Tag: Innovation Management

Leader

Leadership as a general term is not related to managership. A person can be a leader by virtue of qualities in him. For example: leader of a club, class, welfare association, social organization, etc. Therefore, it is true to say that, “All managers are leaders, but all leaders are not managers.”

A leader is one who influences the behavior and work of others in group efforts towards achievement of specified goals in a given situation. On the other hand, manager can be a true manager only if he has got traits of leader in him. Manager at all levels is expected to be the leaders of work groups so that subordinates willingly carry instructions and accept their guidance. A person can be a leader by virtue of all qualities in him.

A leader refers to a person who leads others in a specific situation and is capable of heading the group towards the accomplishment of the ultimate goal by making strategies to pursue and reach the same.

A leader has a vision, who inspires people, in such a way that it becomes their vision.

Further, the leader can be any person having the potential to influence others, be it a manager of an organization, or head of the family, or a captain of a team, minister of a state, or leader in an informal group. He/She is the one who:

• Takes charge of and directs the activities of subordinates.
• Provide the group everything that is required to fulfill its maintenance and needs related to the task.
• Required at all levels to act as a representative of the organization
• Encourages the whole team to work together and supports them in accomplishing their tasks, as a guide.

Manager

A manager has to perform all five functions to achieve goals, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling. Leadership is a part of these functions.

Managers are those individuals who are employed by the organization so as to direct and monitor the work of other employees working in the organization. They are the ones who get their work done by the employees and have the authority to hire or fire the employees.

He/She ensures that the tasks are completed within the stipulated time frame while complying with all the rules and policies of the organization and using the allocated resources.

Functions:

• Planning: The planning function encompasses setting up goals, formulation of strategies, and development of plans to coordinate the activities of the organization.
• Organizing: Organizing involves the arrangement of resources and scheduling of tasks so that activities can be performed in a sequential manner.
• Staffing: This function involves recruiting the right personnel for various positions in an organization.
• Directing: Directing involves providing direction, guidance, and supervision to the subordinates, so that they can perform the task effectively.
• Controlling: Controlling involves keeping a check on the activities performed by the employees so as to make certain that they are performed as planned, by making comparisons. And if there are any deviations then, measures should be taken to improve them.

	Manager	Leader
Origin	A person becomes a manager by virtue of his position.	A person becomes a leader on basis of his personal qualities.
Formal Rights	Manager has got formal rights in an organization because of his status.	Rights are not available to a leader.
Followers	The subordinates are the followers of managers.	The group of employees whom the leaders leads are his followers.
Functions	A manager performs all five functions of management.	Leader influences people to work willingly for group objectives.
Necessity	A manager is very essential to a concern.	A leader is required to create cordial relation between person working in and for organization.
Mutual Relationship	All managers are leaders.	All leaders are not managers.
Accountability	Manager is accountable for self and subordinates behaviour and performance.	Leaders have no well defined accountability.
Concern	A manager’s concern is organizational goals.	A leader’s concern is group goals and member’s satisfaction.
Role continuation	A manager can continue in office till he performs his duties satisfactorily in congruence with organizational goals.	A leader can maintain his position only through day to day wishes of followers.
Sanctions	Manager has command over allocation and distribution of sanctions.	A leader has command over different sanctions and related task records. These sanctions are essentially of informal nature.
Stability	It is more stable.	Leadership is temporary.
Followers	People follow manager by virtue of job description.	People follow them on voluntary basis.

Decision-making is a leadership skill that managers use to assess a situation and determine how the organization may proceed. The decision-making process involves the following steps:

• Identifying the challenge: In this step, the manager discovers an issue and determines the circumstances that led to the situation.
• Devising solutions: After learning more information about the case, the manager creates one or several possible solutions.
• Weighing options: The manager analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of each option and explores alternative solutions if needed.
• Making a choice: Once a thorough assessment takes place, the manager makes a final decision about what action to take.
• Informing others of the decision: The manager informs employees of the decision and explains how the decision influences the workplace.

Role:

Improve workplace productivity

Effective decisions can save time and propel work projects forward, increasing employee productivity. For example, employees at a small furniture store disagree about when to host the annual spring sale, which prevents them from promoting the sale and preparing the store for an influx of customers. The manager of the store announces the sale date in April. This decision starts the planning process and motivates employees to complete their associated occupational tasks.

Reduce conflict

The decision-making process can decrease conflict by setting clear expectations for employees, leaving little room for misunderstandings. As a manager, you can provide direction on how your team collaborates to achieve organizational goals. For example, you may assign teams for major projects to distribute the work evenly. Deciding what standards you want for your team can promote shared understandings instead of confusion.

Establish trust with the employees

Good decision-making can help managers show their employees that they value their work and have their best interests in mind. When a manager takes the time to evaluate, analyze and explain decisions, they also display thoughtfulness and trustworthiness. Employees may feel they can confide in their managers about their interests and concerns.

Create action plans in emergency situations

Emergency situations may require managers to make quick, impactful decisions to minimize damage and optimize benefits. For example, a small town experiences a power outage, and employees at a local grocery store become concerned with how this may affect their work hours.

