Tag: Equity

Management Notes

Cash Price, Meaning, Objectives, Works

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes4

Cash price refers to the actual amount of money required to purchase an asset or good outright, without any financing or credit arrangement. It is the price paid when the buyer pays the full amount upfront, usually at the point of sale, and takes immediate ownership of the product. This amount excludes any additional costs such as interest, finance charges, or administrative fees that may apply under credit arrangements like hire purchase or installment plans.

In simple terms, the cash price is the amount that a buyer would need to pay if they are not using any deferred payment system. For example, if a refrigerator is sold at a cash price of ₹20,000, it means the buyer can take it home immediately by paying ₹20,000 without any extra costs. However, if the same product is bought through a hire purchase or installment scheme, the total amount paid over time (called the hire purchase price) will usually be higher because it includes interest and other charges.

The concept of cash price is important for both buyers and sellers because it serves as the base value of the product. It helps buyers compare whether it’s more economical to buy outright or use financing. For accounting and legal purposes, the cash price must be clearly stated in credit agreements to ensure transparency.

Objectives of Cash Price:

  • To Determine the Base Value of Goods

One key objective of the cash price is to establish the actual, base value of a product or asset without any added financial costs. This allows both buyers and sellers to understand what the item is worth when paid in full, upfront. It serves as the starting point for pricing, enabling clear comparisons between outright purchases and financed purchases. Without a clear cash price, buyers might struggle to evaluate whether credit options or hire purchase terms offer them good value.

  • To Provide Transparent Pricing

Another important objective of setting a cash price is to promote transparency in transactions. Buyers need to know how much they are paying for the product itself, separate from any interest or credit charges. This clear distinction allows consumers to make informed decisions about how to pay — whether to choose an upfront payment or opt for installment schemes. Transparent cash pricing protects buyers from hidden costs and ensures fairness in the market.

  • To Serve as a Benchmark for Credit Pricing

The cash price acts as a benchmark against which credit or hire purchase prices are calculated. Credit purchases always involve extra costs like interest, administrative fees, or service charges. By knowing the cash price, buyers can assess how much extra they will pay for the convenience of deferred payments. For sellers, it helps set accurate financing terms, ensuring that credit options reflect fair and reasonable additional charges over the base cash value.

  • To Help in Financial Planning

Cash price plays a critical role in helping both buyers and businesses plan their finances. Buyers can evaluate if they have enough funds to make an outright purchase or if they should spread payments over time. For businesses, knowing the cash price allows them to calculate profit margins, manage cash flows, and decide how much capital they will receive from immediate sales. It creates clarity for planning purchases, sales strategies, and budget allocations.

  • To Simplify Accounting and Record-Keeping

From an accounting perspective, the cash price simplifies record-keeping by providing a clear, unambiguous value to record in the books. When businesses sell items for cash, the transaction is straightforward and requires no complex adjustments for interest or finance charges. This objective ensures that sales records, profit calculations, and tax reporting are easier to manage. It also helps avoid confusion or misstatement of values in financial statements and company accounts.

  • To Attract Price-Sensitive Customers

Cash price targets customers who prefer to avoid additional charges and pay upfront. Many buyers, especially price-sensitive ones, are looking for the best possible deal and want to avoid financing costs. By offering a clear and attractive cash price, businesses can appeal to this segment and increase sales volume. This objective helps companies balance between serving credit customers and maximizing sales among buyers who prioritize cost savings.

  • To Speed Up Sales Transactions

Another objective of setting a cash price is to accelerate sales by encouraging upfront payments. When buyers pay in cash, there’s no need for lengthy paperwork, credit checks, or approval processes. This speeds up the transaction process, reduces administrative burden for the seller, and results in immediate cash inflow. Faster transactions also mean that sellers can move inventory more quickly, improving their overall business efficiency and reducing stock-holding costs.

  • To Establish Fair Market Competition

Having a clear cash price ensures fair competition in the market. When all sellers display transparent upfront pricing, buyers can compare offers and choose the most cost-effective option. This prevents unfair practices where some sellers might hide extra costs in unclear financing terms. The objective here is to maintain a level playing field where businesses compete on the true value of their products, not just on clever or confusing payment schemes.

  • To Fulfill Legal and Regulatory Requirements

In many countries, displaying or disclosing the cash price is a legal requirement under consumer protection laws. This objective ensures that sellers comply with regulations designed to protect buyers from deceptive or unfair pricing practices. It also ensures that financial agreements, such as hire purchase contracts, clearly differentiate between the cash price and the total credit cost, reducing disputes and maintaining transparency in commercial transactions.

How Cash Price Work?

Cash price is the actual price of a product or asset when paid fully at the time of purchase, without using any credit, installment, or financing option. When a buyer pays the cash price, they pay only for the value of the item itself, without any additional costs such as interest, service charges, or processing fees. This is usually the lowest total amount a buyer can pay for an item.

For example, if a washing machine has a cash price of ₹25,000, it means the buyer can own it immediately by paying ₹25,000 upfront. There are no hidden costs, no future payments, and no conditions attached. Once the cash price is paid, ownership is fully transferred from the seller to the buyer.

In contrast, if the buyer opts for a hire purchase or installment scheme, they might pay over time, but the total amount (known as the hire purchase price or total installment cost) will include extra charges like interest or administrative fees. This total will always be more than the original cash price.

Cash price works as a benchmark in sales, helping buyers understand the base value of a product and decide if they want to pay upfront or over time. It also helps sellers set fair credit terms, ensuring the extra charges on credit sales are transparent and justifiable.

Management Notes

Hire Purchase Price, Meaning, Objectives, Features, Needs

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes2

Hire purchase price refers to the total amount a buyer agrees to pay under a hire purchase agreement in order to eventually own a particular asset. It is more than just the cash price of the asset because it also includes additional costs like interest, service charges, administrative fees, and sometimes insurance. This total is usually spread out over a series of fixed monthly or quarterly installments, making it easier for buyers to afford expensive items without paying the full price upfront.

Under a hire purchase system, the buyer pays a down payment at the beginning, followed by regular installments over a fixed period. While the buyer gains the right to use the asset immediately after signing the agreement, ownership remains with the seller or finance company until all payments are completed. Only after the final installment is paid does ownership legally transfer to the buyer.

For example, if the cash price of machinery is ₹500,000 and the buyer agrees to a hire purchase plan with a ₹100,000 down payment and 24 monthly installments of ₹20,000 (which includes interest), the hire purchase price would be ₹100,000 + (₹20,000 × 24) = ₹580,000. This amount reflects both the principal and the financing cost.

