Category: Management Notes

Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is the main agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another, sometimes reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in another.

Causes of Air Pollution

Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.

• Industrialization: Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while burning release toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.
• Automobiles: To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible for about sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the automobiles pollutes the air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has ill-effects on human health.
• Chlorofluorocarbons: Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased concentration of chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the atmosphere. These substances are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer causing unwanted imbalance in the heat budget. These are produced by modern gadgets such as air conditioners, refrigerators, dyers, etc.

The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.

The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO₂ ), carbonic acid (H ₂SO₂), water (H₂O), nitric acid (HNO₃O ), and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄ ).

Air pollution has harmful effects on natural vegetation and human health such as respiratory illnesses. Acidic precipitation is highly fatal for aquatic flora and fauna, monuments, and also for natural vegetation.

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic approaches to control air pollution. They are as follows.

Preventive Approach

It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance of vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and shifting cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.

Dispersal Approach

We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to release the pollutants high into the atmosphere.

Collection Approach

Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants before they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been re-designed and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter, which changes the pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air pollution from car exhaust has also been reduced.

Legislation Approach

There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of the world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are carried by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be global initiatives agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air pollution.

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human and animal life.

Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise) tends to become a health and environmental hazard.

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines
• Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties
• Places of worship
• Commercial activities
• Construction activities
• Industrial activities
• Automobiles and transport system
• Power generators
• Agricultural equipment

Noise Pollution Control

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), of all the environmental pollution, noise is the easiest to control.

Noise pollution can be checked at home by:

• Turning off sound-making appliances when they are not in use.
• Shutting the door when noisy machines are being used.
• Lowering the volume of appliances such as television to a desirable level.
• Using earplugs while listening to music.

At mass level it can be checked by:

• By planting trees in large number to create vegetation buffer zones, which absorb noise.
• Public awareness about the need of control of noise pollution.
• Application of engineering control techniques such as alteration and modification of design to reduce noise from equipment and machinery, and by construction of sound barriers or the use of sound absorbers in industrial and factory sites can reduce exposure to noise to a great extent.
• Construction of institutions and hospitals away from airports, railways, and highways.
• Improved building design may also reduce the impact of noise pollution.
• Stringent legislations at central and state levels to check air pollution at workplaces, urban centers, etc.

Nature has gifted us some precious and valuable resources and water is one of them and is our basic need. All living beings need water for their survival and to carry out their survival and to carry out their vital life processes. Our Planet, Earth, has 3/4th of its surface area covered with water and only one- fourth has land masses. Life originates in water. Even today, millions of year later, water continues to be an essential requirement of life.

Sources of Water

Amongst most of the water, 97% is found in oceans and seas. The remaining, about 3% is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, etc. Air also contains water.

Importance of Water

All plants, animals and human beings need water to stay alive. But human beings depend on water more than plants and animals. We need water for many other purposes such as: 

• We need water for the day -to- day activities such as bathing, cleaning, drinking, washing, etc.
• Water helps in the dispersal of seeds and fruits.
• It helps needed for irrigation.
• All industries use a large amount of water for cleaning, heating, cooling, generating electricity, as a raw material, etc.
• Water is used for transport and recreation too.

Water has properties of fluidity and solubility. These properties make it useful in the process of digestion, blood circulation and excretion. Water also helps in regulation of our body temperature by the process of sweating.

Scarcity of Water

Now the world is heading towards water crises due to the excessive and uneconomical use of water by the large human population. Human beings waste tons of water while brushing teeth, bathing, washing clothes, vehicles, and utensils etc. Overuse of water has led to a decrease in the supply of water available for human use.

Polluting water, deforestation and overpopulation have also disturbed the water cycle which, in turn, the annual rainfall varies in different parts of our country. If efforts are not made for managing and saving water, we are going to have an acute water crisis.

Conservation of Water

Conservation of water means a careful and economical use of water. We should conserve water as it is a precious natural resource. Conservation of water can happen in the following ways:

• Aforestation can help water to penetrate into the soiland replenish the water table
• Use of efficient watering systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers to reduce water consumption by plants and help in conservation of water.
• Building Dams and hydropower projects which help in checking flood and regulating the supply of water to agriculture.
• Irrigation hours and frequency can be reduced.
• Treatment of industrial and domestic wastewater in sewage plants before its disposal in water bodies help in conservation of water. It reduces the water pollution.

Rainwater harvesting: In this system, the rainwater is collected by allowing it to flow from the rooftop through pipes in a storage tank. This water may contain some soil particles from the roof. So it should be filtered before use.

