate the multiple levels and components of your manufacturing organization means that things will run much more smoothly. Your production time will likely decrease, allowing you to deliver goods on time which is a crucial aspect of having great customer relations. This will allow you to promptly deliver great products and keep you ahead of the competition.

Advantages to consumers:

A well-planned production function will lead to good quality products, higher rate of production and lower cost per unit. The consumers will be benefitted from prices of goods and will get good quality products. The availability of goods will also be satisfactory and the consumers will be saved from a lot of botheration which may otherwise be caused by scarcity of products.

Advantages to Investors:

An enhancement in productivity will increase profitability of the business. The investors will get higher returns on investment if profitability is better. This will also result in appreciation of assets values and ultimately the prices of shares will go up which will also benefit investors.

Advantages to employees:

Higher productivity will benefit employees in the form of better remuneration, stability in employment, good working conditions, etc. Better productivity to a worker will give him job satisfaction and improve his morale.

Advantages to suppliers:

Every enterprise depends upon supplies of raw materials, finished goods, spare parts etc. The suppliers will always like to deal with a concern having sound financial position. The company and its suppliers will have an enduring relationship only if both are satisfied with each other’s dealings.

Advantages to the community:

The economic and social stability of a- community is linked with growth and development of its industrial structure. An overall improvement in productivity will improve economic welfare of the society.

Advantages to the nation:

The advantages of various segments of society improve welfare of a nation. Better production management will result in proper and economical use of natural resources and elimination of wastages. An improved industrial climate will bring all round development and prosperity.

Disadvantages of Operations Management

Human Error: Another prevalent problem within manufacturing operations is the fact that humans tend to be mistake-prone. Most of the time, this issue occurs during the transition from manufacturing to sale. Because of this, it is important to ensure that operations management is coordinating various areas effectively such as operations, marketing, finances, accounting, engineering, information, and human resources.

Multi-Level Dependency: One of the main disadvantages is that a large amount of the success of implementing operations management procedures requires coordination between the different components of the organization. Even if an effective plan is put in place, it will fail if it is not carried out in the proper manner by all components.

Product development

Manufacturers can use digital twins before its physical counterpart is manufactured. This application enables businesses to collect data from the virtual twin and improve the original product based on data.

Design customization

Due to the shift toward personalization in consumer demand, manufacturers can leverage digital twins to design various permutations of the product. This allows customers to purchase the product based on performance metrics rather than its design.

Shop floor performance improvement

A digital twin can be used to monitor and analyze the production process to identify where quality issues may occur or where the performance of the product is lower than intended.

Logistics optimization

Digital twins allow manufacturers to gain a clear view of the materials used and provide the opportunity to automate the replenishment process.

Generative design

Generative design uses machine learning algorithms to mimic an engineer’s approach to design. Designers or engineers enter parameters of design (such as materials, size, weight, strength, manufacturing methods, and cost constraints) into generative design software and the software provides all the possible outcomes that can be created with those parameters. With this method, manufacturers quickly generate thousands of design options for one product.

Predictive maintenance

Manufacturers leverage AI technology to identify potential downtime and accidents by analyzing the sensor data. AI systems help manufacturers forecast when or if functional equipment will fail so its maintenance and repair can be scheduled before the failure occurs. Thanks to AI-powered predictive maintenance, manufacturers can improve efficiency while reducing the cost of machine failure.

Quality assurance

Quality assurance is the maintenance of a desired level of quality in a service or product. Assembly lines are data-driven, interconnected and autonomous networks. These assembly lines work based on a set of parameters and algorithms that provide guidelines to produce the best possible end-products. AI systems can detect the differences from the usual outputs by using machine vision technology since most defects are visible. When an end-product is lower quality than expected, AI systems trigger an alert to users so that they can react to make adjustments.

Edge analytics

Edge analytics provides fast and decentralized insights from data sets collected from sensors on machines. Manufacturers collect and analyzed data on edge to reduce time to insight. Edge analytics has three use cases in manufacturing:

• Improving production quality and yield
• Detecting early signs of deteriorating performance and risk of failure
• Tracking worker health and safety by using wearables.

Robotics

Industrial robots, also referred to as manufacturing robots, automate repetitive tasks, prevent or reduce human error to negligible rate, and shift human workers’ focus to more productive areas of the operation. Applications of robots in plants vary. Applications include assembly, welding, painting, product inspection, picking and placing, die casting, drilling, glass making, and grinding.