Objectives of Hire Purchase Price:

  • Facilitate Asset Acquisition

One of the primary objectives of the hire purchase price is to enable buyers to acquire expensive assets without paying the full cash price upfront. By allowing payment in installments, the hire purchase price helps individuals and businesses access goods like vehicles, machinery, and equipment that might otherwise be unaffordable. This objective promotes economic activity by making costly purchases more accessible to a wider range of buyers, facilitating consumption and business growth.

  • Recover the Cost and Interest

The hire purchase price aims to ensure the seller recovers not only the cost of the asset but also the interest or finance charges over the installment period. Since the buyer enjoys the use of the asset immediately but ownership transfers only after full payment, the price includes compensation for credit risk and time value of money. This objective balances affordability for the buyer with profitability for the seller or financier, enabling sustainable credit arrangements.

  • Promote Flexible Payment Terms

Another objective is to provide flexible payment options tailored to the buyer’s financial capability. The hire purchase price is structured to allow manageable periodic payments, reducing the immediate financial burden on the buyer. This flexibility encourages timely payments and reduces defaults, ensuring the contract’s smooth functioning. By setting a clear, predetermined total price, both parties understand their obligations throughout the agreement’s term.

  • Ensure Legal Clarity and Security

The hire purchase price is established to provide legal clarity regarding the total payment obligation of the buyer. It clearly defines the sum due, including principal and interest, preventing disputes about payment amounts. This objective protects both the seller’s ownership rights until full payment and the buyer’s rights to use the asset. It also aids in legal enforcement if payment terms are breached, fostering trust in hire purchase transactions.

  • Encourage Credit Sales and Economic Growth

By setting an all-inclusive hire purchase price, sellers can confidently offer credit sales without upfront cash, stimulating demand. This pricing objective helps expand the market for high-value goods, encourages consumption, and supports economic growth. Buyers benefit from immediate use, while sellers increase sales volume. The hire purchase price balances risks and rewards, making credit sales viable and beneficial for the overall economy.

  • Simplify Financial Planning for Buyers

The hire purchase price objective includes simplifying financial planning for buyers by specifying the total payable amount upfront. Buyers can budget their finances by knowing exact installment amounts and payment durations. This predictability reduces financial uncertainty and helps buyers manage cash flows better. Clear knowledge of the hire purchase price assists buyers in comparing different credit offers, promoting informed decision-making.

  • Manage Risk and Default

The hire purchase price helps manage risks associated with non-payment by including interest charges and fees that compensate sellers for credit risks. It acts as a deterrent against default by making buyers aware of the financial consequences of missed payments. The price also reflects provisions for repossession costs and administrative expenses. This objective ensures the seller’s protection while maintaining buyer accountability throughout the agreement.

  • Promote Transparency and Fairness

Lastly, the hire purchase price aims to promote transparency and fairness in credit sales. By clearly stating the total cost, including interest and fees, buyers are not misled by low installment amounts alone. This transparency helps prevent hidden charges or unfair pricing practices. Clear hire purchase pricing builds trust between buyers and sellers and encourages ethical business practices in the credit market.

Features of Hire Purchase Price:

  • Inclusive of Cash Price and Interest

The hire purchase price is not just the cash price of the asset; it includes the cash price plus interest and other charges. This means the buyer pays more than the asset’s upfront cost because they are purchasing on credit, compensating the seller for the time value of money and credit risk. This combined amount is divided into installments over the hire purchase period.

  • Payable in Installments

Unlike a lump-sum payment, the hire purchase price is paid in installments, usually monthly or quarterly. This feature allows buyers to spread out payments over time, making expensive assets more affordable. Each installment includes a portion of the principal and interest, easing cash flow management for buyers while ensuring gradual recovery for sellers.

  • Ownership Transfers After Full Payment

A key feature is that the buyer does not own the asset until the entire hire purchase price is paid. Despite using the asset during the agreement, legal ownership remains with the seller until the last installment. This protects the seller’s interests, allowing repossession if the buyer defaults before full payment.

  • Includes Additional Charges

Besides the cash price and interest, the hire purchase price may include other charges such as administrative fees, insurance, and processing costs. These extra fees are incorporated to cover expenses related to managing the credit and safeguarding the asset, ensuring sellers do not incur losses during the contract.

  • Fixed and Pre-determined Amount

The total hire purchase price is fixed and agreed upon at the start of the contract. Both parties know the exact amount to be paid and the payment schedule, ensuring transparency. This prevents disputes over payment amounts and protects buyers from sudden price hikes during the term.

  • Reflects Credit Risk and Time Value

Since payment extends over time, the hire purchase price factors in credit risk—the risk of buyer default—and the time value of money. Interest charged compensates sellers for delaying full payment and assuming the risk of non-payment, making this pricing feature essential to the credit sales mechanism.

  • Facilitates Budgeting and Financial Planning

By clearly stating the total price and installment structure, the hire purchase price helps buyers plan their finances. They can allocate funds accordingly, ensuring timely payments and avoiding defaults. This feature provides predictability, making credit purchases less stressful.

  • Supports Legal and Contractual Clarity

The hire purchase price is explicitly mentioned in the agreement, providing legal clarity on financial obligations. It serves as a reference point for enforcement if payments are missed, aiding in dispute resolution. This clarity protects both buyers and sellers throughout the contract’s duration.

Need for Hire Purchase Price:

  • Facilitates Purchase of Expensive Assets

The hire purchase price is essential because it enables buyers to acquire costly assets without paying the full cash price upfront. Many individuals and businesses cannot afford large one-time payments, so spreading the cost over installments makes ownership feasible and affordable.

  • Covers Cost of Credit and Interest

The hire purchase price ensures sellers recover not only the asset’s cash price but also interest and finance charges. This compensates sellers for the delayed payment and risks involved in providing credit, making hire purchase agreements financially viable.

  • Provides Clear Payment Terms

Having a fixed hire purchase price sets clear payment obligations for buyers. This transparency reduces confusion or disputes about installment amounts and total costs, making transactions smoother and more trustworthy.

  • Protects Seller’s Ownership Rights

Until the hire purchase price is fully paid, ownership remains with the seller. The need for the hire purchase price helps legally enforce this arrangement, protecting sellers against default or loss of property before full payment.

  • Encourages Credit Sales and Market Growth

By defining a clear price structure, hire purchase agreements stimulate demand for expensive goods. Buyers are encouraged to make purchases on credit, which boosts sales and promotes economic growth by expanding consumer access.

  • Helps Buyers Budget Payments

Knowing the total hire purchase price and installment schedule assists buyers in financial planning. This need for defined pricing allows them to manage cash flow effectively, ensuring timely payments and reducing defaults.