It is allowed to flow into a pit in the ground to recharge or refill the groundwater. Besides these, we should take the following steps for avoiding wastage of water at home:

• While taking water for drinking, we should take only just enough to quench our thirst.
• We should make economical use of water while taking a bath or washing clothes.
• The tap should be turned off immediately after the water is used.
• Inform the civic authorities on finding any water leak in public place.

Remember that the need of the hour is that every individual uses water economically and judiciously. We should celebrate 22 March as World Water Day every year. It will remind us of the importance of this wonder of liquid called water.

Soil pollution refers to an undesirable decrease in the quality of soil, either by man-induced sources or natural sources or by both.

Soil is vital not only for the growth of plants and growing food but also cultivating raw materials for agro-based industries. Health soil is a significant prerequisite for human survival.

Causes of Soil Erosion

• Deforestation at large scale
• Over-grazing
• Mining
• Decrease in soil microorganisms
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
• Excessive use of irrigation
• Lack of humus content
• Improper and unscientific rotation of crops

Soil pollution leads to many harmful consequences such as decrease in agricultural production; reduced nitrogen fixation; reduction in biodiversity; silting of tanks, lakes and reservoirs; diseases and deaths of consumers in the food chain due to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, etc.

Soil Pollution Control

• Adoption of soil-friendly agricultural practices.
• Use of compost manures in place of chemical fertilizers; Use of bio-fertilizers and natural pesticides help in minimizing the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
• Scientific rotation of crop to increase soil fertility.
• Proper disposal of industrial and urban solid and liquid wastes.
• Planting of trees to check soil erosion in slopes and mountainous regions.
• Controlled grazing.
• Reduction in the heaps of garbage and refuse.
• The principles of three R’s − Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce− help in minimizing generation of solid waste.
• Formulation and effective implementation of stringent pollution control legislation.
• Improved sewage and sanitation system in urban areas.

Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded or is no longer useful. Solid waste management is an important aspect of urban area management. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, which can lead to environmental pollution and the outbreak of vector-borne disease.

The task of solid waste management presents complex technical challenges. They also pose various economic, administrative, and social problems which need urgent attention.

The major sources of solid waste are households; agricultural fields; industries and mining, hotels and catering; roads and railways; hospitals and educational institutions; cultural centers and places of recreation and tourism, etc. Plastic waste is also a solid waste.

Classification of Solid Wastes

• Municipal Waste
• Hospital Waste
• Hazardous Waste

Effective Solid Waste Management can be carried out in the following ways:

• Sanitary landfills
• Composting
• Landfills
• Incineration and pyrolysis (a process of combustion in the absence of oxygen)
• Vermiculture or earthworm farming
• Bioremediation or the use of micro-organism (bacteria and fungi)
• Reuse, reduce, and recycle

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:

Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community including themselves.

This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site. Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause changes in physicochemical and biological characteristics thereby affecting productivity of soils.

Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing, the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes segregation and disposal all the more difficult and risky.

Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or mercury), radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials produces dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause various types of ailments including cancer.

Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:

1. Sanitary Landfill
2. Incineration
3. Composting
4. Pyrolysis

i. Sanitary Land Filling:

In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being contaminated due to percolation of leachate.

Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. Sanitary Landfills Site Selection:

1. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
2. Preferably located in clay or silt.
3. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in rocks into a water fracture system.
4. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately, most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after they were no longer being used.
5. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.

A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These impacts can vary:

1. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
2. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
3. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill closure).
4. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants of an area).
5. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated landfills.

ii. Incineration:

The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is a unit or facility used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to ash. An incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off extreme amounts of external heat.

The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the original volume.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as “thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

iii. Composting:

Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil conditions and fertility.

Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which is very rich in nutrients.

Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.

The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of disposable garbage.

The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.

Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.

To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.

Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter is ready to be used. Composting: some benefits

1. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
2. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
3. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of chemical fertilizer.
4. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
5. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
6. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
7. vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.

iv. Pyrolysis:

Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).

In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.

Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace. These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with less air supply.

Limitations and Concerns:

1. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.
2. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are extremely toxic in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not produce dioxins and furans.

iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be hazardous and require special care in disposal.

1. pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products containing heavy metals may require stabilization before final disposal.
2. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment, storage, and disposal.