The store manager decides to open the store operating on a generator and provide work hours for employees who can safely travel to the store. This ensures employees can work to earn income and the store receives business. When unexpected situations occur, it’s important for managers to assess organizational needs and decide how best to proceed.

Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the study of how individuals, groups, and structures interact within an organization. It focuses on understanding and predicting human behaviour to improve organizational effectiveness. OB explores key areas such as motivation, leadership, communication, decision-making, and organizational culture. By analyzing these elements, organizations can foster positive work environments, enhance employee performance, and manage change effectively. Drawing on psychology, sociology, and management principles, OB helps businesses create strategies that align employee behaviour with organizational goals.

Factors influencing Organisational Behaviour:

• Individual Differences

Organizational behaviour is significantly influenced by individual differences, including personality, values, attitudes, perceptions, and emotions. These differences affect how employees interact, approach tasks, and respond to various situations. Understanding individual differences allows managers to effectively assign roles, motivate employees, and build cohesive teams. For example, an extroverted employee may excel in roles requiring social interaction, while an introverted individual might prefer solitary tasks. By accommodating these differences, organizations can enhance productivity, job satisfaction, and overall organizational harmony.

• Organizational Culture

Culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, and norms within an organization. It shapes how employees behave and interact with one another. A strong organizational culture fosters a sense of belonging, consistency, and alignment towards common goals. Companies with positive cultures often experience lower turnover and higher engagement. Conversely, toxic cultures can lead to conflicts and dissatisfaction. Leaders play a vital role in maintaining or changing the culture by modeling appropriate behaviours and reinforcing desired values through rewards and recognition.

• Leadership Style

Leadership significantly influences organizational behaviour by shaping the work environment and employee motivation. Different leadership styles—such as autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire—impact decision-making, communication, and performance. For example, democratic leaders encourage participation and creativity, fostering innovation and morale. In contrast, autocratic leaders may achieve short-term efficiency but risk employee dissatisfaction. Effective leaders adapt their style based on situational needs, ensuring that they motivate employees while maintaining clarity and direction.

• Communication

Effective communication is essential for smooth organizational functioning. It facilitates information sharing, decision-making, and conflict resolution. Communication can occur through formal channels like meetings and reports or informal ones like casual conversations. Miscommunication, on the other hand, can lead to misunderstandings, errors, and reduced productivity. Organizations that encourage open communication foster trust, collaboration, and innovation. Technologies like email and instant messaging have further transformed communication patterns, making timely feedback and interaction more accessible.

• Motivation

Motivation drives employee behaviour towards achieving organizational goals. Different employees are motivated by different factors, such as financial incentives, job security, recognition, or personal growth. Managers must understand what motivates their teams to maintain high morale and performance. Motivation theories, like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory, help explain how intrinsic and extrinsic factors impact employee engagement. Creating a supportive environment that fulfills these motivational needs is crucial for long-term success.

• Group Dynamics

Groups and teams are integral to organizational life, and their dynamics significantly influence individual behaviour and overall productivity. Factors like group norms, cohesiveness, and conflict resolution determine how well teams function. A cohesive team with clear goals and effective communication is likely to perform better. Conversely, poorly managed conflict or unclear roles can hinder progress. Encouraging diversity and collaboration while minimizing groupthink helps organizations harness the potential of their teams effectively.

• Organizational Structure

The structure of an organization defines roles, responsibilities, and authority, influencing how employees interact and behave. A hierarchical structure with rigid rules may lead to formal behaviour and limited creativity, while a flat structure encourages innovation and flexibility. Departments, reporting lines, and spans of control impact decision-making speed and clarity. Organizations must adopt structures that align with their goals, ensuring smooth workflow and adaptability to changes in the business environment.

• External Environment

The external environment includes factors such as market trends, competition, economic conditions, and technological advancements that affect organizational behaviour. Changes in the external environment may require businesses to adapt quickly to remain competitive. For instance, during economic downturns, organizations may focus on cost-cutting, while during periods of growth, they may emphasize expansion. Staying attuned to environmental factors helps organizations stay relevant, innovate, and navigate challenges effectively. Managers must continuously monitor these factors and adjust strategies accordingly.

Participative decision-making (PDM) is the extent to which employers allow or encourage employees to share or participate in organizational decision-making. According to Cotton et al., the format of PDM could be formal or informal. In addition, the degree of participation could range from zero to 100% in different participative management (PM) stages.

PDM is one of many ways in which an organization can make decisions. The leader must think of the best possible way that will allow the organization to achieve the best results. According to Abraham Maslow, workers need to feel a sense of belonging to an organization (see Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

Styles:

Democratic Leadership. This is the type of leadership style in which members are encouraged to share their ideas and then synthesizes the available information into the best possible decision. Researchers have found that this style is usually the most effective and leads to better contributions from the group, as it produces a work environment that employees can feel good about because they know their opinion counts and they can bring a real difference to the organization.

Autocratic Style. Here, the leader takes the employees’ opinions, collects them and facilitates the conversation, but takes control and responsibility of the final decision. This is most effective during crises and emergencies where decisions have to be made quickly.

Consensus. In the consensus participative decision-making style, the leader gives up complete control of the decision and leaves it to the members of the group to conclude the majority decision. Doing this requires teamwork, trust, and communication (and time, because it takes a while) but it usually brings out the best decisions since it is well thought out. Consensus style improves goal-setting, problem-solving, and team-building among groups.