Industrial robots have been in manufacturing plants since the late 1970s. With the addition of artificial intelligence, an industrial robot can monitor its own accuracy and performance, and train itself to get better. Some manufacturing robots are equipped with machine vision that helps the robot achieve precise mobility in complex and random environments.

Price forecasting of raw material

The extreme price volatility of raw materials has always been a challenge for manufacturers. Businesses have to adapt to the unstable price of raw materials to remain competitive in the market. AI powered software like Kantify can predict materials prices more accurately than humans and it learn from its mistakes.

Quality Checks

Internal defects of equipment cannot be detected easily. Sometimes experts are also unable to detect the flaws in products by observing their functionality. But, AI and ML technologies can do this efficiently. Minor flaws in machinery are detected with AI.

AI in manufacturing processes improves quality control. Smart AI solutions monitor the productivity of machinery. That’s why most of the manufacturing companies using Ai automation in their manufacturing routines. AI-based tools detect defects of products on the production line.

Forecast Product Demand

Artificial intelligence systems using predictive analytics can also forecast the product demand efficiently. AI tools for manufacturing collects data from various sources. Later, based on data, tools can accurately predict the product demand.

Price Forecasts

By analyzing historical data of product prices, machine learning algorithms can forecast the price of a product. Competitive prices always offer more profits to the companies.

Predicts Equipment Failure

Manufacturers face challenges with machinery failures. A product might look perfect from the outside, but it offers low performance when we use it. It affects productivity.

It is the second most reason behind the increased demand for AI in manufacturing. Manufacturing companies are deploying AI get information of equipment damages for ensuring excellent performance.

Need

• Supervision and control of transformation process for achieving good results.
• Determining the production process by designing the product. The inputs are transformed into goods and services.
• Deciding and procuring various inputs such as material, labour, land, equipment, capital.

Types of Production and Operations Management

Unit or Job type of production

This type of production is most commonly observed when you produce one single unit of a product. A typical example of the same will be tailored outfits which are made just for you or a cake which is made just like you want it.

Features of Unit production or Job Production:

• Depends a lot on skill
• Dependency is more on manual work than mechanical work
• Customer service and customer management plays and important role

Batch Production:

Batch production pertains to repetitive production. It refers to the production of goods, the quantity of which is known in advance. Under batch system the work is divided into operations and one operation is done at a time. After completing the work on one operation it is passed on to the next operation and so on till the product is complete. Batch production may be explained with the help of an example. A company wants to manufacture 50 electric motors. The work will be divided into different operations. The first operation on all the motors will be completed in the first batch and then it will pass on to the next operation.

The second group of operators will complete the second operation before passing to the next and so on. Under job production the same operators will manufacture full machine and not one operation only. Batch production can fetch the benefits of repetitive production to a considerable degree, provided the batch is of a sufficient quantity. Thus batch production may be defined as the manufacture of a product in small or large batches or lots by a series of operations, each operation being carried out on the whole batch before any subsequent operation is operated.

Mass Production or Flow production

One of the best examples of mass production is the manufacturing process adopted by Ford. Mass production is also known as flow production or assembly line production. It is one of the most common types of products used in the automobile industry and is also used in industries where continuous production is required.

An Assembly line or mass production plant typically focus on specialization. There are multiple workstations installed and the assembly line goes through all the workstations turn by turn. The work is done in a specialized manner and each workstation is responsible for one single type of work. As a result, these workstations are very efficient and production due to which the whole assembly line becomes productive and efficient.

Products which are manufactured using mass production are very standardized products. High sophistication is used in the manufacturing of these products. If 1000 products are manufactured using mass production, each one of them should be exactly the same. There should be no deviation in the product manufactured.

Features of Mass Production

• Mass production is generally used to dole out huge volumes of the product
• It is used only if the product is standardized
• Demand does not play a major role in a Mass production. However, production capacity determines the success of a mass production.
• Mass production requires huge initial investment and the working capital demand is huge too.

Continuous Production System

the items are produced for the stocks and not for specific orders. Before planning manufacturing to stock, a sales forecast is made to estimate likely demand of the product and a master schedule is prepared to adjust the sales forecast according to past orders and level of inventory. Here the inputs are standardized and a standard set of processes and sequence of processes can be adopted. Due to this routing and scheduling for the whole process can be standardized.

