Tag: Corporate Ethics

Equity Shares are the main source of finance of a firm. It is issued to the general public. Equity share­holders do not enjoy any preferential rights with regard to repayment of capital and dividend. They are entitled to residual income of the company, but they enjoy the right to control the affairs of the business and all the shareholders collectively are the owners of the company.

Issue of Shares:

When a company wishes to issue shares to the public, there is a procedure and rules that it must follow as prescribed by the Companies Act 2013. The money to be paid by subscribers can even be collected by the company in installments if it wishes. Let us take a look at the steps and the procedure of issue of new shares.

Procedure of Issue of New Shares

• Issue of Prospectus

Before the issue of shares, comes the issue of the prospectus. The prospectus is like an invitation to the public to subscribe to shares of the company. A prospectus contains all the information of the company, its financial structure, previous year balance sheets and profit and Loss statements etc.

It also states the manner in which the capital collected will be spent. When inviting deposits from the public at large it is compulsory for a company to issue a prospectus or a document in lieu of a prospectus.

• Receiving Applications

When the prospectus is issued, prospective investors can now apply for shares. They must fill out an application and deposit the requisite application money in the schedule bank mentioned in the prospectus. The application process can stay open a maximum of 120 days. If in these 120 days minimum subscription has not been reached, then this issue of shares will be cancelled. The application money must be refunded to the investors within 130 days since issuing of the prospectus.

• Allotment of Shares

Once the minimum subscription has been reached, the shares can be allotted. Generally, there is always oversubscription of shares, so the allotment is done on pro-rata bases. Letters of Allotment are sent to those who have been allotted their shares. This results in a valid contract between the company and the applicant, who will now be a part owner of the company.

If any applications were rejected, letters of regret are sent to the applicants. After the allotment, the company can collect the share capital as it wishes, in one go or in instalments.

Features of Equity Shares

• Initial Public Offering (IPO)

An Initial Public Offering (IPO) is when a company issues shares to the public for the first time to raise capital. It helps businesses expand, repay debts, or fund new projects. Companies must comply with regulatory requirements, such as those set by SEBI in India. Investors can buy shares at a predetermined price or through a book-building process. Once issued, these shares are listed on stock exchanges for trading. An IPO allows companies to transition from private to public ownership, increasing their market visibility and credibility.

• Follow-on Public Offering (FPO)

A Follow-on Public Offering (FPO) occurs when a company that is already publicly listed issues additional shares to raise more capital. It is used to fund expansion, reduce debt, or improve financial stability. FPOs can be of two types: dilutive, where new shares increase total supply, reducing existing shareholders’ ownership percentage, and non-dilutive, where existing shareholders sell their shares without affecting the total share count. Investors analyze FPOs carefully, as they can impact stock prices based on the company’s financial health and growth prospects.

• Rights Issue

A rights issue allows existing shareholders to purchase additional shares at a discounted price in proportion to their current holdings. This method helps companies raise funds without issuing shares to the general public. Shareholders can either subscribe to new shares or sell their rights in the market. Rights issues prevent ownership dilution by giving preference to existing investors. However, if shareholders do not participate, their ownership percentage decreases. This type of share issue is often used when a company needs urgent capital for expansion or debt repayment.

• Bonus Issue

A bonus issue involves a company distributing free additional shares to its existing shareholders based on their holdings, without any cost. This is done from the company’s reserves or retained earnings. For example, a 2:1 bonus issue means shareholders receive two extra shares for every one they own. While it does not change the company’s total value, it increases the number of outstanding shares, reducing the stock price per share. Bonus issues enhance liquidity and investor confidence, rewarding shareholders without impacting cash flow.

• Private Placement

Private placement is the issuance of shares to a select group of investors, such as institutional investors, venture capitalists, or high-net-worth individuals, instead of the general public. This method helps companies raise capital quickly without the regulatory complexities of a public offering. Private placements can be preferential allotment, where shares are issued at a pre-agreed price, or qualified institutional placement (QIP), which is exclusive to institutional investors. It is a cost-effective alternative to an IPO, allowing companies to raise funds with minimal market fluctuations.

• Employee Stock Option Plan (ESOP)

An Employee Stock Option Plan (ESOP) allows employees to purchase company shares at a predetermined price after a specific period. It is a form of employee benefit, motivating and retaining key talent by aligning their interests with the company’s success. ESOPs are granted as an incentive, and employees can exercise their options once they meet the vesting period. This increases employee engagement and long-term commitment. Companies use ESOPs to attract skilled professionals, enhance productivity, and create a sense of ownership among employees.

Preference Shares, also known as preferred stock, are a type of share capital that gives certain preferences to its holders over common equity shareholders. These preferences typically include a fixed dividend payout and priority in the event of company liquidation. Preference shares are a hybrid instrument, possessing features of both equity and debt. In India, the issuance and redemption of preference shares are governed by the Companies Act, 2013 and related rules.

The process of issuing and redeeming preference shares involves specific legal requirements, terms, and procedures, all aimed at protecting shareholders and ensuring proper corporate governance.

Issue of Preference Shares

The issue of preference shares is governed by Section 55 of the Companies Act, 2013. This section lays down the guidelines for the issuance of such shares, ensuring that companies follow a transparent and regulated process.

Types of Preference Shares

Preference shares can be classified into various categories based on their features:

• Cumulative Preference Shares:

These shares entitle the shareholders to accumulate unpaid dividends. If the company fails to pay the dividend in a particular year, the amount is carried forward to future years and paid when profits are available.

• Non-cumulative Preference Shares:

In this case, the shareholders do not have the right to accumulate unpaid dividends. If the dividend is not paid in a particular year, the shareholder cannot claim it in the future.

• Convertible Preference Shares:

These shares can be converted into equity shares after a specified period or upon the occurrence of certain events, as per the terms agreed upon at the time of issuance.