  • Reflects True Cost of Credit

The hire purchase price reveals the actual cost of buying on credit, including interest and fees. This transparency prevents hidden charges and educates buyers about the financial implications of hire purchase agreements.

  • Ensures Legal and Contractual Clarity

A clearly stated hire purchase price in agreements is necessary for legal enforceability. It defines the buyer’s obligations and supports dispute resolution if payments are missed, safeguarding both parties.

Management Notes

Total Debtors Account

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

When you purchase goods on credit it is entered in the purchase book. The entries in the purchases book is sumedup and journal entries passed as purchases a/c Dr. to Sundry Debtors a/c.at the end of the month. Similar method followed in sales book and entries are sumed up Sundry Debtors a/c is debited and sales account is credited. Similarly bills payable are entered in the bills payable book and bills receivable are entered in the bills receivable book and synes up respectively and Bills receivable a/c is debited with sundry debtors and sundry creditors are debited bills payables a/ c is credited .In the book -keeping various books are maintained such as cashbook purchases book sales book sundry debtors book sundry creditors book bills payable book ,bills receivable book , general ledger petty cashbook and journal entry register.

From the credit sales as ascertained from total debtors account, the sales returns should be deducted from gross credit sales to get net credit sales.

Management Notes

Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Accounts

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Bills receivable book is a subsidiary book used to record all bills of exchange and promissory notes received by a business from its customers. These financial instruments serve as evidence of a customer’s obligation to pay a specified amount at a future date. The bills receivable book captures essential details, including the date of receipt, customer name, amount, due date, and any discounts applicable. This systematic record helps businesses manage their receivables, monitor cash flow, and track payments effectively, ensuring timely collection of funds and accurate financial reporting.

Features of Bills Receivable Book:

  • Detailed Record Keeping

The bills receivable book captures detailed information about each bill received, including the date of receipt, the name of the customer, the amount, the due date, and any applicable discounts. This thorough documentation aids in precise tracking and management of receivables.

  • Facilitates Cash Flow Management

By maintaining a bills receivable book, businesses can monitor their expected cash inflows effectively. It provides visibility into when payments are due, allowing companies to plan their cash flow and manage working capital more efficiently. This is crucial for maintaining financial stability and ensuring that the business can meet its obligations.

  • Tracking of Due Dates

The bills receivable book enables businesses to track the due dates of various bills. This feature is vital for ensuring timely collection of payments. By being aware of upcoming due dates, businesses can follow up with customers and reduce the risk of late payments, which can impact cash flow.

  • Identification of Discounts

The bills receivable book allows businesses to record any discounts that may be applicable to the bills received. This feature helps businesses optimize their cash collections by ensuring they take advantage of any early payment discounts offered by customers, enhancing profitability.

  • Management of Customer Relationships

By systematically recording bills receivable, businesses can improve their communication and relationships with customers. The book serves as a reference point for discussions about outstanding payments, fostering transparency and trust between the business and its clients.

  • Integration with Accounting Systems

The bills receivable book is often integrated with a company’s accounting software. This integration ensures that all receivables are accurately reflected in the financial statements, allowing for seamless reconciliation of accounts and better financial reporting.

  • Facilitates Financial Analysis

The information recorded in the bills receivable book can be used for financial analysis. Businesses can analyze their receivables turnover ratio, assess customer payment behaviors, and make informed decisions regarding credit policies and risk management. This analytical capability supports strategic planning and enhances overall business performance.

Example Entries of Bills Receivable Book

Date Bill No. Customer Name Amount Due Date Status
2024-10-01 BR001 John Doe $1,000 2024-12-01 Unpaid
2024-10-05 BR002 Jane Smith $500 2024-11-05 Unpaid
2024-10-10 BR003 XYZ Corp. $2,000 2025-01-10 Paid
2024-10-15 BR004 ABC Ltd. $750 2024-12-15 Unpaid
2024-10-20 BR005 Global Traders $1,500 2025-01-20 Paid

Bills Payable Book

Bills Payable Book is a subsidiary book used to record all bills of exchange and promissory notes that a business has issued to its suppliers. These documents represent the business’s obligation to pay a specified amount at a future date. The bills payable book captures crucial details, including the date of issuance, supplier name, amount, due date, and any discounts applicable. This systematic record helps businesses manage their liabilities, track payment schedules, and ensure timely payments to suppliers. By maintaining an accurate bills payable book, businesses can enhance cash flow management and uphold strong supplier relationships.

Features of Bills Payable Book:

  • Comprehensive Record Keeping

The bills payable book meticulously documents all details related to bills payable, including the date of issuance, supplier name, amount owed, due date, and any applicable discounts. This thorough documentation facilitates accurate tracking and management of outstanding liabilities, ensuring that the business remains organized and informed about its financial obligations.

  • Effective Cash Flow Management

Maintaining a bills payable book aids businesses in managing their cash flow more effectively. By keeping track of upcoming payments, businesses can better plan their cash outflows and allocate funds accordingly. This feature is essential for maintaining liquidity, as it helps ensure that the business can meet its financial obligations on time, thus avoiding late fees or penalties.

  • Due Date Tracking

One of the most critical features of the bills payable book is its ability to track due dates for each bill. By having a clear record of when payments are due, businesses can prioritize their payments and ensure timely settlements. This helps to build positive relationships with suppliers and can lead to better credit terms in the future.

  • Management of Supplier Relationships

The bills payable book supports the management of supplier relationships by providing a reliable reference for payment schedules. By consistently honoring payment commitments, businesses can foster goodwill with suppliers, which may lead to favorable credit terms or discounts in future transactions. Maintaining healthy supplier relationships is crucial for the ongoing success of any business.

  • Integration with Accounting Systems

Typically, the bills payable book is integrated with the business’s accounting software. This integration allows for seamless updates to the general ledger, ensuring that all liabilities are accurately reflected in financial statements. This feature enhances the overall efficiency of financial reporting and facilitates better decision-making.

  • Facilitation of Financial Analysis

The information contained within the bills payable book can be invaluable for financial analysis. Businesses can assess their payment patterns, evaluate their liabilities, and analyze the accounts payable turnover ratio. This analysis supports informed decision-making regarding credit policies, supplier negotiations, and cash management strategies.

  • Control Over Credit Limits

By maintaining a detailed bills payable book, businesses can monitor their outstanding obligations and ensure they do not exceed their credit limits with suppliers. This feature aids in avoiding over-leveraging and helps maintain financial discipline. By keeping track of all payables, businesses can make informed decisions regarding additional purchases and manage their credit risk effectively.