Delegated by Expertise. Of course, not everyone is an expert at everything. Everyone has their area of expertise. Here, the leader delegates the responsibility to the expert of their area of concern so they can arrive at the best outcome. This style of decision-making process can help the group feel more creative and engaged in the process.

Choosing the right style for your organization shouldn’t be a one-off. As HR practitioners, we always have to be mindful of the dynamics in our organization so we can decide on the right participative decision-making style (depending on the situation) that will improve our employee engagement and ensure that everyone in the company feels valued and respected.

Advantages

PM is important where a large number of stakeholders are involved from different walks of life, coming together to make a decision which may benefit everyone. Some examples are decisions for the environment, health care, anti-animal cruelty and other similar situations. In this case, everyone can be involved, from experts, NGOs, government agencies, to volunteers and members of public.

However, organizations may benefit from the perceived motivational influences of employees. When employees participate in the decision-making process, they may improve understanding and perceptions among colleagues and superiors, and enhance personnel value in the organization.

Participatory decision-making by the top management team can ensure the completeness of decision-making and may increase team member commitment to final decisions. In a participative decision-making process each team member has an opportunity to share their perspectives, voice their ideas and tap their skills to improve team effectiveness and efficiency.

Participatory decision-making can have a wide array of organizational benefits. Researchers have found that PDM may positively impact the following:

• Job satisfaction
• Organizational commitment
• Perceived organizational support
• Organizational citizenship behavior
• Labor-management relations
• Job performance and organizational performance
• Organizational profits

Outcomes

The outcomes are various in PDM. In the aspect of employees, PDM refers to job satisfaction and performance, which are usually recognized as commitment and productivity[9] In the aspect of employers, PDM is evolved into decision quality and efficiency that influenced by multiple and differential mixed layers in terms of information access, level of participation, processes and dimensions in PDM.

Research primarily focuses on the work satisfaction and performance of employees in PDM. Different measurement systems were applied to identify the two items and the relevant properties. If they are measured with different processes in PDM, the relationship is as described below:

• Identifying problems: Do not have strong relationship with performance. Because even with full participation, participants may not explore their skills and knowledge in identifying problems, which is likely to weaken the desires and motivation then influence performance.
• Providing solutions: Positive and “potentially strong” relations with performance. It is not only attributed to the skills and knowledge could be explored but also the innovative ways employees can provide and generate.
• Selecting solutions: Positive to performance but not likely to enhance satisfaction. If the solutions generated are not acknowledged by the employees who are absent at the previous stage, the satisfaction could lessen.
• Planning implementation: Positive and strong relationship with both performance and satisfaction. Participants are given the possibility to affect the achievement of a designed plan. As the “value attainment” is attached, the extent of performance and work satisfaction increase.
• Evaluating results: Weaker relationship with performance, but positive relationship with satisfaction due to the future benefit.

There are a number of ways through which employees can participate in decision-making process of any organization.

• Participation at the Board Level: Representation of employees at the board level is known as industrial democracy. This can play an important role in protecting the interests of employees. The representative can put all the problems and issues of the employees in front of management and guide the board members to invest in employee benefit schemes.
• Participation through Ownership: The other way of ensuring workers’ participation in organizational decision making is making them shareholders of the company. Inducing them to buy equity shares, advancing loans, giving financial assistance to enable them to buy equity shares are some of the ways to keep them involved in decision-making.
• Participation through Collective Bargaining: This refers to the participation of workers through collective agreements and by deciding and following certain rules and regulations. This is considered as an ideal way to ensure employee participation in managerial processes. It should be well controlled otherwise each party tries to take an advantage of the other.
• Participation through Suggestion Schemes: Encouraging your employees to come up with unique ideas can work wonders especially on matters such as cost cutting, waste management, safety measures, reward system, etc. Developing a full-fledged procedure can add value to the organizational functions and create a healthy environment and work culture. For instance, Satyam is known to have introduced an amazing country-wide suggestion scheme, the Idea Junction. It receives over 5,000 ideas per year from its employees and company accepts almost one-fifth of them.
• Participation through Complete Control: This is called the system of self management where workers union acts as management. Through elected boards, they acquire full control of the management. In this style, workers directly deal with all aspects of management or industrial issues through their representatives.
• Participation through Job Enrichment: Expanding the job content and adding additional motivators and rewards to the existing job profile is a fine way to keep workers involved in managerial decision-making. Job enrichment offers freedom to employees to exploit their wisdom and use their judgment while handling day-to-day business problems.
• Participation through Quality Circles: A quality circle is a group of five to ten people who are experts in a particular work area. They meet regularly to identify, analyze and solve the problems arising in their area of operation. Anyone, from the organization, who is an expert of that particular field, can become its member. It is an ideal way to identify the problem areas and work upon them to improve working conditions of the organization.

Key Managerial Personnel (KMP) or Key Management Personnel refers to the employees of a company who are vested with the most important roles and functionalities. They are the first point of contact between the company and its stakeholders and are responsible for the formulation of strategies and its implementation. The Companies Act mandates certain classes of companies to include such personnel in its ranks. This article looks at this designation which holds a significant place in the Companies Act of 2013.