• Non-convertible Preference Shares:

These shares cannot be converted into equity shares and remain preference shares until they are redeemed or bought back.

• Participating Preference Shares:

Holders of these shares are entitled to a share in the surplus profits of the company in addition to the fixed dividend, usually after the equity shareholders are paid.

• Non-participating Preference Shares:

These shareholders are entitled only to a fixed dividend and have no rights over the surplus profits.

Procedure for Issuing Preference Shares

• Board Resolution:

The process begins with the board of directors passing a resolution to issue preference shares. This resolution must outline the terms and conditions, such as the type of preference shares, dividend rate, redemption period, and any conversion rights.

• Shareholder Approval:

The issue of preference shares requires approval from the company’s shareholders. This approval is generally obtained in a general meeting through a special resolution.

• Compliance with the Companies Act, 2013:

Section 55 mandates that preference shares must be issued for a maximum period of 20 years, except in the case of infrastructure projects, where shares may be issued for a longer period. Companies must also ensure that preference shares are redeemable, meaning that they will be repaid or bought back after a specified period.

• Prospectus or Offer Document:

If the company is issuing preference shares to the public, it must issue a prospectus or offer document as per the guidelines set by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI). This document provides details about the offer, including the number of shares, dividend rate, terms of redemption, and risks involved.

• Filing with Registrar of Companies (RoC):

After obtaining the necessary approvals, the company must file the relevant forms with the Registrar of Companies (RoC), including details of the issued shares.

• Issuance of Share Certificates:

Once all regulatory approvals are obtained, the company issues share certificates to the preference shareholders, marking the completion of the issuance process.

Rights of Preference Shareholders

Preference shareholders enjoy the following key rights:

• Fixed Dividend:

Preference shareholders receive a fixed rate of dividend before any dividends are paid to equity shareholders.

• Priority in Repayment:

In the event of liquidation, preference shareholders have a higher claim on company assets compared to equity shareholders.

• Voting Rights:

Typically, preference shareholders do not have voting rights in the company’s day-to-day affairs. However, they may obtain voting rights if their dividends remain unpaid for two or more consecutive years.

• Redemption:

Preference shares are redeemable, meaning that the company must repay the capital to preference shareholders after a certain period, subject to the terms of the issue.

Redemption of Preference Shares

Redemption of preference shares refers to the process by which a company repays the preference shareholders the face value of their shares. This can happen at a pre-determined time, subject to the terms agreed upon at the time of issuance.

Conditions for Redemption under Section 55 of the Companies Act, 2013

1. Authorized by Articles of Association:

The company’s Articles of Association (AoA) must explicitly permit the redemption of preference shares. If the AoA does not contain such a provision, it must be amended before the redemption can take place.

2. Fully Paid-up Shares:

Only fully paid-up preference shares can be redeemed. If the shares are only partially paid, the redemption process cannot be initiated until all dues are paid in full.

3. Redemption out of Profits or Fresh Issue:

The company can redeem preference shares either:

• Out of profits available for distribution as dividends, or
• From the proceeds of a new issue of shares.

4. Capital Redemption Reserve (CRR):

If the company redeems preference shares out of its profits, an equivalent amount must be transferred to a Capital Redemption Reserve (CRR). This CRR serves as a safeguard against the company depleting its capital base and must be maintained as long as the company is in existence.

5. No Redemption at Premium Without Special Resolution:

If preference shares are to be redeemed at a premium, the terms of redemption must be specified at the time of issuance, and shareholder approval must be obtained through a special resolution.

6. Filing with Registrar of Companies:

Once preference shares are redeemed, the company must file the necessary documents with the RoC, including the details of the redeemed shares.

Modes of Redemption:

Redemption can occur through one of the following methods:

1. Redemption at Par:

In this case, preference shareholders are repaid the face value of their shares. No premium is involved, and the redemption amount equals the nominal value of the shares.

2. Redemption at Premium:

In some cases, companies offer to redeem preference shares at a price higher than the face value. The premium must be paid out of the company’s profits or reserves and requires shareholder approval.

Process of Redemption of Preference Shares:

• Approval for Redemption:

The board of directors must first approve the redemption plan. The resolution must include details such as the type and number of shares to be redeemed, the redemption price, and the source of funds (profits or fresh issue).

• Funding the Redemption:

The company must ensure that it has sufficient funds for the redemption. If the redemption is to be made from profits, the company must set aside the requisite amount. If a fresh issue of shares is to fund the redemption, the company must raise the capital before proceeding.

• Payment to Shareholders:

Once the funds are available, the company repays the preference shareholders according to the agreed terms. This may involve either transferring the redemption amount directly to the shareholders’ accounts or issuing cheques.

• Capital Redemption Reserve (CRR):

If the shares are redeemed out of profits, an amount equal to the face value of the redeemed shares must be transferred to the CRR. This reserve cannot be used for dividend payments or general business expenses and serves to preserve the company’s capital base.

• Updating the Register of Members:

After the redemption, the company must update its register of members to reflect the reduction in the number of preference shares.

Key Differences between Issuance and Redemption of Preference Shares

Aspect	Issuance of Preference Shares	Redemption of Preference Shares
Nature	Raises capital for the company	Repayment of capital to shareholders
Approval Required	Requires board and shareholder approval	Requires board approval and sufficient funds
Payment	No immediate payment to shareholders	Payment of redemption amount to shareholders
Capital	Increases company’s capital	Reduces company’s capital
Filing	Filing required with RoC for issue details	Filing required for redemption details
CRR	Not applicable	Creation of CRR if redeemed out of profits

Debentures are a common tool used by companies to raise long-term capital without diluting ownership through equity shares. The process of issuing debentures involves selling them to investors who, in return, receive regular interest payments and the promise of repayment of the principal at the maturity date. The redemption of debentures refers to the repayment of the borrowed amount to debenture holders after the debenture’s tenure.