Example Entries of Bills Payable Book:

Date Bill No. Supplier Name Amount Due Date Status
2024-10-01 BP001 ABC Supplies $1,200 2024-11-01 Unpaid
2024-10-05 BP002 XYZ Wholesalers $800 2024-10-25 Paid
2024-10-10 BP003 Global Traders $1,500 2024-11-10 Unpaid
2024-10-12 BP004 Best Goods $950 2024-12-01 Unpaid
2024-10-15 BP005 Supply Co. $600 2024-11-15 Paid

Key differences between Bills Receivable Book and Bills Payable Book

Feature Bills Receivable Book Bills Payable Book
Nature Asset Liability
Purpose Track incoming payments Track outgoing payments
Recorded by Business Receivers Business Payables
Customer Relationship Receivable from Customers Payable to Suppliers
Financial Impact Increases Cash Flow Decreases Cash Flow
Status Unpaid/Paid Receivables Unpaid/Paid Payables
Documentation Bills and Promissory Notes Bills and Promissory Notes
Due Date Monitoring Collection Dates Payment Dates
Financial Statements Accounts Receivable Accounts Payable
Management Focus Revenue Collection Expense Management
Analysis Receivables Turnover Payables Turnover
Integration Revenue Accounts Expense Accounts

Management Notes

Accounting Functions and Attributes

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Accounting refers to the systematic process of recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting financial transactions of a business or organization. It provides essential information about financial performance and position, aiding in decision-making and compliance with regulations. Key elements include assets, liabilities, equity, revenues, and expenses.

Functions of Accounting

  1. Keeping Systematic Records

Accounting is to report the results of most business events. Hence, its main function is to keep a systematic record of these events. This function embraces recording transactions in journal and subsidiary books like cashbook, sales book etc., posting them to ledger accounts and ultimately preparing the financial statements [final accounts].

  1. Communicating the Results

The second main function of accounting is to communicate the financial facts of the enterprise to the various interested parties like owners, investors, creditors, employees, government, and research scholars, etc.

The purpose of this function is to enable these parties to have better understanding of the business and take sound and realistic economic decisions.

  1. Meeting the Legal Requirements

Accounting aims at fulfilling the legal requirements, especially of the tax authorities and regulators of the business. It discharges this function in accordance with certain fundamental truths and uniform enforcement of generally accepted accounting principles.

  1. Protecting the Properties of the Business

Accounting helps protecting the property of the business.

  1. Planning and Controlling the Business Activities

Accounting also helps planning future activities of an enterprise and controlling its day-to-day operations. This function is done mainly to promote maximum operational efficiency.

Attributes of Accounting

  1. Accounting is both an art and science

Analysis, interpretations and communication of financial results are the art of accounting requiring special knowledge, experience and judgment. As a science, accounting is governed by certain principles, concepts, conventions and policies. But it is not an exact science like other physical sciences; rather it is an exacting science.

  1. It involves recording, classifying, and summarizing

Recording means systematically writing down in account books the transactions and events reasonably soon after their occurrence.

Classifying is the process of grouping of transactions or entries of one nature at one place. This is done by opening accounts in a book called ledger. Summarizing involves the preparation of reports and statements from the classified data [i.e., ledger]. This involves the preparation of final accounts.

  1. It records transactions in terms of money

This provides a common measure of recording and increases the understanding of the state of affairs of the business.

  1. It records only those transactions and events, which are financial in character.

Non-financial events, howsoever important they may be for the business, are not recorded in accounting.

  1. It is the art of interpreting the results of operations

It aids to determine the financial position of the enterprise, the progress it has made, and how well it is getting along.

  1. It involves communication

The results of analysis and interpretation are communicated to the management and other interested parties.

Management Notes

Reconciliation of Financial accounts and Cost accounting

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Reconciliation of financial accounts and cost accounts refers to the process of matching and comparing the data recorded in the financial accounting system with that in the cost accounting system. While financial accounts focus on preparing financial statements for external reporting, cost accounts are designed to provide detailed cost information for internal management purposes. Since these systems may use different methods and principles, reconciliation is essential to ensure accuracy, identify discrepancies, and provide a unified view of financial and operational performance.

Need for Reconciliation:

  • Differences in Objectives

Financial accounting aims at reporting an organization’s financial position and performance to external stakeholders, adhering to standardized rules like Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Cost accounting, on the other hand, focuses on internal decision-making, cost control, and efficiency improvements.

  • Variations in Treatment of Costs

Financial accounting categorizes costs into fixed, variable, and mixed costs for reporting purposes. Cost accounting uses classifications like direct and indirect costs, product costs, and period costs for analysis and control.

  • Separate Sets of Books

Often, organizations maintain separate records for financial and cost accounting, leading to differences that necessitate reconciliation.

  • Compliance and Accuracy

Reconciling financial and cost accounts ensures compliance with statutory requirements, eliminates errors, and provides reliable data for stakeholders.

Causes of Discrepancies:

  • Valuation of Inventory

Financial accounts typically value inventory using methods like FIFO, LIFO, or weighted average. Cost accounts may use different valuation bases, such as standard cost or marginal cost.

  • Depreciation Methods

Financial accounts might use straight-line or reducing-balance methods for depreciation, whereas cost accounts may allocate depreciation based on machine hours or production units.

  • Overhead Allocation

Overheads are distributed differently in financial and cost accounts. Financial accounts allocate actual overheads, while cost accounts often use predetermined overhead rates.

  • Inclusion of Non-Cost Items

Financial accounts include items such as interest, dividends, and abnormal losses or gains. Cost accounts exclude these as they are not directly related to production or operations.

  • Treatment of Profits

Cost accounts may calculate profit differently, excluding certain incomes or allocating costs differently than financial accounts.

Steps in Reconciliation:

  1. Preparation of Cost and Financial Statements
    Gather the financial profit and loss account and the cost accounting profit statement to begin the reconciliation process.
  2. Identify Variances
    Examine differences in treatment of costs, incomes, overheads, and inventory valuation between the two systems.
  3. Categorize Discrepancies
    Classify discrepancies as either:

    • Additions: Costs or expenses recorded in financial accounts but not in cost accounts.
    • Deductions: Costs or expenses recorded in cost accounts but not in financial accounts.
  4. Reconcile Profits
    Adjust the profit reported in cost accounts by adding or subtracting the variances identified to arrive at the financial profit figure.
  5. Prepare a Reconciliation Statement
    Create a structured statement showing the adjustments made to reconcile the cost accounts profit with the financial accounts profit.