After setting of master production schedule, a detailed planning is carried on. Basic manufacturing information and bills of material are recorded. Information for machine load charts, equipment, personnel and material needs is tabulated. In continuous manufacturing systems each production run manufactures in large lot sizes and the production process is carried on in a definite sequence of operations in a pre-determined order. In process storage is not necessary which in turn reduces material handling and transportation facilities. First in first out priority rules are followed in the system. In short, here the input-output characteristics are standardized allowing for standardization of operations and their sequence.

• This system does not involve diverse work, due to which routing standardized route and schedule sheets are prepared.
• In case of standard products meant for mass production, master route sheets are prepared for more effective co- ordination of various departments.
• Scheduling is required to rate the output of various standard products in their order of priority, operations and correct sequence to meet sales, requirements.
• Work relating to dispatching and follow-up is usually simple. Dispatch schedules can be prepared well in advance in such systems.

VUCA is an acronym first used in 1987, drawing on the leadership theories of Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus to describe or to reflect on the volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity of general conditions and situations; The U.S. Army War College introduced the concept of VUCA to describe the more volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous multilateral world perceived as resulting from the end of the Cold War. More frequent use and discussion of the term “VUCA” began from 2002 and derives from this acronym from military education. It has subsequently taken root in emerging ideas in strategic leadership that apply in a wide range of organizations, from for-profit corporations to education.

VUCA world shows the unpredictable nature of the world at stake like the situation of COVID 19 we are in right now. The deeper meaning of each element of VUCA serves to enhance the strategic significance of VUCA foresight and insight as well as the behaviour of groups and individuals in organizations. It discusses systemic failures and behavioural failures, which are characteristic of organisational failure.

• V = Volatility: the nature and dynamics of change, and the nature and speed of change forces and change catalysts.
• U = Uncertainty: the lack of predictability, the prospects for surprise, and the sense of awareness and understanding of issues and events.
• C = Complexity: the multiplex of forces, the confounding of issues, no cause-and-effect chain and confusion that surrounds organization.
• A = Ambiguity: the haziness of reality, the potential for misreads, and the mixed meanings of conditions; cause-and-effect confusion.

A VUCA environment can:

• Destablize people and make them anxious.
• Sap their motivation.
• Thwart their career moves.
• Make constant retraining and reshaping a necessity.
• Take huge amounts of time and effort to fight.
• Increase the chances of people making bad decisions.
• Paralyze decision-making processes.
• Jeopardize long-term projects, developments and innovations.
• Overwhelm individuals and organizations.
• Take its toll on internal culture.

“Bleed” inwards and create VUCA environments within organizations.

These elements present the context in which organizations view their current and future state. They present boundaries for planning and policy management. They come together in ways that either confound decisions or sharpen the capacity to look ahead, plan ahead and move ahead. VUCA sets the stage for managing and leading.

The particular meaning and relevance of VUCA often relates to how people view the conditions under which they make decisions, plan forward, manage risks, foster change and solve problems. In general, the premises of VUCA tend to shape an organization’s capacity to:

• Anticipate the Issues that Shape
• Understand the Consequences of Issues and Actions
• Appreciate the Interdependence of Variables
• Prepare for Alternative Realities and Challenges
• Interpret and Address Relevant Opportunities

Failure in itself may not be a catastrophe, but failure to learn from failure definitely is. It is not enough to train leaders in core competencies without identifying the key factors that inhibit their using the resilience and adaptability that are vital in order to distinguish potential leaders from mediocre managers. Anticipating change as a result of VUCA is one outcome of resilient leadership. The capacity of individuals and organizations to deal with VUCA can be measured with a number of engagement themes:

• Knowledge Management and Sense-Making
• Planning and Readiness Considerations
• Process Management and Resource Systems
• Functional Responsiveness and Impact Models
• Recovery Systems and Forward Practices
• Systemic failures
• Behavioural failures

Volatility

Volatility is the V component of VUCA. This refers to the different situational social-categorization of people due to specific traits or reactions that stand out during that particular situation. When people react/act based on a specific situation, there is a possibility that the public categorizes them into a different group than they were in a previous situation. These people might respond differently to individual situations due to social or environmental cues. The idea that situational occurrences cause certain social categorization is known as volatility and is one of the main aspects of the self-categorization theory.

Sociologists use volatility to understand better how stereotypes and social-categorization is impacted based on the situation at hand as well as any outside forces that may lead people to perceive others differently. Volatility is the changing dynamic of social-categorization in a set of environmental situations. The dynamic can change due to any shift in a situation, whether it is social, technical, biological or anything of the like. Studies have been conducted, but it has proven difficult to find the specific component that causes the change in situational social-categorization.