Issue of Debentures

The process of issuing debentures is an important step in corporate financing, as it enables companies to meet their capital needs without affecting their equity structure. Below are the various aspects of issuing debentures:

Methods of Issuing Debentures:

Debentures can be issued in different ways depending on the needs of the company and the preferences of the investors. The primary methods:

• Public issue:

Companies can offer debentures to the public by issuing a prospectus that details the terms and conditions of the debenture. The public can then apply to purchase these debentures, just like in a public offering of shares.

• Private Placement:

Debentures can be issued privately to a select group of investors, usually large institutions or high-net-worth individuals. This method is faster than a public issue and involves fewer regulatory requirements.

• Rights issue:

Existing shareholders are offered the right to subscribe to debentures in proportion to their existing shareholding. This method ensures that current shareholders have an opportunity to participate in the company’s debt issuance.

• Preference issue:

Debentures can be issued to selected investors (often existing stakeholders) with preferential terms, such as higher interest rates.

Types of Debentures Issued:

Companies issue different types of debentures based on their capital requirements and investor preferences:

• Secured Debentures:

These debentures are backed by specific assets of the company. In the case of default, secured debenture holders have a claim on these assets.

• Unsecured Debentures:

These are not backed by any collateral and are riskier for investors. However, they may offer higher interest rates to compensate for the added risk.

• Convertible Debentures:

These can be converted into equity shares after a certain period or at the discretion of the debenture holder. This gives the holder the potential to benefit from any increase in the company’s share price.

• Non-Convertible Debentures:

These cannot be converted into shares and remain a fixed income instrument throughout their tenure.

Key Elements of Debenture Issuance:

When issuing debentures, companies must clearly outline the following key terms:

• Interest Rate:

Interest rate is usually fixed and is paid to debenture holders periodically (annually or semi-annually). The rate reflects the company’s creditworthiness and the overall market conditions.

• Maturity Period:

This is the time frame over which the debenture will exist, typically ranging from 5 to 20 years. At the end of the maturity period, the principal amount is repaid to debenture holders.

• Redemption Terms:

These outline when and how the debentures will be redeemed, which may include specific options like early redemption or repayment in installments.

• Issue Price:

Debentures can be issued at par (face value), at a premium (above face value), or at a discount (below face value). The issue price influences the yield that investors will earn.

Redemption of Debentures

Redemption refers to the repayment of the principal amount to debenture holders once the debenture matures. There are various methods of redemption, and the specific method is typically outlined in the terms of the debenture issue.

Methods of Redemption:

• Lump Sum Payment:

This is the most common method, where the company repays the entire principal amount to debenture holders at the maturity date in one single payment.

• Installment Payments:

Instead of paying the entire principal at once, the company repays a portion of the principal periodically over the debenture’s term. This reduces the financial burden at the time of maturity.

• Redemption by Purchase in the Open Market:

The company may buy back debentures in the open market before their maturity date if they are available at a lower price than face value. This allows companies to retire debt at a lower cost.

• Conversion into Shares:

If the debentures are convertible, they can be converted into equity shares of the company at a pre-determined rate. This method is attractive for investors who wish to switch from debt instruments to equity if the company performs well.

• Call and Put Options:

Some debentures come with a call option, allowing the company to redeem the debentures before the maturity date. Similarly, a put option allows the investor to demand early repayment from the company.

Sources of Redemption Funds:

Companies need to arrange for funds to redeem debentures. Common sources:

• Sinking Fund:

Many companies set up a sinking fund specifically for debenture redemption. A portion of the company’s profits is periodically transferred to this fund, ensuring that the company has sufficient resources to repay the debentures at maturity.

• Fresh Issue of Debentures or Shares:

Company may issue new debentures or shares to raise funds for the redemption of existing debentures. This method helps companies avoid liquidity crunches at the time of redemption.

• Profit Reserves:

If a company has sufficient profits and reserves, it can use these resources to redeem debentures. This is a common practice among financially sound companies.

• Loans from Banks or Financial Institutions:

If the company does not have sufficient internal resources, it may take out a loan to redeem debentures. While this transfers the debt from debenture holders to financial institutions, it ensures that the debentures are repaid on time.

Premium on Redemption:

In some cases, companies agree to redeem debentures at a price higher than their face value. This is known as redemption at a premium. The premium acts as an additional incentive for investors to subscribe to the debentures at the time of issue, especially if the interest rate is relatively low.

Legal Requirements for Redemption:

The Companies Act, 2013, governs the redemption of debentures in India. Companies are required to comply with certain regulations, such as:

• Creation of Debenture Redemption Reserve (DRR):

Companies must set aside a portion of their profits in a Debenture Redemption Reserve (DRR) to ensure they have funds available for repayment. However, certain classes of companies are exempt from this requirement.

• Maintenance of Records:

Companies must maintain accurate records of debenture holders and the terms of redemption. These records are essential for transparency and regulatory compliance.

Bonus Shares are additional shares issued by a company to its existing shareholders, typically free of charge. They are distributed in proportion to the shares already held, meaning that shareholders receive a certain number of bonus shares for each share they own. Bonus shares are often issued as a way to distribute retained earnings, allowing companies to reward shareholders without depleting cash reserves. This practice can enhance liquidity in the market and may indicate the company’s strong financial position and growth potential.

Objects of Bonus Issue:

1. Rewarding Shareholders:

One of the primary objectives of a bonus issue is to reward existing shareholders for their loyalty and investment in the company. By providing additional shares, companies acknowledge shareholders’ trust and commitment.

2. Utilizing Retained Earnings:

Companies often have substantial retained earnings or reserves. Issuing bonus shares is a way to capitalize these profits, converting them into equity without distributing cash. This helps maintain a strong capital base while still providing value to shareholders.

3. Enhancing Liquidity:

Bonus shares increase the number of shares in circulation, which can enhance the liquidity of the company’s stock. Higher liquidity may make it easier for investors to buy and sell shares, potentially attracting more investors and improving marketability.