Format of Reconciliation Statement

Particulars Amount
Profit as per Cost Accounts XXXX
Add: Items in Financial Accounts only
– Income not recorded in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Overheads undercharged in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Abnormal Gains XXXX
Total Additions XXXX
Less: Items in Cost Accounts only
– Overheads overcharged in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Non-cost Items (e.g., interest) XXXX
– Abnormal Losses XXXX
Total Deductions XXXX
Adjusted Profit as per Financial Accounts XXXX

Benefits of Reconciliation

  • Accuracy in Reporting

Ensures that both cost and financial data are aligned, enhancing the reliability of financial statements.

  • Enhanced Decision-Making

Reconciled data provides management with a clear understanding of cost structures, enabling better strategic decisions.

  • Error Detection

Identifies discrepancies, errors, or omissions in either set of accounts, ensuring that they are rectified promptly.

  • Regulatory Compliance

Supports compliance with statutory requirements by aligning cost and financial data for audit and reporting purposes.

  • Improved Efficiency

Streamlines processes by identifying inefficiencies in cost allocation and financial reporting.

Challenges in Reconciliation

  • Complexity in Large Organizations

Reconciling data in large firms with numerous transactions and cost centers can be time-consuming and complex.

  • Variability in Accounting Policies

Differences in policies, such as depreciation or inventory valuation, can complicate the reconciliation process.

  • Resource-Intensive Process

Requires skilled personnel and dedicated resources, which might be a constraint for smaller businesses.

Management Notes

Hire Purchase Agreement, Meaning, Features, Laws, Merits, Demerits, Duties of the Parties

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Hire purchase agreement is a legal contract between a buyer (hirer) and a seller (or finance company), where the buyer agrees to pay for an asset in installments over a period of time while having the right to use the asset immediately. However, ownership of the asset remains with the seller or financier until the final payment is made. Only after completing all scheduled payments does the buyer gain full ownership.

This system is commonly used to finance expensive assets such as vehicles, machinery, appliances, or equipment that individuals or businesses cannot afford to pay for upfront. Typically, the agreement starts with a down payment (usually a percentage of the asset’s price), followed by regular monthly or periodic installments that cover the remaining balance plus interest.

Hire purchase agreements usually include terms on payment schedule, interest rates, penalties for missed payments, maintenance responsibilities, insurance requirements, and repossession rights. If the buyer defaults, the seller has the right to repossess the asset, and previous payments may be forfeited.

This financing method is popular because it allows buyers to use the asset while paying for it over time, improving cash flow flexibility. However, it comes with higher overall costs due to added interest and administrative fees, and buyers face the risk of losing the asset if they default before completing all payments. Despite these drawbacks, hire purchase agreements remain a widely used method for structured asset financing.

Features of Hire Purchase Agreement:

  • Installment-Based Payment System

A key feature of a hire purchase agreement is its installment payment structure, where the buyer pays the total price of the asset over several periodic payments. This helps buyers spread the cost over time, making expensive assets more affordable without requiring a large upfront payment. Each installment usually includes both a principal and interest component. This system improves cash flow, making it easier for businesses or individuals to acquire assets they couldn’t pay for in a single lump sum.

  • Ownership Transfers After Final Payment

Under a hire purchase agreement, ownership of the asset does not pass to the buyer at the start. Instead, the seller or finance company retains ownership until all installments have been paid in full. Only after completing the final payment does the legal title transfer to the buyer. This distinguishes hire purchase from credit sales or outright purchases. Until ownership transfers, the buyer is essentially a hirer, even though they have full possession and use of the asset during the payment period.

  • Right to Use the Asset Immediately

Although ownership remains with the seller, the buyer in a hire purchase agreement has the immediate right to use the asset once the contract is signed and the initial down payment is made. This feature is crucial for businesses that need machinery, vehicles, or equipment to generate income while paying for it over time. This arrangement allows the hirer to benefit from the asset’s utility even before completing the payment schedule, helping them increase productivity or meet personal needs right away.

  • Down Payment Requirement

Hire purchase agreements usually require the buyer to make an initial down payment, typically a fixed percentage of the asset’s price. This upfront payment reduces the amount to be financed and serves as a commitment from the buyer. The remaining balance is then paid in regular installments over the agreed period. The down payment helps reduce the lender’s risk and gives the buyer immediate access to the asset, even though full ownership will only come after all payments are completed.

  • Inclusion of Interest Charges

The installment payments under a hire purchase agreement typically include not just the principal amount but also interest charges. These charges compensate the seller or finance company for providing the buyer with extended payment terms. The interest rate is usually specified in the agreement and depends on market rates, the buyer’s creditworthiness, and the asset’s value. This feature means that, over time, the total cost of the asset through hire purchase is higher than its cash price, reflecting the cost of credit.

  • Default and Repossession Rights

An important feature of hire purchase is the seller’s right to repossess the asset if the buyer defaults on installment payments. Since ownership remains with the seller during the contract period, failure to meet payment obligations allows the seller to reclaim the asset without legal proceedings. This protects the seller’s interest but poses a risk for the buyer, who may lose both the asset and the money already paid. This clause is usually outlined clearly in the agreement’s terms and conditions.

  • Flexibility in Contract Terms

Hire purchase agreements often offer flexible terms regarding the payment schedule, contract length, and down payment percentage. Buyers and sellers can negotiate these elements to suit their financial capabilities and needs. For example, some agreements may allow larger installments over a shorter term, while others may stretch smaller payments over a longer period. This flexibility makes hire purchase an attractive financing option for both individuals and businesses seeking customized payment plans based on their cash flow.

  • Responsibility for Maintenance and Insurance

Under most hire purchase agreements, the buyer is responsible for maintaining and insuring the asset, even though ownership has not yet transferred. This is because the buyer has possession and full use of the asset during the installment period. Any damage, loss, or deterioration is the buyer’s responsibility, and failing to maintain or insure the asset could result in additional penalties or breach of contract. This feature ensures that the asset retains its value for both parties until full payment.

Laws Governing Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Indian Hire Purchase Act, 1972

The Indian Hire Purchase Act, 1972, was designed to regulate hire purchase transactions across India. It aimed to define the rights and obligations of both owners (sellers) and hirers (buyers) under such agreements. Although the Act was enacted, it has not been brought into force and therefore does not apply in practice. Despite this, its provisions are often referenced for guidance, and many terms in hire purchase contracts align with its framework, ensuring fairness and clarity in these financial arrangements.

  • Indian Contract Act, 1872

Since the Hire Purchase Act, 1972, remains unenforced, most hire purchase agreements are governed under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. This Act outlines general principles of contracts, such as offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity to contract, and free consent. Hire purchase agreements, being legally binding contracts, must comply with these requirements. If any part of the agreement violates these general principles (e.g., is based on coercion or misrepresentation), the contract can be declared void or voidable under the Indian Contract Act.