The definition of Key Managerial Personnel has been made more elaborate in the Companies Act of 2013 as the 1956 Act restricted its scope to a Managing Director, Whole Time Director and Manager. The current definition of the term provides for the inclusion of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), the Manager, the Managing Director, the Company Secretary, the Whole-Time Director, the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) and such other officers as may be prescribed. For the purpose of this Act, a Key Managerial Personnel (KMP) is considered as an “Officer and an “Officer who is in default”.

It may be noted that companies are prohibited from appointing or employing a Managing Director and a Manager at the same time. Also, no individuals should be appointed or reappointed as the Managing Director, Manager, Whole-Time Director or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of a Company for a term exceeding five years at a time, and no reappointments are allowed earlier than one year before the expiry of its term (conditions are subject to additional clauses).

Key management personnel are those people having authority and responsibility for planning, directing, and controlling the activities of an entity, either directly or indirectly. This designation typically includes the following positions:

• Board of directors
• Chief executive officer, chief operating officer, and chief financial officer
• Vice presidents

An entity shall disclose key management personnel compensation in total and for each of the following categories

(a) Short-term employee benefits

(b) Post-employment benefits

(c) Other long-term benefits;

(d) Termination benefits

(e) share-based payment.

Compensation includes all employee benefits as defined in Ind AS 19 Employee Benefits including share based payments to employees as per Ind AS 102.  Employee benefits are all forms of consideration paid, payable or provided by the entity, or on behalf of the entity, in exchange for services rendered to the entity. It also includes such consideration paid on behalf of a parent of the entity in respect of the entity.

If an entity obtains key management personnel services from another entity (the ‘management entity’) [See related party definition point (b) (viii)] in such case, the entity should disclose the amount of fees/compensation paid to the management entity.  Generally, the reporting entity pays agreed amount to the management entity and in return management entity pays to its employees i.e., who managed the reporting entity. The details of payment by the management entity to its employees/directors are not required to be disclosed in the reporting entity financial statements.

According to section 203(1) read with Rule 8 of the Companies (Appointment and Remuneration of Managerial Personnel) Rules, 2014 the following companies are mandated to appoint a Whole-time KMP:

• Every Listed Company
• Public Companies having paid-up share capital of 10 Crore rupees or more.
• Public Companies Having paid-up share of 5 Crore rupees or more.
• Companies having paid-up share capital of 10 Crore rupees or more are mandated to appoint a Company Secretary.

Roles and Responsibilities of Key Managerial Personnel

The Management function of implementing important decisions comes under the responsibilities of Key Managerial Personnel. Here are some of the main Roles and Responsibilities of KMP:

As per Section 170 of the Act, the details of Securities held by the Key Managerial Personnel in the company or its holding, subsidiary, a subsidiary of the company or associated companies should be disclosed and recorded in the registrar of the Books.

KMP has a right to be heard in the meetings of the Audit Committee while considering the Auditor’s Report; however they do not have the right to vote.

According to Section 189(2), Key Managerial Personnel should disclose to the company, within 30 days of appointment, relating to their concern or interest in the other associations, which are required to be included in the register.

Procedure of Appointment of KMP

• The appointment of key managerial personnel is prescribed under Section 203 of the Act. Every member of managerial personnel is appointed through a resolution adopted by the Board with terms and conditions of appointment and remuneration.
• A member of managerial personnel can hold the position in one company at a given time. However a member of managerial personnel of a company can be a member of managerial personnel of its subsidiary company.
• In case of vacancy the Board has the responsibility of filling up within six months from the date of such vacancy.
• If the company or its Board tries to violate the provision of appointment of managerial personnel, then the company has to suffer from penalty. The company shall be punishable with fine of rupees one lakh which may extend up to rupees five lakh.
• Every Director and other key managerial personnel shall also be punishable with a fine of Rs.50, 000. If the contravention is continuing, then they would be charged with Rs. 1000 per day after the first offense.

Officer in default

According to section 2(60) of the Act, an ‘officer who is in default ‘shall be liable for any penalty or punishment by way of imprisonment or fine. The officers may include:

Key Managerial Personnel

Whole-Time director’.

Any person who is responsible for maintenance, filing or distributing records or accounts.

Any Director who is aware of the activities taking place is in contravention of the law or the provisions and yet indulges in or participates in it.

Maintenance of Register:

Every Company falling under this provision is required to maintain a register comprising particulars of its Directors and KMPs, which is to be placed at the registered office of the Company. The documents should include the details of securities held by each of them in the company or its holding, subsidiary, subsidiary of a company’s holding company or associate companies. Further requirements of its contents have been mentioned in Rule 17 of the Companies (Appointment and Qualification of Directors) Rules, 2014.

Significant influence

Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions of the investee, but is not control of those policies.

IND-AS 28 defines significant influence as under:

Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions of the investee but is not control or joint control of those policies.

Decision-making is one of the most crucial steps in the planning process. Effective decision-making helps managers choose the best course of action to achieve the organization’s goals. In the context of planning, decision-making involves selecting the most appropriate strategies, actions, and alternatives based on available information, analysis, and forecasts. This step serves as the foundation for developing and implementing a plan, ensuring that all activities and resources are aligned with the organization’s objectives. Below is an explanation of the significance of decision-making in the planning process and how it contributes to organizational success.