Types and Characteristic Features:

(a) Temperate Forest Ecosystem:

The temperate forest ecosystem is very important on Earth. Temperate forests are in regions where the climate changes a lot from summer to winter. Tropical rain forests are in regions where the climate stays constant all year long. Temperate forests are almost always made of two types of trees, deciduous and evergreen. Deciduous trees are trees that lose their leaves in the winter.

Ever­greens are trees that keep them all year long, like pine trees. Forests can either be one or the other, or a combination of both. A fourth kind of forest is a temper­ate rain forest. These are found in California, Oregon and Washington in the United States.

These forests are made of redwoods and sequoias, the tallest trees in the world. The amount of rainfall in an area determines if a forest is present. If there is enough rain to support trees, then a forest will usually develop. Otherwise, the region will become grasslands.

(b) The Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem:

Tropical rain forests are one of the most important areas on Earth. These spe­cial ecosystems are homes to thousands of species animals and plants. Contrary to popular belief, rain forests are not only densely packed plants, but are also full of tall trees that form a ceiling from the Sun above. This ceiling keeps smaller plants from growing. Areas where sunlight can reach the surface are full of interesting plants.

Do you know where rain forests get their name? They are so named because they receive a lot of rain – an average of 80 inches a year. The temperature doesn’t change very much during the year. It is always warm and muggy. The famous Amazon jungle is located in Brazil, in South America. This particular forest is called the Neotropics. Other large blocks are located in Central and West Africa.

(i) Insects of the Tropical Rain Forest:

The most feared and well known spider in the world resides in the jungle. Ta­rantulas are one of the creepiest animals you will ever see. Most species of tarantula have poisonous fangs for killing prey and for protection.

Although some are life-threatening to humans, others are harmless. Army ants are just one species of ant in the rain forest. They are called army ants because they march in a long, thick line through the jungle. They only stop when the young larvae reach pupil stage. Once the queen lays its eggs, the ants start marching again.

Beautiful butterflies fill the forest, but at one time these insects weren’t so pretty. Butterflies start out as caterpillars, which tend to be a tad on the ugly side. They go through metamorphosis, which is the process of changing into a butterfly. Centipedes aren’t so lucky. They don’t turn into butterflies, but in­stead roam the forest looking for food. Some centipedes use poison to kill their prey.

(ii) Tropical Rain Forest Birds:

The birds of the rain forest are the most beautiful in the world. A wide range of colors can be seen darting through the trees as the forest tops come to life. Many species of tropical birds are kept as pets because of their looks.

Hundreds of species of parrot live in the rain forest. The scarlet macaw is just one of these. It is also one of the longest, stretching to a length of 3 feet from its head to the tip of its tail. When these macaws eat a poisonous fruit, they eat a special type of clay that neutralizes the poison.

Toucans are also very interesting birds. They have large beaks that they use to reach fruit they can’t get to. Scientists estimate there are 33 species of toucan in the rain forest. Not every tropical bird was blessed with looks. The hoatzin looks more like a peacock without the pretty tail.

Hoatzins are terrible flyers – crash landings are common practice. The brown kiwi is a flightless bird that looks more like a rodent with a long beak and feathers. Kiwis live on the ground instead of the trees. They have special claws used for running, digging and defence.

(iii) Tropical Rain Forest Mammals:

Birds aren’t the only creatures that fly through the rain forests. Several species of flying mammals live in the jungle. From the harmless fruit bat to the unique flying squirrel, the tropical rain forests are full of surprises.

The Indian flying fox is one of the largest bats in the world. Its wings can spread out to 5 feet in width. Unlike bats in other parts of the world, these bats do not live in caves. They prefer to .hang in trees during the day. Hundreds or even thousands of bats can be spotted in a single tree.

Vampire bats live in the Amazon jungle in South America. The famous stories of blood-sucking bats probably originated here. These bats do in fact drink the blood of their victims. They usually attack farm animals, but have also enjoyed the blood of humans. But vampire bats only drink a very small amount of fluid.

(iv) Tropical Rain Forest Reptiles:

The tropical rain forests of the world are full of reptiles. Reptiles are cold blooded, which means their body temperature depends on their environment. So, it is important for them to stay in warm climates. Snakes are reptiles, and the rain forests are home to many. The mamba family is the most poisonous of all. They kill their prey by injecting poison with their sharp fangs.

Anacondas make up another snake family. They are some of the longest crea­tures in the world, as they can reach 30 feet in length. Anacondas prefer to wrap themselves around their prey and squeeze, rather than inject poison. Anacon­das swallow their prey whole and sleep while the food is digesting. Chameleons are interesting lizards that can change color.