  • Sale of Goods Act, 1930

The Sale of Goods Act, 1930, also indirectly applies to hire purchase agreements. Although a hire purchase is not an outright sale, the Act’s provisions regarding conditions, warranties, and transfer of ownership guide many aspects of these transactions. For instance, the Act clarifies when ownership passes from seller to buyer and what rights the buyer has regarding defective goods. Courts sometimes refer to the Sale of Goods Act when interpreting hire purchase disputes, particularly regarding the quality or fitness of goods.

  • Transfer of Property Act, 1882

The Transfer of Property Act, 1882, governs how property is transferred between parties in India. While this Act mainly applies to immovable property, certain principles related to the transfer of rights and title can also influence hire purchase arrangements. In hire purchase, ownership remains with the seller until the final payment. The Transfer of Property Act helps clarify when, legally, rights pass from one party to another, ensuring both parties understand their roles and the timing of ownership transfer.

  • Consumer Protection Act, 2019

The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, protects the rights of consumers involved in hire purchase agreements. Buyers, as consumers, can file complaints against unfair trade practices, defective products, or misleading information under this Act. If a hire purchase seller fails to provide goods of acceptable quality or misleads the buyer, the buyer can seek redressal through consumer forums. This Act strengthens the consumer’s position and ensures they receive fair treatment and protection, even though they do not yet own the asset.

Merits of Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Easy Access to Assets

Hire purchase agreements allow buyers to access expensive goods without paying the full price upfront. This system enables individuals and businesses to acquire machinery, vehicles, or equipment they might otherwise be unable to afford. By spreading payments over time, it reduces the financial burden, making assets accessible even to small businesses or low-income buyers. This boosts business operations, improves personal convenience, and allows users to benefit from the asset’s use before full ownership is secured.

  • Flexible Payment Terms

One major merit of hire purchase is the flexibility of its payment structure. Buyers can negotiate installment schedules that fit their income flow or business revenue. Whether through monthly, quarterly, or other periodic payments, this flexibility eases budgeting and financial planning. It prevents sudden cash outflows, helping businesses maintain liquidity and ensuring personal buyers avoid straining their finances. The structured, predictable payment plan also makes it easier for buyers to meet their obligations without undue stress.

  • Facilitates Business Growth

For businesses, hire purchase agreements play a vital role in growth and expansion. Companies can obtain essential machinery, vehicles, or technology immediately, putting them to productive use while paying gradually. This allows businesses to generate income from the hired assets even before completing the purchase. By enhancing production capacity or service delivery without exhausting capital reserves, businesses can invest in other areas, maintain working capital, and pursue expansion opportunities without waiting for full asset ownership.

  • Encourages Asset Use Before Ownership

Hire purchase agreements let the buyer use the asset while still paying for it, offering immediate benefits. Unlike outright purchases, where full payment is needed upfront, or rentals, where there’s no ownership transfer, hire purchase blends use with eventual ownership. This arrangement is especially useful for those needing immediate use of the asset but lacking sufficient funds. It provides users with the ability to enjoy the product, generate revenue, or meet needs while paying gradually.

  • Boosts Credit Reputation

Successfully completing hire purchase agreements can help individuals and businesses build or improve their credit history. Timely payments signal financial responsibility to lenders, making it easier to secure future loans or credit lines. For businesses, a good credit reputation boosts investor confidence and facilitates access to larger financing options. This positive credit impact encourages responsible financial behavior, reinforcing good payment habits and expanding the buyer’s financial opportunities beyond the initial hire purchase arrangement.

  • Tax Benefits for Businesses

In many cases, businesses using hire purchase agreements may qualify for certain tax advantages. The interest portion of hire purchase payments is often considered a business expense, which can be deducted from taxable income. Additionally, depreciation on the asset may be claimed even while the asset is under hire purchase, depending on jurisdictional tax rules. These tax benefits reduce the overall financial cost of acquiring the asset, making hire purchase an economically attractive financing option.

  • Low Risk of Asset Loss

Unlike rental or lease agreements where missing payments may lead to immediate loss of use, hire purchase agreements typically allow the buyer more security. Although the seller retains ownership until full payment, the buyer’s right to use the asset is protected as long as they meet payment terms. This provides a sense of security, knowing that regular payments keep the asset in use and the buyer on the path to eventual ownership, minimizing sudden disruptions.

  • Supports Cash Flow Management

Hire purchase agreements help both individuals and businesses manage cash flow effectively. Instead of tying up large amounts of money in one purchase, buyers can allocate funds over time. This preserves cash reserves for other operational needs, emergencies, or investment opportunities. By balancing payments across periods, buyers avoid liquidity crises and maintain financial flexibility. This benefit is particularly critical for businesses that need to keep cash on hand for wages, raw materials, or unexpected costs.

  • Offers Ownership Incentive

Hire purchase agreements offer the added psychological incentive of eventual ownership. Unlike leases, where payments never lead to ownership, hire purchase installments build toward becoming the legal owner of the asset. This motivates buyers to keep up with payments, knowing the asset will eventually belong to them. The ownership promise encourages responsible financial planning and gives buyers a clear goal, adding value to the arrangement beyond mere use or temporary possession

Demerits of Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Higher Overall Cost

One of the biggest drawbacks of hire purchase agreements is the higher overall cost compared to outright purchases. While the installment system seems affordable, the inclusion of interest and administrative fees increases the total amount paid over time. Buyers often end up paying significantly more than the original price of the asset. For businesses, this added cost reduces profit margins, and for individuals, it can strain personal finances, especially if they fail to account for the true long-term expense.

  • Ownership Delay

In a hire purchase agreement, ownership of the asset remains with the seller until the final payment is made. This means the buyer does not have full legal rights over the asset during the installment period. As a result, they cannot resell or modify the asset without the seller’s permission. This delay in ownership can be frustrating, especially for businesses that want full control over their equipment or for individuals who may need to liquidate the asset quickly.

  • Risk of Repossession

A serious disadvantage of hire purchase is the risk of repossession. If the buyer fails to make payments on time, the seller has the right to seize the asset. This can result in significant financial and operational disruption, particularly for businesses relying on the asset for production or service delivery. Repossession not only leads to asset loss but also wastes the money already paid, causing both financial loss and reputational damage, especially if public repossession occurs.

  • Limited Flexibility

Hire purchase agreements are often rigid, with fixed payment schedules and terms that cannot be easily altered. If a buyer’s financial situation changes, such as reduced income or unexpected expenses, it can be difficult to renegotiate terms. This inflexibility can cause stress and increases the risk of default. Unlike leases, where termination may be easier, or loans, which sometimes offer refinancing, hire purchase agreements usually lock buyers into strict, long-term commitments with limited exit options.