4. Improving Share Price:

Issuing bonus shares can help lower the market price per share by increasing the number of shares outstanding. This may make the shares more affordable for small investors, potentially broadening the shareholder base and increasing demand.

5. Creating a Positive Market Sentiment:

Bonus issue is often perceived as a positive signal about a company’s financial health and growth prospects. It can boost investor confidence and improve the company’s image in the market, encouraging both current and potential investors.

6. Encouraging Long-Term Investment:

Bonus shares can serve as an incentive for shareholders to hold onto their shares for the long term. This can help stabilize the share price and reduce market volatility, as more investors may choose to retain their shares to benefit from future growth.

7. Aligning Interests of Employees and Shareholders:

Companies may issue bonus shares to employees as part of an incentive plan, aligning their interests with those of shareholders. This helps to motivate employees by giving them a stake in the company’s success and fostering a sense of ownership.

8. Improving Financial Ratios:

Bonus issues can improve certain financial ratios, such as earnings per share (EPS) and return on equity (ROE). While EPS may decrease due to the increase in the number of shares, it can also reflect a more significant total equity, contributing to a more favorable perception of financial health.

Types of Bonus Issue:

1. Fully Paid Bonus Shares:

These are shares issued to existing shareholders without any additional cost. The company capitalizes its reserves or profits to issue fully paid bonus shares, increasing the number of shares in circulation while maintaining the same overall value of equity.

2. Partly Paid Bonus Shares:

In this type, bonus shares are issued with a requirement for shareholders to pay a portion of the share price. The company may decide to issue partly paid bonus shares as a way to raise additional capital while rewarding existing shareholders.

3. Pro-rata Bonus Issue:

A pro-rata bonus issue is where the bonus shares are issued to shareholders in proportion to their existing holdings. For example, if a company issues a bonus share for every four shares held, a shareholder with four shares would receive one additional share.

4. Bonus Shares from Reserves:

Companies may issue bonus shares by capitalizing reserves or profits. This approach allows companies to convert their retained earnings into equity shares, enhancing liquidity without affecting cash reserves.

5. Bonus Shares for Employee Stock Options (ESOPs):

Some companies issue bonus shares to employees as part of an employee stock ownership plan or ESOP. These shares serve to motivate and retain key personnel by giving them a stake in the company’s success.

6. Reverse Bonus Shares:

In contrast to traditional bonus shares, reverse bonus shares involve consolidating shares into fewer units. This type of issuance typically occurs when a company aims to increase its share price or comply with stock exchange listing requirements.

7. Free Shares:

This category includes shares given as a reward to existing shareholders without requiring any payment. Free shares are often issued as part of an incentive plan to enhance shareholder loyalty and boost investor sentiment.

Source of Bonus Issue:

1. Retained Earnings:

The most common source for issuing bonus shares is retained earnings. This represents the cumulative profits that a company has retained rather than distributed as dividends. By capitalizing retained earnings, a company can issue bonus shares to its shareholders without affecting its cash flow.

2. General Reserve:

Companies can also use their general reserves, which are created out of profits not earmarked for any specific purpose. General reserves serve as a cushion for unforeseen expenses or losses, and utilizing them for bonus shares can help improve shareholder value while maintaining financial stability.

3. Capital Redemption Reserve:

If a company has redeemed its preference shares, it may create a capital redemption reserve. This reserve can be used to issue bonus shares to ordinary shareholders, ensuring that the equity base remains strong after redeeming preference shares.

4. Securities Premium Account:

When shares are issued at a premium, the amount received over and above the face value is credited to the securities premium account. Companies can utilize this account to issue bonus shares, provided they comply with the relevant legal provisions and regulations.

5. Profit and Loss Account:

Companies can capitalize amounts from their profit and loss account, which reflects the net earnings after expenses and taxes. Issuing bonus shares from this account indicates that the company has sufficient profits to convert into equity.

6. Other Reserves:

In addition to the above sources, companies may utilize other reserves, such as the revaluation reserve (created when assets are revalued to reflect current market value) or specific reserves set aside for particular purposes. These reserves can be capitalized to issue bonus shares, subject to regulatory compliance.

SEBI Guidelines for Issue of Bonus Shares:

1. Eligibility Criteria:

Only companies that have a track record of consistent profits and are compliant with the listing requirements can issue bonus shares.

Companies must ensure that they have adequate reserves or profits to capitalize for issuing bonus shares.

2. Board Resolution:

The issuance of bonus shares requires the approval of the Board of Directors. A board resolution must be passed detailing the number of shares to be issued, the proportion in which they will be issued, and the source of capitalization.

3. Shareholder Approval:

Companies are required to obtain approval from shareholders through a special resolution in a general meeting before issuing bonus shares. The resolution must specify the number of shares and the rationale behind the issuance.

4. Pro-rata Basis:

Bonus shares must be issued on a pro-rata basis to existing shareholders. This means that shareholders receive additional shares in proportion to their existing holdings, ensuring equitable treatment.

5. Disclosure Requirements:

Companies must disclose the details of the bonus issue in their annual reports, including the rationale, source of capitalization, and any impact on the earnings per share (EPS) and other financial ratios. Additionally, companies should provide adequate information to shareholders and the stock exchanges regarding the bonus issue.

6. Lock-in Period:

There is no specific lock-in period mandated by SEBI for bonus shares. However, the company may impose a lock-in period as part of its internal policies or based on the terms of the bonus issue.

7. Credit of Shares:

Upon approval, the bonus shares must be credited to the demat accounts of shareholders within the stipulated timeframe, ensuring prompt delivery and compliance with market regulations.

8. No Cash Consideration:

Bonus Shares are issued without any cash consideration. This means that shareholders do not have to pay for the additional shares they receive.