• Establishing Objectives

The first step in planning is setting clear objectives, and decision-making plays a pivotal role in this process. Managers must make decisions about the goals the organization needs to achieve. These objectives must be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). During this stage, managers evaluate the needs of the organization, market trends, and external factors to decide on the goals that align with the organization’s mission and vision. The decision about which objectives to prioritize influences the direction of the entire planning process.

• Analyzing Alternatives

Once objectives are set, decision-making continues with the analysis of different alternatives and approaches. There are often several ways to achieve the same goal, and each approach may have different implications. Decision-makers assess the various alternatives by considering factors such as cost, time, resources, feasibility, and risks. They also take into account potential obstacles and challenges that may arise. The selection of the best alternative is crucial as it will guide the entire planning process and determine the actions required to accomplish the goals.

• Allocating Resources

One of the critical decisions in planning is how to allocate resources, including human, financial, and physical assets. Decision-makers must assess the availability and requirements of resources for each task or objective. They need to decide which projects, activities, or departments will receive which resources. Effective allocation ensures that resources are used efficiently and effectively to achieve the desired outcomes. Poor decision-making at this stage can lead to resource wastage, project delays, or unmet goals.

• Risk Assessment and Contingency Planning

Another important aspect of decision-making in planning is the assessment of risks. All plans are subject to some degree of uncertainty, and decision-makers must make informed choices about the potential risks and how to mitigate them. This includes deciding on the risks that are acceptable and those that require action. Managers often create contingency plans to address possible challenges and to ensure that the organization can adapt if unexpected situations arise. These decisions are critical for ensuring the continuity and resilience of the organization in the face of uncertainties.

• Setting Timelines and Milestones

Decision-making in planning also involves determining the timelines for achieving objectives. Managers must decide on the duration of each task, the deadlines for milestones, and the overall time frame for completing the plan. Effective decision-making ensures that timelines are realistic, resources are appropriately allocated, and tasks are achievable within the specified period. Decisions about setting achievable deadlines are important for maintaining motivation, reducing stress, and keeping the plan on track.

• Monitoring and Evaluation

Decision-making does not end once the plan is put into action. Managers must continuously make decisions regarding the monitoring and evaluation of the plan’s progress. They decide on the metrics to measure performance, establish control mechanisms, and assess whether the plan is on target. If the progress deviates from the plan, managers may decide to adjust strategies, reallocate resources, or make other changes to keep the plan aligned with the objectives.

• Adapting to Change

In a dynamic business environment, decision-making in planning also includes the ability to adapt and adjust to changing circumstances. This requires managers to make ongoing decisions about modifying the plan based on new information, changing market conditions, or internal developments. The ability to adapt the plan ensures that the organization remains competitive and responsive to external factors.

Strategic decisions are the decisions that are concerned with whole environment in which the firm operates, the entire resources and the people who form the company and the interface between the two.

Characteristics/Features of Strategic Decisions

• Strategic decisions have major resource propositions for an organization. These decisions may be concerned with possessing new resources, organizing others or reallocating others.
• Strategic decisions deal with harmonizing organizational resource capabilities with the threats and opportunities.
• Strategic decisions deal with the range of organizational activities. It is all about what they want the organization to be like and to be about.
• Strategic decisions involve a change of major kind since an organization operates in ever-changing environment.
• Strategic decisions are complex in nature.
• Strategic decisions are at the top most level, are uncertain as they deal with the future, and involve a lot of risk.
• Strategic decisions are different from administrative and operational decisions. Administrative decisions are routine decisions which help or rather facilitate strategic decisions or operational decisions. Operational decisions are technical decisions which help execution of strategic decisions. To reduce cost is a strategic decision which is achieved through operational decision of reducing the number of employees and how we carry out these reductions will be administrative decision.

Nature of Strategy

Based on the above definitions, we can understand the nature of strategy. A few aspects regarding nature of strategy are as follows:

• Strategy is a major course of action through which an organization relates itself to its environment particularly the external factors to facilitate all actions involved in meeting the objectives of the organization.
• Strategy is the blend of internal and external factors. To meet the opportunities and threats provided by the external factors, internal factors are matched with them.
• Strategy is the combination of actions aimed to meet a particular condition, to solve certain problems or to achieve a desirable end. The actions are different for different situations.
• Due to its dependence on environmental variables, strategy may involve a contradictory action. An organization may take contradictory actions either simultaneously or with a gap of time. For example, a firm is engaged in closing down of some of its business and at the same time expanding some.
• Strategy is future oriented. Strategic actions are required for new situations which have not arisen before in the past.
• Strategy requires some systems and norms for its efficient adoption in any organization.
• Strategy provides overall framework for guiding enterprise thinking and action.

Marketing Strategies

Marketing strategy is the total and unbeatable instrument or a plan shaped and designed specifically for attaining the marketing objectives of a firm. A marketing mission and objectives tell us as to where we want to go and marketing strategy provides us with the grand design for reaching out there.