  • Depreciation Risk

The buyer bears the risk of depreciation during the hire purchase period, even though they don’t yet own the asset. For example, vehicles or machinery can lose significant value over time due to wear, tear, or market changes. By the time full ownership is transferred, the asset may have depreciated heavily, reducing its resale value or usefulness. This can make hire purchase unattractive for rapidly depreciating assets, as buyers end up paying more for something that is worth less.

  • Impact on Credit Rating

Failure to meet payment obligations under a hire purchase agreement can harm the buyer’s credit rating. Missed or delayed payments are often reported to credit bureaus, affecting the buyer’s ability to secure future loans, credit cards, or financing. For businesses, poor credit ratings can reduce investor confidence and limit access to essential working capital. This long-term financial impact extends beyond the hire purchase arrangement, potentially affecting broader financial goals and opportunities.

  • Restriction on Usage

Some hire purchase agreements include clauses that restrict how the asset can be used during the payment period. For example, a vehicle under hire purchase may have limits on mileage or use in certain industries. Violating these restrictions can lead to penalties or termination of the agreement. Such usage limits reduce operational flexibility, especially for businesses that need to adapt quickly to changing circumstances. These constraints can make the arrangement less attractive compared to owning the asset outright.

  • Complex Documentation

Hire purchase agreements often involve complex legal documentation that may be difficult for buyers to fully understand without legal advice. Misunderstanding terms, such as penalty clauses, maintenance obligations, or insurance requirements, can lead to unexpected liabilities. Small businesses or individuals may find the process intimidating, increasing the risk of entering agreements that do not fully match their needs. Without professional guidance, buyers might overlook unfavorable terms, leading to financial or legal complications later.

  • Long-term Financial Commitment

Hire purchase agreements lock buyers into long-term financial commitments, which can become burdensome over time. Even if the asset’s usefulness declines or better options become available in the market, the buyer remains obligated to complete the payments. This reduces financial flexibility and can prevent buyers from upgrading equipment or switching to more cost-effective solutions. The long-term nature of these commitments requires careful financial planning, as unexpected downturns or challenges can make the arrangement a liability

Duties of the Parties in Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Duties of the Seller: Delivery of Goods

The seller has the duty to deliver the agreed-upon goods to the buyer as specified in the hire purchase agreement. The goods must match the description, quality, and condition promised at the time of signing. Any delay or failure in delivery can breach the contract and expose the seller to legal action. The seller must also ensure the goods are suitable for the intended use, meeting all applicable warranties and standards set in the agreement.

  • Duties of the Seller: Maintain Ownership Until Full Payment

The seller retains ownership of the goods until the buyer has made all payments as per the agreement. It is the seller’s duty to safeguard their ownership rights by including clear clauses regarding payment defaults and repossession. While the buyer uses the goods, the seller cannot interfere unless there’s a breach. However, the seller must be prepared to reclaim the goods if the buyer defaults, following legal procedures and respecting the buyer’s partial payment rights.

  • Duties of the Seller: Provide Accurate Information

The seller must provide complete and truthful information about the goods, pricing, installment structure, interest rates, and any other costs involved. This ensures the buyer makes an informed decision. Misrepresentation or withholding important details may result in legal liabilities. The seller should also explain terms like maintenance responsibilities, insurance requirements, or usage restrictions. Transparency builds trust and ensures the buyer fully understands the financial and legal commitments they are entering.

  • Duties of the Seller: Ensure Legal Compliance

It is the seller’s duty to draft the hire purchase agreement in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. This includes complying with consumer protection laws, hire purchase acts, and financial disclosure requirements. The seller must ensure the agreement clearly outlines the rights and obligations of both parties, including what happens in case of default. Failure to comply with legal standards may result in penalties, invalid agreements, or reputational damage for the seller.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Timely Payment

The primary duty of the buyer is to make timely payments of installments as agreed in the hire purchase contract. Delays or defaults can result in penalties, additional charges, or even repossession of the goods. The buyer should keep track of payment dates and amounts, ensuring they meet their financial obligations without reminders. Consistent payment builds good credit standing and secures the path to full ownership, reducing the risk of legal action by the seller.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Care and Maintenance of Goods

The buyer is responsible for properly caring for and maintaining the goods while under the hire purchase agreement. Even though ownership has not yet transferred, the buyer must use the goods responsibly, ensuring they do not suffer unnecessary damage or neglect. Some agreements specify maintenance duties or require the buyer to follow manufacturer instructions. Negligence may result in penalties, cancellation of the agreement, or liability for repair costs.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Use Goods Within Agreed Terms

The buyer has a duty to use the goods only within the scope permitted by the hire purchase agreement. For example, a vehicle may have mileage restrictions or be prohibited from commercial use. Violating these terms can trigger penalties or breach the contract. The buyer must carefully read and understand all usage clauses to avoid misuse, ensuring they stay within the agreed conditions throughout the payment period.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Notify Seller of Issues

The buyer has the responsibility to promptly inform the seller of any defects, malfunctions, or issues with the goods. Early communication allows the seller to repair, replace, or address the problem under warranty or agreement terms. Ignoring issues or failing to report them can make the buyer liable for additional damages. This duty ensures that the buyer’s rights are protected while helping the seller maintain accountability over the goods.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Arrange for Insurance

In many hire purchase agreements, the buyer is required to insure the goods against theft, damage, or loss. This duty protects both the buyer’s use and the seller’s ownership interests. The buyer must ensure the insurance policy meets the minimum requirements specified in the agreement and remains active for the entire payment period. Failure to insure the goods can result in breach of contract, financial liability, or loss of use if damage occurs.

Management Notes

Completing the accounting cycle measures Business income

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One of the most significant accounting concepts is “Concept of Income”. Similarly, measurement of a business income is also an important function of an accountant.

In General term, payment received in lieu of services or goods are called income, for example, salary received by any employee is his income. There may be different type of incomes like Gross income, Net income, National Income, and Personal income, but we are here more concerned for a business income. Surplus revenue over expenses incurred is called as “Business Income.”

Objectives of Net Income

Following are the important objectives of a net income:

  • Historical income figure is the base for future projections.
  • Ascertainment of a net income is necessary to give portion of profit to employees.
  • To evaluate the activities, which give higher return on scarce resources are preferred. It helps to increase the wealth of a firm.
  • Ascertainment of a net income is helpful for paying dividends to the shareholders of any company.
  • Return of income on capital employed, gives an idea of overall efficiency of a business.

Definition of Income

The most authentic definition is given by the American Accounting Association as −

“The realized net income of an enterprise measures its effectiveness as an operative unit and is the change in its net assets arising out of a (a) the excess or deficiency of revenue compared with related expired cost, and (b) other gains or losses to the enterprise from sales, exchange or other conversion of assets:”.