9. Regulatory Compliance:

Companies must comply with all applicable provisions of the Companies Act, 2013, and SEBI regulations while issuing bonus shares. Any non-compliance can lead to penalties or legal consequences.

10. Impact on Share Capital:

Companies must assess the impact of the bonus issue on their share capital and provide necessary disclosures regarding the revised capital structure post-issuance.

The formation of a company in India is a meticulous process governed by the Companies Act, 2013, which outlines the rules, regulations, and procedures. This law provides the legal framework for the establishment of different types of companies such as private, public, one-person companies, etc. The formation process can be divided into several stages, each of which requires compliance with specific legal formalities.

Stage 1. Promotion Stage

Promotion is the first stage in the formation of a company, where the idea of starting a company takes shape, and the necessary actions are initiated by the promoters.

Who is a Promoter?

Promoter is a person or a group of persons who conceive the idea of forming a company and take the necessary steps to incorporate it. They are responsible for:

• Identifying Business Opportunities: Promoters identify the potential opportunities for starting a new business and devise strategies for utilizing those opportunities.
• Feasibility Study: This involves the evaluation of the commercial, financial, and technical viability of the proposed company. The promoter assesses whether the business idea will succeed.
• Business Plan Preparation: The promoter prepares a detailed business plan, outlining the company’s objectives, strategies, resources, and funding needs.
• Arrangement of Capital: The promoter identifies the potential sources of capital, whether through personal savings, loans, or investor funding.
• Appointment of Directors: The promoter nominates the directors who will oversee the company’s operations after incorporation.
• Legal Compliances: The promoter is responsible for ensuring that all necessary legal formalities, such as obtaining licenses, are completed.

Stage 2. Selection of Company Name

The next significant step in company formation is selecting an appropriate name for the company. This is governed by the guidelines of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA).

• Reserve Unique Name (RUN):

The promoter must submit an application for reserving the company’s name through the MCA’s online service, known as the Reserve Unique Name (RUN) facility. The proposed name should not be identical or similar to any existing company name or trademark.

• Name Approval:

Once the application is submitted, the Registrar of Companies (RoC) will either approve or reject the name within a few working days. If approved, the name is reserved for 20 days during which time the company must proceed with the next steps.

Stage 3. Preparation of Documents

Once the company’s name is approved, the next step involves preparing and submitting the following key documents:

Memorandum of Association (MoA)

Memorandum of Association outlines the company’s constitution and defines its relationship with the outside world. It contains essential clauses such as:

• Name Clause: States the company’s registered name.
• Registered Office Clause: Specifies the location of the company’s registered office.
• Object Clause: Defines the objectives for which the company is being formed.
• Liability Clause: Indicates the extent of the liability of the members.
• Capital Clause: Mentions the authorized capital of the company.

Articles of Association (AoA)

Articles of Association detail the internal management of the company, including rules related to the conduct of business, rights and responsibilities of directors, and procedures for meetings and resolutions.

Stage 4. Application for Incorporation

Once the MoA and AoA are prepared, the promoter must file the Incorporation Application (Form SPICe+). This is the most crucial stage in the formation process, as it involves the actual registration of the company with the Registrar of Companies (RoC).

Required Documents for Incorporation:

• MoA and AoA: Duly signed by the promoters and subscribers.
• Declaration of Compliance: A declaration signed by the promoters, affirming that all legal requirements of company formation have been complied with.
• Identity Proofs of Directors and Subscribers: PAN, passport, Aadhar card, or other acceptable ID proofs.
• Address Proof: Utility bills or other documents for the company’s registered office.
• Digital Signature Certificate (DSC): The directors must obtain DSCs, which are used to sign documents electronically.
• Director Identification Number (DIN): Every proposed director must have a DIN, which can be applied for during the incorporation process.

Filing SPICe+ (Simplified Proforma for Incorporating Company Electronically):

SPICe+ is a comprehensive online form provided by the MCA for the incorporation of companies. The form integrates multiple services including PAN, TAN, EPFO, ESIC, and bank account opening.

Stage 5. Payment of Fees

At the time of filing the incorporation documents, the promoter must pay the necessary government fees. These fees vary depending on the authorized capital of the company and the type of company being registered. For instance:

• For a Private Limited Company, the fees are based on the share capital.
• For a One Person Company (OPC), the fees are typically lower.

Stage 6. Certificate of Incorporation (COI)

Once all the documents and forms are submitted, and the prescribed fees are paid, the RoC reviews the application. If the RoC finds the documents in order, it issues the Certificate of Incorporation (COI). The COI is conclusive evidence that the company has been legally registered and is a recognized entity under Indian law.

The Certificate of Incorporation contains:

• The company’s name.
• The CIN (Company Identification Number).
• The date of incorporation.
• The name of the RoC who issued the certificate.

Stage 7. Post-Incorporation Formalities

Even after the company is registered, several formalities must be completed to ensure the smooth operation of the company:

• Opening a Bank Account: The company needs to open a bank account in its name, which will be used for all financial transactions.

• Registered Office Address: The company must ensure that it has a registered office within 30 days of incorporation and submit the address to the RoC.
• Issuance of Share Certificates: The company must issue share certificates to the subscribers within two months of incorporation.
• Statutory Books: The company must maintain statutory books such as a register of members, a register of directors, minutes of meetings, and other records required by law.
• Compliance with Tax and Regulatory Requirements: The company needs to register for GST, Professional Tax, and any other applicable taxes. It must also file its annual returns and financial statements with the RoC.

Stage 8. Commencement of Business

Once the above formalities are completed, the company can start its business operations. However, for companies incorporated with share capital, a Declaration for Commencement of Business must be filed within 180 days of incorporation. This declaration affirms that the subscribers have paid for the shares they agreed to take and is mandatory for the company to begin its business activities.