The borrow the words of Prof. Jerome Mc Carthy “strategy is the all important part of marketing. The one time planning decision the most crucial decision that determines what business the company is in and the general strategy, it will follow may be more important than has ever been realized”

In the words of Mr. Robertson and Yoram Wind, “there are three generic strategies for achieving success in the competitive market place. The first of these is to gain control over the supply or distribution, the second competitive cost advantage and the third product differentiation; marketing as a discipline is critical component of all these three strategies. Marketing performs a boundary role function in the firm’s selection of an appropriate strategy; marketing spares the customer interface and provides the assessment of needs which must ultimately guide all strategy development”.

To quite Michael E. Porter “marketing strategy has mainly one aim to cope up with competition; these are five major and vital forces that decide the nature and intensity of competition the threat of new entrants, bargaining power of customers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of substitute products and jockeying among the existing contest arts ; the collective strength of these forces determine the ultimate profit potential, of an industry; the strategists goal is to find a position in the industry where his company can best defined itself against these forces or can influence them in his favour; strategy can be viewed as building defences against competitive forces.

In the final analysis marketing strategy stands for competitive marketing actions that are bound to evoke a response from competition. That is why a successful marketer needs to have a comprehensive strategy to tackle competition at any cost.

However, one cannot go to the extent of “any cost” unless one works according to a plan and that is competitive strategy for thumping success in marketing. It is but, therefore, natural that competitive strategy has to be one that will evoke the much sought after competitive advantage. Having given the competitive advantage, the said strategy should give a sustainable competitive edge.

It warrants the thorough investigation and analyses of competition before one hope to have a competitive advantage. Thus competitive investigation, scanning and analysis consist of two things namely, the “long-term profit- opportunity” and owns one’s competitive position.

The ways of out beating competition are:

1. Reducing competition

Perhaps this is the simplest way of fighting out. It sounds well in theory; however in practice it means acquisition of smaller or weaker units which are in competition. Thus, Hindustan Lever acquired TOMACO and Broke Bond acquiring Kissan and Lipton.

2. Joining competition

This is another way out to mitigate competition which is gaining ground. The best example is that of joint venture of Procter and Gamble and Godrej Soaps.

3. Pre-empting competition

This is another way which is a proactive approach, which is very effective particularly when it is backed by competitive analysis. The example of pre-empting competition is that of.

4. To create barriers

This implies forbidding others from entry in the line based on very strong financial and muscle power. Good many companies spend heavily barring others to just think of such extravagance a luxury or a dream for them. The example of this kind is that of.

5. To differentiated the products

It pays to differentiate the products. One must not hesitate to differ his own product with a new to provide better value for the money paid by the customers. It is not only ideal but practical. That is majority of the companies to do it. The examples are good many but we can take toiletotries of all companies.

6. To improve the speed of response

The competitive edge can be further sharpened than one thinks. There are certain manufactured products where speed of response as well as quick source is of top significance.

Though the companies are aware of keeping pace with changing technological tempo they should be well ahead of the same. Quality in consonance with technology has much valid response if it catches the required speed.

7. To divest from regular activities

Instead of moving in the same grow; it should more out of it. The firm should divest out of focus activities. This makes available much wanted scarce recess in the focused activities.

8. To improve efficiency

It is but natural that there is close alliance between important efficiency and the competitive edge. This helps the marketer to distinguish his products though reduced cycle of line and reduced costs.

To restate, a competitive marketing strategy should be such that will give sustainable competitive advantage. One has to be therefore proactive and quick in one’s responses and one should be willing to invest in long-term profits.

Nature of Marketing Strategies

The exact nature of strategy is self evident from the definitions we have gone through.

The nature is clearly spoken by the following points:

1. They are dynamic

The concept of marketing strategy is relative as it is designed to meet the changing demands of a situation. Each situation and event needs a different strategy that is why strategies are revised and recast very frequently to cope up with the changes in a given situation or event.

2. They are futuristic

A marketing strategy is forward looking. It orients towards future. A marketing strategy is designed to bring out the organization from a ditch of degression to the path of progress for better change in the coming times.

3. They are complex

A marketing strategy is a very complex plan impounding in its compound other plans or firms of plans which area must to achieve the organizational goals. It is a compendium or complex of plans within plan to out beat the strength and vitality of others in the line are allied activities.

4. They provide direction

Marketing strategies provide a set direction in which human and physical resources will be allocated and deployed for achieving organisational goals in the face of change environmental pressure, stress and strains and constraints and restraints.

5. They are all covering

Marketing strategies involve the right combination of factors governing the best results. In fact strategic planning warrants not only the isolation of various elements of a given situation but a judicious and critical evaluation of their relative importance.

6. They are a link between the unit and environment

The strategic decisions that are basically related with likely trends in the changing marketing changes in govt., policies, technological developments, ecological change over’s, social and cultural overtones. Then, the ever-changing environment which is external to the organization has impact on it because unit is the sub-systems of supra-system namely environment.

7. They are interpretative

Marketing strategies are the interpretative plans formulated to interpret and give meaning to other plans in the spot-light of a specific situation or situations. They demand an adjustment of plans in anticipator of the reactions of those who will be influenced. Strategic decisions are the result of a complex and intricate process of decision making.