According to the American Accounting Association, to be as business income, income should be realized. For example, to be a business income, only appreciation in value of assets of a company is not enough, for this, asset has really been disposed of.

Accounting Period

For the measurement of any income concerns, instead of a point of time, a span of time is required. Creditors, investors, owners, and government, all of them require systematic accounting reports at regular and proper intervals. The maximum interval between reports is one year, as it helps a businessman to take any corrective action.

An accounting period concept is directly related to matching concept and realization concept; in the absence of any of them, we could not measure income of the concerns. On the basis of matching concept, expenses should be determined in a particular accounting period (usually a year) and matched with the revenue (based on realization concept) and the result will be income or loss of the accounting period.

Accounting Concept and Income Measurement

The measurement of accounting income is the subject to several accounting concepts and conventions. Impact of accounting concepts and convention on measurement of the accounting income is given below −

Conservatism

Where an income of one period may be shifted to another period for the measurement of income is called as ‘conservatism approach.’

According to the convention of conservatism, the policy of playing safe is followed while determining a business income and an accountant seeks to ensure that the reported profit is not over stated. Measurement of a stock at cost or market price, whichever is less is one of the important examples as applied to measurement of income. But it must be insured that providing excessive depreciation or excessive provisions for a doubt full debt or excessive reserve should not be there.

Consistency

According to this concept, the principle of consistency should be followed in accounting practice. For example, in the treatment of assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses to insure the comparison of accounting results of one period with another period.

Therefore, the accounting profession and the corporate laws of most of the counties require that financial statement must be made out on the basis that the figures stated are consistent with those of the preceding year.

Entity Concept

Proprietor and business are the two separate and different entities according to the entity concept. For example, an interest on capital is business expenditure, but for a proprietor, it is an income. Thus, we cannot treat a business income as personal income or vice-versa.

Going Concern Concept

According to this concept, it is assumed that business will continue for a long time. Thus, charging depreciation on a Fixed Asset is based on this concept.

Accrual Concept

According to this concept, an income must be recognized in the period in which it was realized and costs must be matched with the revenue of that period.

Accounting Period

It is desirable to adopt a calendar year or natural business year to know the results of business.

Computation of Business Income

To compute business income, following are the two methods:

Balance Sheet Approach

Comparison of the closing values (Assets minus outsider’s liabilities) of a firm with the values at the beginning of that accounting period is called as Balance Sheet approach. In above value, an addition to capital will be subtracted and addition of drawings will be added while computing the business income of a firm. Since, income is calculated with the help of Balance Sheet hence called as Balance Sheet approach.

Transaction Approach

Transactions are mostly related to production or the purchase of goods and the sale of goods and all these transactions directly or indirectly related to the revenue or to the cost. Therefore, surplus collection of the revenue by selling goods, spent over for production or purchasing the goods is the measure of income. This system is widely followed by the enterprises where double entry system adopted.

Measurement of Business Income

There are following two factors which are helpful in the estimation of an income:

  • Revenues: Sale of goods and rendering of services are the way to generate revenue. Therefore, it can be defined as consideration, recovered by the business for rendering services and goods to its customers.
  • Expenses: An expense is an expired cost. We can say the cost that have been consumed in a process of producing revenue are the expired cost. Expenses tell us how assets are decreased as a result of the services performed by a business.

Measurement of Revenue

Measurement of the revenue is based on an accrual concept. Accounting period, in which revenue earned, is the period of revenue accrues. Therefore, a receipt of cash and revenue earned are the two different things. We can say that revenue is earned only when it is actually realized and not necessarily, when it is received.

Measurement of Expenses

  • In case of delivery of goods to its customers is a direct identification with the revenue.
  • Rent and office salaries are an indirect association with the revenue.

There are four types of events (given below) that need proper consideration about as an expense of a given period and expenditure and cash payment made in connection with those items:

  • Expenditure, which are expenses of the current year.
  • Some expenditure, which are made prior to this period and has become expense of the current year.
  • Expenditure, which is made this year, becomes expense in the next accounting periods. For example, purchase of fixed assets and depreciation in next up-coming years.
  • Expense of this year, which will be paid in next accounting years. For example, outstanding expenses.

Matching Concept

It is a problem of recognition of revenue during the year and allocation of expired cost to the period.

Recognition of Revenue

Most frequent criteria, which are used in recognition of the revenue are as follows:

  • Point of Sale: Transfer of ownership title to a buyer is point of sale, in case of sale of commodity.
  • Receipt of Payment: Criteria of cash basis is widely used by the attorneys, physicians, and other professionals in which revenue is considered to be earned at the time of collection of cash.
  • Instalment Method: Instalment method is widely used in retail trading specially in consumer durables. In this system, revenue earned is treated in the same manner as is used in any other credit sale.
  • Gold Mines: The accounting period in which gold is mined is the period of revenue earned.
  • Contracts: Degree of contract completion, especially in long term construction contracts is based on percentage of completion of a contract in a single accounting year. It is based on total estimated life of the contract.

Allocation of Costs

Matching of expired revenue and expired costs on a periodic time basis is the satisfactory basis of allocation of cost as stated earlier.

Measurement of Costs

Measurement of costs can be determined by:

  • Historical Costs: To determine periodic net income and financial status, historical cost is important. Historical cost actually means outflow of cash or cash equivalents for goods and services acquired.
  • Replacement Costs: Replacing any asset at the current market price is called as replacement cost.

Basis of Measurement of Income

Following are the two significant basis of measurement of income:

  • Accrual Basis: In an accrual basis accounting, incomes are recognized in a company’s books at the time when revenue is actually earned (however, not essentially received) and expenses is recorded when liabilities are incurred (however, not essentially paid for). Further, expenses are compared with revenues on the income statement when the expenses expire or title has been transferred to the buyer, and not at the time when the expenses are paid.
  • Cash Basis: In a cash basis accounting, revenues and expenses are recognized at the time of physical cash is actually received or paid out.

Change in the Basis of Accounting

We have to pass adjustment entries whenever accounting records change from cash basis to accrual basis or vice versa specially in respect of the prepaid expenses, outstanding expenses, accrued income, income received in advance, bad debts & provisions, depreciation, and stock in trade.

Features of Accounting Income

  • Matching revenue with related cost or expenses is a matter of accounting income.
  • Accounting income is based on an accounting period concept.
  • Expenses are measured in terms of a historical cost and determination of expenses is based on a cost concept.
  • It is based on a realization principal.
  • Revenue items are considered to ascertain a correct accounting income.
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