Articles of Association (AoA) is a key legal document required for the incorporation of a company. It outlines the internal regulations and governance structure of the company, setting the rules for how it will be managed and controlled. While the Memorandum of Association (MoA) defines the company’s relationship with the external world, the AoA focuses on its internal functioning. Together, these documents form the company’s constitution, determining its objectives and operational framework.

AoA must be submitted to the Registrar of Companies (RoC) during incorporation and must align with the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013 in India. It governs aspects like the conduct of board meetings, the appointment of directors, share transfers, and the rights and duties of shareholders.

Meaning of Articles of Association:

Articles of Association is a legal document that outlines the rules for a company’s internal management and procedures. It defines the responsibilities of the directors, the processes for making decisions, the rights and duties of shareholders, and the company’s rules for issuing and transferring shares. The AoA provides a framework for running the company’s day-to-day operations and ensuring smooth governance.

While the MoA defines the company’s objectives and limits, the AoA allows for flexibility in how those objectives are achieved. It acts as a contract between the company and its members (shareholders), as well as among the members themselves, ensuring that the company is managed in accordance with agreed rules and practices.

Contents of Articles of Association:

Companies Act, 2013, provides significant flexibility in drafting the Articles of Association, allowing companies to customize their internal regulations.

1. Share Capital and Variation of Rights

AoA outlines the company’s share capital structure, including the different classes of shares (e.g., equity shares, preference shares), and their respective rights and restrictions. It also specifies the process for issuing new shares, altering share capital, and varying the rights attached to different classes of shares.

2. Transfer and Transmission of Shares

This section of the AoA provides the rules for transferring shares between shareholders, including the procedure for the sale or gift of shares. It also covers the transmission of shares in the event of the death or insolvency of a shareholder. The AoA may include restrictions on share transfers, especially in the case of private limited companies, where shares cannot be freely transferred.

3. Board of Directors

AoA specifies the composition of the Board of Directors, their powers, and the procedures for their appointment and removal. It may include details about the minimum and maximum number of directors, the qualifications required to become a director, and the process for filling vacancies on the board. Additionally, it governs the roles and responsibilities of the board in managing the company’s affairs.

4. Meetings and Voting Rights

AoA outlines the rules for holding meetings of the board and shareholders, including the notice period, quorum requirements, and procedures for passing resolutions. It also specifies the voting rights of shareholders and directors, including whether decisions are made by simple majority or special resolution.

5. Dividends and Reserves

AoA defines the procedure for declaring and distributing dividends to shareholders. It includes the company’s policy on retaining profits for reserves, the amount to be distributed as dividends, and the process for calculating and paying dividends to shareholders.

6. Borrowing Powers

This section defines the borrowing powers of the company, including the authority of the Board of Directors to raise loans or issue debentures. It outlines the terms and conditions under which the company can borrow funds, including any limitations on borrowing.

7. Accounts and Audits

AoA specifies the rules regarding the maintenance of accounts, auditing of financial statements, and the appointment of auditors. It may also detail the financial year of the company and the process for approving and filing annual financial statements.

8. Winding Up

AoA includes provisions for the winding up of the company, detailing the process for liquidation and the distribution of assets in the event of the company’s dissolution. It may outline how assets are to be distributed among shareholders, creditors, and other stakeholders.

9. Indemnity

AoA may include an indemnity clause that provides protection to the company’s officers and directors against liabilities incurred in the course of performing their duties, provided they act in good faith.

Forms of Articles of Association:

AoA can take various forms depending on the type and structure of the company. While there is no prescribed form for the AoA under the Companies Act, 2013, the following are the common types of companies that need to customize their Articles:

1. Private Limited Companies

Private companies tend to have more restrictive Articles, particularly concerning the transfer of shares and the maximum number of shareholders. The AoA of a private limited company often includes specific provisions limiting the right to transfer shares, setting out processes for director appointments, and defining the company’s internal governance structure.

2. Public Limited Companies

AoA of public limited companies is generally more flexible compared to private limited companies, particularly in areas like share transfer and raising capital. Public companies must comply with additional regulatory requirements, and their AoA typically includes provisions that align with listing agreements and stock exchange rules.

3. One Person Companies (OPC)

In the case of One Person Companies, the AoA is relatively simple, as the company has only one shareholder and fewer compliance requirements. The AoA of an OPC will typically focus on the limited role of the single shareholder in managing the company’s affairs.

Alteration of Articles of Association:

Companies Act, 2013, allows for the alteration of the AoA as long as the changes comply with legal requirements and are approved by the shareholders. The AoA is a flexible document, and companies often need to update it to reflect changes in their business environment or governance needs.

Process for Altering the Articles of Association

1. Board Resolution:

The process for altering the AoA begins with the Board of Directors passing a resolution to propose changes to the Articles. The resolution must specify the reasons for the proposed alteration and schedule a general meeting of the shareholders.

2. Special Resolution:

The alteration of the AoA requires approval from the shareholders by passing a special resolution in the general meeting. A special resolution requires at least 75% of the shareholders to vote in favor of the changes.

3. Filing with the Registrar of Companies (RoC):

Once the special resolution is passed, the company must file the altered AoA with the RoC using the prescribed forms (e.g., Form MGT-14). The alteration becomes effective only after the RoC registers the modified AoA.

4. Approval by Regulatory Authorities:

In certain cases, the alteration may require approval from other regulatory bodies. For example, changes to the AoA of a public company listed on a stock exchange must be approved by the stock exchange or the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

Limitations on Alteration:

• Consistency with the Memorandum of Association:

AoA cannot contain provisions that are inconsistent with the MoA. The MoA takes precedence, and any changes to the Articles must be in alignment with the company’s objectives as set out in the MoA.

• Statutory Restrictions:

Certain statutory provisions, such as those related to the rights of minority shareholders, cannot be altered without complying with the provisions of the Companies Act.