Uncertainty

Uncertainty in the VUCA framework is almost just as it sounds: when the availability or predictability of information in events is unknown. Uncertainty often occurs in volatile environments that are complex in structure involving unanticipated interactions that are significant in uncertainty. Uncertainty may occur in the intention to imply causation or correlation between the events of a social perceiver and a target. Situations where there is either a lack of information to prove why a perception is in occurrence or informational availability but lack of causation are where uncertainty is salient.

The uncertainty component of the framework serves as a grey area and is compensated by the use of social categorization and/or stereotypes. Social categorization can be described as a collection of people that have no interaction but tend to share similar characteristics with one another. People have a tendency to engage in social categorization, especially when there is a lack of information surrounding the event. Literature suggests that there are default categories that tend to be assumed in the absence of any clear data when referring to someone’s gender or race in the essence of a discussion.

Often individuals associate the use of general references (e.g. people, they, them, a group) with the male gender, meaning people. This instance often occurs when there is not enough information to clearly distinguish someone’s gender. For example, when discussing a written piece of information most people will assume the author is a male. If an author’s name is not available (lack of information) it is difficult to determine the gender of the author through the context of whatever was written. People will automatically label the author as a male without having any prior basis of gender, placing the author in a social category. This social categorization happens in this example, but people will also assume someone is a male if the gender is not known in many other situations as well.

Complexity

Complexity is the “C” component of VUCA, that refers to the interconnectivity and interdependence of multiple components in a system. When conducting research, complexity is a component that scholars have to keep in mind. The results of a deliberately controlled environment are unexpected because of the non-linear interaction and interdependencies within different groups and categories.

In a sociological aspect, the VUCA framework is utilized in research to understand social perception in the real world and how that plays into social categorization as well as stereotypes. Galen V Bodenhausen and Destiny Peery’s article Social Categorization and Stereotyping In vivo: The VUCA Challenge, focused on researching how social categories impacted the process of social cognition and perception. The strategy used to conduct the research is to manipulate or isolate a single identity of a target while keeping all other identities constant. This method creates clear results of how a specific identity in a social category can change one’s perception of other identities, thus creating stereotypes.

There are problems with categorizing an individual’s social identity due to the complexity of an individual’s background. This research fails to address the complexity of the real-world and the results from this highlighted an even great picture about social categorization and stereotyping. Complexity adds many layers of different components to an individual’s identity and creates challenges for sociologists trying to examine social categories. In the real world, people are far more complex compared to a modified social environment. Individuals identify with more than one social category, which opens the door to a deeper discovery about stereotyping. Results from research conducted by Bodenhausen reveals that there are certain identities that are more dominant than others. Perceivers who recognize these specific identities latch on to it and associate their preconceived notion of such identity and make initial assumptions about the individuals and hence stereotypes are created.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity is the “A” component of VUCA. This refers to when the general meaning of something is unclear even when an appropriate amount of information is provided. Many get confused about the meaning of ambiguity. It is similar to the idea of uncertainty but they have different factors. Uncertainty is when relevant information is unavailable and unknown, and ambiguity where relevant information is available but the overall meaning is still unknown. Both uncertainty and ambiguity exist in our culture today. Sociologists use ambiguity to determine how and why an answer has been developed. Sociologists focus on details such as if there was enough information present, and did the subject have the full amount of knowledge necessary to make a decision. and why did he/she come to their specific answer.

Ambiguity leads to people assuming an answer, and many times this leads assuming ones race, gender, and can even lead to class stereotypes. If a person has some information but still doesn’t have the overall answer, the person starts to assume his/her own answer based on the relevant information he/she already possesses. For example, as mentioned by Bodenhausen we may occasionally encounter people who are sufficiently androgynous to make it difficult to ascertain their gender, and at least one study suggests that with brief exposure, androgynous individuals can sometimes be miscategorized on the basis of gender-atypical features (very long hair, for a man, or very short hair, for a woman. Overall, ambiguity leads to the categorization of many. For example, it may lead to assuming ones sexual orientation. Unless a person is open about their own sexual orientation, people will automatically assume that they are heterosexual. But if a man possesses feminine qualities or a female possesses masculine qualities then they might be portrayed as either gay or lesbian. Ambiguity leads to the categorization of people without further important details that could lead to untrue conclusions.