This enables them to blend in with their surroundings. Not only is this a great disguise from predators, it is also an easy way to sneak up on their prey. Chameleons only eat insects. Geckos are very neat creatures. The flying gecko can glide from tree to tree to escape from predators. Their grip is so strong, that if you tried to pull one off a window, the glass would break before the gecko would let go.

(v) Tropical Rain Forest Primates:

Monkeys and their cousins are all primates. Humans are also primates. There are many species of monkeys in the tropical rain forests of the world. Monkeys can be divided into two groups: new world monkeys and old world monkeys. New world monkeys live only in South and Central America. Spider monkeys live in the rain forests in the Andes Mountains.

They look very strange with their long noses. Spider monkeys eat mostly fruit and nuts, so they are called frugivores. They are joined by the howler monkeys. These primates are so named because they have a special sac that makes their sounds louder.

Old world monkeys live only in Africa and Asia. The colobus monkey is one such kind. These monkeys are called foliovores because they eat leaves. They live in small groups of 15, but other primates live in larger groups of up to 200. There are too many species. Chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas are all called pongids. These primates are more famous than the others. Gorillas are too big to climb trees, so they are found on the forest floor.

(c) Boreal or Taiga Forests:

The boreal forest ecosystem is the contiguous green belt of conifer and decidu­ous trees that encircles a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the boreal forest stretches across most of northern Canada and into Alaska. It has long been identified as one of the world’s great forest ecosystems.

This forest ecosystem covers roughly 35% of Canada’s land mass and is the single largest land based ecosystem in North America. It also contains a signifi­cant proportion of Canada’s biodiversity and has long been recognized as an important global carbon sink.

Although the boreal is relatively unknown, it is important as the “great lung” of North America, “breathing in” carbon dioxide and “exhaling” oxygen into the atmosphere. In short, the boreal forest manages to do what the rain forest of the Amazon does but with only the fraction of the flora and fauna.

This forest ecosystem houses the largest and smallest mammal species (wood bison & pygmy shrews) of the North American continent. The Boreal forest has many things: great lakes and northern rivers; vast bogs, fens and other organic wetlands. The rich wildlife diversity of the Boreal is a joy to behold: woodland caribou and lynx; whooping cranes and wood bison; northern owls; woodpeckers with three rather than four toes; colorful wood warblers.

The Boreal has more than 5,000 species of conspicuous and colorful fungi, celebrated far more in Scandinavia and Siberia than in North America. Then there are the precious old-growth forests, the richest and most biologically diverse of the Boreal forest communities that are essential for so many Boreal species.

Structure of Forest Ecosystems:

Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and their surroundings. Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem.

Some provide food for other organisms; others pro­vide shelter or control populations through predation:

Producers:

All living organisms’ intake energy in order to survive. In a forest ecosystem, trees and other plants get their energy from sunlight. Plants produce their own food, in the form of carbohydrates. Plants are, therefore, called the primary producers, since they produce the basic foodstuffs for other organisms within food chains and food webs. Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that allows plants to produce their own food.

Consumers:

Animals cannot produce their own food. They must consume food sources for die energy they need to survive. All animals, including mammals, insects, and birds, are called consumers. Consumers rely on plants and other animals as a food source. Details of these animals in a forest ecosystem have been given earlier.

Primary consumers only eat plants and are referred to as herbivores. Second­ary consumers are referred to as carnivores and feed on herbivores. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that feed on other carnivores. Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter.

Decomposers:

Leaves, needles, and old branches fall to the forest floor as trees grow. Eventu­ally all plants and animals die. So what happens to all of this plant and animal material? Does it sit on the forest floor forever? Thankfully no. These materials are decomposed by worms, microbes, fungi, ants, and other bugs.

Decomposers break these items down into their smallest primary elements to be used again. Decomposers are important in that they sustain the nutrient cycle of ecosystems.

Humans are part of Forest Ecosystem:

Humans are consumers. We get food and materials from forests. Because of this, we are a part of the forest ecosystem. Human consumption alters forest ecosystems. Human intervention may be necessary to sustain forest communi­ties under the increased pressure of human use.

Land management is the process of managing the use and development (in both urban and rural settings) of land resources. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which may include organic agriculture, reforestation, water resource management and eco-tourism projects. Land management can have positive or negative effects on the terrestrial ecosystems. Land being over- or misused can degrade and reduce productivity and disrupt natural equilibriums.

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial, agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources. Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the sea are serious health hazards.

Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work places and in industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy metals are used.

Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can also pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to appropriate actions against different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State Government have set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.

The Water Act, 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more than sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision, minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences by companies and Government departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc.

Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent administration’ procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify. Any person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot, however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the State Board.

Water Pollution Cess Act, 1977 According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess depending on:

1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers feed,
2. For domestic purposes.
3. In processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable.
4. In processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and are toxic.

Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.

• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 authorizes the central government to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds. The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing for the protection and improvement of the environment. It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country. The Act was last amended in 1991.
• The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
• The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 is to control the generation, collection, treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.
• The Manufacture, Storage, and Import of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in this context, and sets up an authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities.
• The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules,1989 were introduced with a view to protect the environment, nature, and health, in connection with the application of gene technology and micro-organisms.

The Biological Diversity Act 2002 and Biological Diversity Rules

The Biological Diversity Act 2002 and Biological Diversity Rules provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge associated with it.

Its key provisions aimed at achieving the above are:

• Prohibition on transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country, without specific approval of the Indian Government;
• Prohibition on anyone claiming an Intellectual Property Right (IPR), such as a patent, over biodiversity or related knowledge, without permission of the Indian Government;
• Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian nationals, while exempting local communities from such restrictions;
• Measures for sharing of benefits from the use of biodiversity, including transfer of technology, monetary returns, joint Research & Development, joint IPR ownership, etc.;
• Measures to conserve and sustain-ably use biological resources, including habitat and species protection, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) of projects, integration of biodiversity into the plans, programmes, and policies of various departments/sectors;
• Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources and knowledge, and to charge fees for this; Protection of indigenous or traditional knowledge, through appropriate laws or other measures such as registration of such knowledge;
• Regulation of the use of genetically modified organisms; Setting up of National, State, and Local Biodiversity Funds, to be used to support conservation and benefit-sharing;
• Setting up of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local village level, State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) at state level, and a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA).

The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules 1991 and Amendment, 1992

The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules 1991 and Amendment, 1992 were drawn up to provide for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous substance.

The National Environmental Tribunal Act,1995, Amendment 2010

The Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons, property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances. The three major objectives of the Green Tribunal are

• The effective and speedy disposal of the cases relating to environment protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources. All the previous pending cases will also be heard by the Tribunal.
• It aims at enforcing all the legal rights relating to the environment
• It also accounts for providing compensation and relief to effected people for damage of property.

The salient features of amendment are as follows:

• Amendment provides an equal opportunity to any citizen of India to approach the National Green Tribunal.
• It ensures that the tribunal takes into consideration principles of Sustainable Development, Precautionary principles, Polluter Pays Principles and Inter generational Equity while hearing any appeal and giving judgements.

National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

Under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multidisciplinary issues. The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice.

The Tribunal’s dedicated jurisdiction in environmental matters shall provide speedy environmental justice and help reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts. The Tribunal is mandated to make and endeavour for disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same. Initially, the NGT is proposed to be set up at five places of sittings and will follow circuit procedure for making itself more accessible. New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai shall be the other 4 place of sitting of the Tribunal.

The National Environment Appellate Authority Act,1997

The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.

The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules,1998

The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules,1998 is a legal binding on the health care institutions to streamline the process of proper handling of hospital waste such as segregation, disposal, collection, and treatment.

The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999

The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed provisions relating to areas to be avoided for siting of industries, precautionary measures to be taken for site selecting as also the aspects of environmental protection which should have been incorporated during the implementation of the industrial development projects.

The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000

The Rules apply to every municipal authority responsible for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules,2000 have been laid down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.

The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001

These rules shall apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer involved in the manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries or components so as to regulate and ensure the environmentally safe disposal of used batteries.

The Noise Pollution (Regulation and control) (Amendment) Rules, 2010

These rules lay down such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers or public address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion.

Following are the salient features of the amendment:

• In the heading ‘PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM’ the words ‘AND SOUND PRODUCING SYSTEMS’ shall be inserted.
• A loudspeaker or any sound producing system or a sound amplifier shall not be used at night time except in closed premises for communication within like auditorium, conference rooms, community halls, banquet halls or during public emergency.
• The noise level at the boundary of the public place where loudspeaker or public address system is being used the sound should not exceed 10dB above the ambient noise standards of that area or 75dB whichever is less.
• No horn shall be used in silence zones or residential areas at night except in emergency situations.
• Sound emitting construction equipments shall not be operated during night.