Allotment of Shares refers to the process by which a company distributes its shares to applicants who have subscribed during an offering, such as an Initial Public Offering (IPO) or private placement. Once the subscription period ends, the company reviews the applications, determines the allocation of shares, and officially assigns them to the investors. Allotment is done based on the availability of shares and the demand. If the offering is oversubscribed, shares may be distributed on a proportionate basis or through a lottery system, ensuring fairness to applicants.

Types of Allotment of Shares:

1. Public or Initial Allotment:

This occurs when a company issues shares for the first time through an Initial Public Offering (IPO) or a Follow-on Public Offer (FPO). Shares are allotted to the public based on their applications and may be determined through a fixed price or book-building process. If oversubscribed, allotment is done proportionally.

2. Private Placement:

Shares are allotted to a select group of investors, such as institutional investors, private equity firms, or wealthy individuals. It doesn’t involve public participation and is often quicker and subject to fewer regulatory hurdles.

3. Rights Issue Allotment:

Existing shareholders are given the opportunity to purchase additional shares in proportion to their current shareholding, often at a discounted price. Shares are allotted based on the shareholder’s entitlement and their decision to take up the offer.

Rules Regarding Allotment of Shares:

1. Minimum Subscription Rule:

A company can allot shares only if it receives a minimum subscription of 90% of the total issue within a specified period. If the company fails to achieve this, the issue must be canceled, and the application money is refunded to investors.

2. SEBI Guidelines (for Public issues):

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) sets rules for public issues, including requirements for disclosing financial details, ensuring fair pricing, and the process for allotting shares. Companies must follow these guidelines when issuing shares through IPOs or public offers.

3. Time Limit for Allotment:

Shares must be allotted within a prescribed time frame, usually 60 days from the date of receiving the application. If the company fails to allot shares within this period, it must refund the application money within 15 days. Otherwise, the company is liable to pay interest on the amount.

4. Return of Allotment:

After allotting shares, the company must file a Return of Allotment (Form PAS-3) with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 30 days. This document details the number of shares allotted, the shareholders, and the allotment process.

5. Listing Requirements:

If the shares are issued through an IPO or public offer, the company must ensure that the shares are listed on a recognized stock exchange. The allotment must comply with the rules and regulations of the stock exchange as well.

6. Proper Allotment Procedures:

The company must follow proper procedures during the allotment, including board approval, maintaining proper records of applicants, and ensuring fairness in case of oversubscription (proportional allotment or lottery system).

7. Non-Payment of Allotment Money:

If a shareholder fails to pay the allotment money, the company has the right to forfeit the shares after providing due notice.

Restrictions on Allotment of Shares:

1. Minimum Subscription:

Company cannot proceed with the allotment of shares unless it receives at least 90% of the total issue as a minimum subscription. If this threshold is not met, the company must refund the application money to investors. This ensures that the company raises adequate capital to meet its objectives.

2. Approval by Regulatory Authorities:

In the case of public offers, companies must receive approvals from regulatory authorities such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and comply with its guidelines. Any non-compliance can lead to a restriction on the allotment process.

3. Time Limit for Allotment:

Shares must be allotted within 60 days from the date of receiving the share application. If the company fails to allot shares within this period, the application money must be refunded to the investors within the next 15 days. If not, the company must pay interest at a specified rate.

4. Prohibition on Allotment Before Filing the Prospectus:

Companies issuing shares to the public must file a prospectus with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) before making any allotment. Allotment without issuing or filing a prospectus is prohibited and can be declared void.

5. Return of Allotment:

After allotment, companies are required to file a Return of Allotment (Form PAS-3) with the ROC within 30 days of the allotment. If this form is not filed, further allotments may be restricted, and penalties may be imposed.

6. Oversubscription and Proportional Allotment:

In cases of oversubscription (when applications exceed the number of shares available), the company is restricted from issuing more shares than initially offered. It must allocate shares on a proportionate basis or through a fair method, such as a lottery system, to ensure equitable distribution.

7. Restrictions on Allotment to Certain Investors:

• Foreign Investors: Allotment to foreign investors must comply with the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) guidelines. Companies cannot allot shares to foreign nationals or institutions without adhering to these rules.
• Restricted Categories: Allotments may be restricted for certain categories of investors, such as related parties or company insiders, without appropriate board approvals or shareholder resolutions.

8. Non-Payment of Allotment Money:

If the allotment money is not paid by the applicant within the specified time, the company has the right to forfeit the shares. The allottee loses their entitlement to the shares and any amount already paid.

9. SEBI Regulations (for Listed Companies):

For listed companies, allotment of shares must comply with SEBI’s guidelines, including transparency, proper disclosures, and fair pricing. Failure to adhere to these regulations can restrict further share allotments.

10. Lock-in Period:

For certain types of shareholders, especially promoters and institutional investors in private placements, a lock-in period may apply. During this period, these shareholders are restricted from selling or transferring their shares.

Reputed companies require the applicants to send the full value of the shares along with the applications. This is because, the Companies Act does not prohibit companies to collect the entire amount at the time of issue itself. But the usual practice of the companies is to collect a certain percentage of the face value of the shares on application and allotment and the balance in one or more installments known as calls.

A call may be defined as a demand made by the company on its shareholders to pay a part or the whole of the unpaid balance within a specified time. Lord Lindley says that the expression “Call” denotes both the demand for money and also the sum demanded.

The following points should be noted, in this context, so that the reader can understand what a call really means.

1. Time for Making the Call: The call can be made at any time during the life time of the company or during the course of winding up. During the life time, the call should be made by the Board of Directors and during the course of winding up, it should be made by the liquidator.
2. Obligatory: Each shareholder is obliged to pay the amount of call as and when the call is made. But, this liability arises only when the call is made and not before.
3. Debt Due: As soon as a call is made, the call amount shall become a debt due from the shareholders to the company.
4. Consequences of Default: If a shareholder fails to pay the call amount, the company can enforce payment of the amount together with interest or can forfeit the shares.
5. Calls and Other Payments: A call is different from other payments made by a shareholder. The amounts paid on application and allotment are not calls. Similarly, if a company requires the shareholders to pay the entire amount either on application or on allotment, it is not a call under this Act.