8. They are Top Management Blue-print

Marketing strategies their formulation is the basic responsibility of top management. It is because, it is top management that spells out the missions, objectives and goals and the policies and strategies are the ways to reach them. Thus, top management is not only to say to where to go but how best to go the terminal point.

Essentials of Marketing Strategies

Any marketing strategy to be worth calling as successful or effective must enjoy certain extras which can be called as essentials or requisites of it.

The basic guidelines, used to call a strategy a successful one used by experts are:

1. It is consistent

A marketing strategy to be effective is to be consistent with the overall and specific objectives and policies and other, strategies and tactics of the marketing organization. Interval consistency is an essential ingredient of a good strategy as it identifies the areas where the strategic decisions are to be made imminently or in the long run.

2. It is workable:

Any strategy however laudable and theoretically sound is meaningless unless it is able to meet the ever changing need of a situation. In this business world contingency is quite common and the strategy that strikes at the head to contribute to the progresses and prosperity of marketing organization.

3. It is suitable

A strategy is emergent of situations or environment. It is the subservient of changing environment of business world. It is but natural that any strategy not suiting to .the environment can impound the marketing organization in the compounds of danger, digress and frustration.

4. It is not risky

Any strategy involves risks as uncertainty is certain; what is important is that the extent of the risk involved or associated with strategy is reasonably low as compared to its pay-off or returns. It is because; a high risk very strategy may threaten the survival of the marketing organization, let alone its success, if calculations go fit.

5. It is resource based

A sound strategy is one which is designed in the background of the available resources at its command. A strategy involves certain amount of risk which can hardly be segregated. A strategic decision warrants commitment of right amount of resources to the opportunity and reservation of sufficient resources for an anticipated or “Pass through” errors in such demands of resources.

6. It has a time horizon

The statement “a stitch in time saves nine” that aptly applies to the concept of strategy. A sound strategy is time bound to be used at the nick of the hour and tick of the opportunity. It has an appropriate time horizon. This time this is costlier than money and its horizon banks on the goals to be achieved.

The time should be long enough to permit the organization to make adjustments and maintain the consistency of a strategy.

There are four methods:

1. Three Paths of Yoga. According to this, traditionally, four paths have been suggested to motivate.

(1) Cyan Yog: Path of knowledge of right or wrong and person is motivated through discussions, debate and contemplation.

(2) Bhakti Yog: Emotional path; he feels that devotion alone will satisfy his psychological needs.

(3) Karma Yog: Action orientation: Cause and effect relationship. He takes right step. Does his duty religiously. Gita teaches karma yog.

(4) Raj Yog: Mystic experiences: Internal psyche brings in a change.

According to the pshyce of an individual, any one or a mix of the above-mentioned methods can be adopted to motivate an individual.

2. LAW OF PURUSHARTHA: According to this tradition, a person is motivated to satisfy fourfold Purusharthas or missions of life. They are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. The word Purushartha is derived from two Sanskrit words ‘Purusha’ meaning person, and ‘Artha’ meaning aim or goal. Therefore, the term Purushartha means aim of life or missing of life.

(1) Dharma: It is the rightful duty of a person. An individual is guided by his inner instincts to follow his Dharma. Also, one has to follows one’s ‘Swadharma’ which is beneficial to him as well as to the society.

(2) Artha: It is the pursuit of material wealth. However, Artha is only a means to achieve the ends, viz., to get comforts of life. But it must be remembered that Artha hopas to be acquired through dharmic means only. The most important thing to remember is that one should not have any attachment with money.

(3) Kama: It means ‘desire’. According to this, one’s desires (needs) must be fulfilled. However, one must keep desires to a minimum level so as not to miss the ultimate aim of life, which is to realise the soul within oneself.

(4) Moksha: It means ‘liberation’. It implies self-realisation which is the ultimate aim of a human being. It is the ultimate experience of union of self with the superme self. By obtaining Artha, through Dharma, one fulfills one’s Kama – desires and finally attains Moksha.

3. THEORY OF RIN: According to this theory, man is born to repay the ‘Rin’ (Debts) of all his past lives. This motivates a person to act in such a manner so as to repay these debts. Right from the birth, one is indebted to the following:

(1) Deva Rin: Here, Deva means all the Pancha Bhutas viz., Agni Dev, Varun Dev (Air), Vasundhara (Earth), Akash Dev, and Jal Dev. All living beings should be indebted to these five cosmic forces for their existence. They should repay their debt by preserving them.

(2) Rishi Rin: Our Rishis have given us great scriptures which have enriched our lives. Therefore, it is our duty to live our lives according to these thoughts. So also, we must spread the knowledge given in the scriptures.

(3) Guru Rin: Our teachers have taught us so many things in life and made it wonderful. Hence, we should feel indebted to them and repay these debts by using this knowledge. Also, we must respect our teachers.

(4) Pitru Rin: Our parents and grandparents have brought us into this world and gave us the value system which gives us peace. Therefore, we are indebted to them. We should do our best to look after them.

(5) Matru Rin: The word ‘Matru’ has double meaning. The first one is mother, who rears a child in her womb and brings him/her in this world and sacrifices her life for her children. The second one is the mother earth which sustains the life of all the living beings without any expectation.