Legal Provisions Relating to the Calls

The statutory provisions relating to the making of calls can be summed up as follows:

1. Call should Bona fide: The power to make call is generally in nature of a trust and so it can be exercised bona fide and for the benefit of the company. It should not be made for private ends. It means the directors or the liquidator can make the call only when there is a bona fide need for funds.
2. Uniformity: The calls should be made on an uniform basis on all the shares falling under the same class. If a call is made only on some shareholders of the same class but not on others or a greater amount is demanded from some shareholders and a lesser amount from others of the same class, the call is not valid.
3. Provisions of the Articles: The calls should be made strictly in accordance with the provisions of the Articles. If this is not done, the call will be invalid.

Procedure for making Calls

Generally, the procedure for making calls is incorporated in the Articles of most companies. If a company has its own Articles, it should follow the provisions of its Articles. If not, the regulations specified in Table A of the Act shall apply.

The following provisions of Table A can be noted at this stage.

1. The power to make calls generally vests in the Board of Directors.
2. The calls should be made by passing a resolution at the meeting of the Board.
3. The call money should not exceed 50% of the face value of the share at one time. However, companies may have their own Articles and raise this limit.
4. There must be at least 30 days interval between two successive calls.
5. When a call is made a letter known as “Call Letter” or “Call Notice” should be sent to all the shareholders of the same class.
6. The notice should also specify the amount of the call, place of payment etc. and should be sent at least 14 days before the last date for payment.
7. The Board of directors has the power to revoke or postpone a call after it is made.
8. Joint shareholders are jointly and severally liable for payment of calls.
9. If a member fails to pay call money, he is liable to pay interest not exceeding the rate specified in the Articles or terms of issue. The directors are free to waive the payment of interest.
10. If any member desires to pay the call money in advance, the directors may at their discretion accept and pay interest not exceeding the rate specified in the Articles.
11. A defaulting member will not have any voting right till call money is paid by him.

Sec. 2(36) of the Companies Act describes a prospectus as “any document issued as a prospectus and includes any notice, circular, advertisement or other document inviting deposits from the public or inviting offers from the public for the subscription or purchase of any share in, or debentures of a body corporate.”

In other words, it is a document which invites deposits from the public or invites offers from the public for the subscription of shares in, or debentures of, a company. The words “inviting deposits from the public” were added by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1974.

Features and Characteristics of Prospectus:

(i) It is a document issued as a prospectus;

(ii) It is an invitation to the member of the public;

(iii) The public is invited to subscribe to the shares or debentures of the company;

(iv) It includes any notice, circular, advertisement inviting deposits from the public;

(v) It is a document by which the company procures its share capital needed to carry on its activities.

Forms and Contents of the Prospectus:

Sec. 56 states that every prospectus must

1. State the matters specified in Part I of Schedule II, and
2. Set out the reports specified in Part II of Schedule II.

The Statement in Lieu of Prospectus is a document filed with the Registrar of the Companies ( ROC ) when the company has not issued prospectus to the public for inviting them to subscribe for shares. The statement must contain the signatures of all the directors or their agents authorized in writing. It is similar to a prospectus but contains brief information. The Statement in Lieu of Prospectus needs to be filed with the registrar if the company does not issues prospectus or the company issued prospectus but because minimum subscription has not been received the company has not proceeded for the allotment of shares.

If a public company does not invite the public to subscribe for its shares but acquires to have money from private sources it may not issue a prospectus. In the circumstances, the promoters are required to prepare a draft prospectus which is known as ‘Statement in lieu of Prospectus’ which must contain the information required to be disclosed by Schedule III of the Act.

Sec. 70(1) states that a company having a share capital which does not issue a prospectus shall not allot any of its shares or debentures unless at least 3 days before the allotment of shares or debentures there has been delivered to the Registrar for registration a statement in lieu of prospectus.

The statement shall be signed by every person who is named therein as a director or proposed director of the company or by his authorised agent in writing. It shall be in the form and contain particulars set out in Schedule III of the Act.

Sec. 70(4) lays down that, in contravention of Sec. 70(1), the company and every director of the company, who wilfully authorizes or permits the contravention shall be punishable with fine which may extent to Rs. 1,000.

Similarly Sec. 70(5) also states that where the statement in lieu of prospectus contains any untrue statement, the persons responsible, for the issue thereof, may be punished by imprisonment which may extend to 2 years or with fine which may extend to Rs. 5,000, or with both.

Red Herring Prospectus:

A Red Herring Prospectus is a document which is submitted by an issuer company who intents to have public offerings of securities (i.e.; stock or bonds). It is associated with an Initial Public Offering (IPO). It must be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The term Red herring comes from the tradition where young hunting dogs in Great Britain were trained in order to follow a scent by the use of ‘Red’ (i.e. salted and smoked) herring (i.e., kipper).

It is interesting to note that this pungent fish would be dragged across a trail until the puppy learned to follow the scent. But the term is used in prospectus simply due to disclosure statement which is printed in red ink on the cover which clearly states that the issuing company is not attempting to sell its shares.

Contents of Red Herring Prospectus:

(a) Purpose of the issue;

(b) Proposed offering Price Range;

(c) Promotion expenses;

(d) Copy of the underwriting agreement;

(e) Underwriter’s commission and discount;

(f) Disclosure of any option agreement;

(g) Balance Sheet;

(h) Net proceeds to the issuing company;

(i) Earning statement for .last three years;

(j) Legal option on the issue;

(k) Copies of the Articles of Incorporation of the issuer; and

(l) Names and addresses of all offices, underwriters, directors and stockholders owning 10% or more of the existing outstanding stock.