(6) Bandhav Rin: Man is a social animal. Therefore, besides having good mental and physical health, he must possess a good social health. For good social health, one must contribute towards society’s improvement and peace. According to Indian ethics, we believe in ‘VASUDEV KUTUMBKAM’ which means that entire world is our family and therefore we must take care and love every human being in this world.

(7) Nrip Rin: ‘NRIP’ means the King. In the present context, it means the government. In this sense, we must be indebted to the government and be a law-abiding citizen.

(8) Bhuta Rin: According to this concept, a man is indebted to all his ancesstors who have died. Indians worship their deceased forefathers. For this purpose they perform ‘SHRADDHA’ a ritual, every year, to remember their departed forefathers.

Also, Indians believe that an indebted man cannot go to heaven, after death. Therefore, every Indian would like to repay all his debts, before leaving this world.

4. Ancient Technique of Motivation: According to this technique, there are four methods of motivation, viz., SAAM (Association), DAAM (Reward), DAND (Punishment) and BHED (Difference).

(1) SAAM: Man is social animal and he would like to be a part of the group to which he belongs. Therefore, a person can be motivated by the values, beliefs, ideology and lifestyle habits of the social and official groups.

(2) DAAM: Man can be motivated by offering rewards. Rewards should be such so as to satisfy the unfulfilled needs of an individual. These can be in terms of money or recognition, or both.

(3) DAND: Sometimes fear of punishment or losing a thing, may motivate a person to do a job.

(4) BHED: This technique believes in the method of ‘DIVIDE AND RULE’. Groups are created in the society and competition is set between them. This competition motivates the individuals in the groups.

Virtual Teams

A virtual team is a group of people who work for a common purpose but in separate locations. The concept of the virtual team has been introduced with the enhancement of technology. In these teams, people perform jobs in a virtual work environment created and maintained through IT and software technologies. The virtual team concept is relatively new to project management areas and IT. Most of the processes are outsourced in a virtual work environment. Since virtual team solely rely on electronic communication media, they work in different time zones and a variety of cultural boundaries. More diversified team members may work in a virtual team.

Virtual team management includes the following:

• Training: Team leader sets targets and develops the team member until he meets the standard level.
• Assembling: Probation periods are the measurable indicator to be applied when commencing with remote teamwork organization.
• Managing: Use of telecommunication technologies to manage ongoing projects and jobs of remote group members.
• Controlling: Team leader establishes performance indicators to evaluate the performance of team members.

Traditional Teams

A traditional team, also known as an intact team, is a functional team in which experts work together and share a common path to achieve their team’s processes and goals. In some cases, traditional teams are an entire department. Leadership is undertaken by a senior-level manager. New recruitments to the team are based on their technical skills and competency. Traditional teams mostly engage in described routine jobs.

Organization Structure: Compared to the traditional teams, virtual teams support flatter organization structure with dim lines of authorities and hierarchies. This is required to survive in hypercompetitive market, deliver results faster and encourage creativity which are actually the primary objectives for forming a virtual team.

Selection of Team Members: In case of traditional teams, members are largely selected based on their functional skills. But performing in a virtual team environment is not easy for everyone. Lack of face-to-face interactions and social focus in a virtual setting might lead to isolation and loneliness. It calls for managing ambiguity, proactive networking, exceptional time management and work discipline, ability to learn new technologies, and the ability to collaborate across functional and cultural boundaries. So, in the selection of a virtual team member, there is a need to look into these core competencies in addition to the basic functional skills.

Accountability

In a team-based organization, team members are accountable to each other, and to the team as a whole. This mutual accountability means that the entire team is responsible for its collective actions. This is the opposite of accountability at an individual level inherent in traditional organizations.

Although there are times when teams could have collectively performed better, lack of effort and accountability are rarely intentional. According to a February 2020 Harvard Business Review article, a team’s underperformance is most likely due to limited resources, ambiguity regarding roles, a poor strategy and/or unrealistic goals.

Leadership Style: In virtual team setting, managers cannot physically control the day-to-day activities and monitor each team members’ activities, therefore they need to delegate little more as compared to traditional teams. The command-and-control leadership style of yester years is giving way to the more democratic and coaching style of today.

Relationship Building: When traditional team members meet in the workplace every day they tend to develop close social ties with each other. They strike rapport with each other when they interact face-to-face. In the virtual team the interactions are tend to be more task-focused. Further, lack of verbal cues and gestures in virtual setting does not allow any scope for personal touch in the communication.

Psychological Contract: The foundation of psychological contract is more fragile in the virtual environment. Smaller instances of misunderstanding or gaps in communication result in violation of the psychological contract which has negative effects on the team’s effectiveness. Virtual teams also experience difficulties in building trust, cohesion and commitment among its members.

Knowledge Exchange & Decision-taking: Many a times in traditional teams, information is being exchanged during informal discussions. But in case of virtual teams, members have a very limited or no informal access to the information. Hence there is a need for more frequent updates on project status and building a shared database to provide all the important information to the team. Considering the time zone differences in global virtual teams, it becomes difficult to schedule meetings. Thus, in case of virtual teams many a times delay occurs in fixing a problem or reaching a consensus, whereas in traditional teams a meeting can be called at any time of the day when all the members are present together in the office, resulting quick decisions and problem solving.