Category: Management Notes

The ecological is defined as the practices, discourses, and material expressions that occur across the intersection between the social and the natural realms, focussing in this case on the important dimension of human engagement with and within nature, ranging from the built-environment to the ‘wilderness’.

In other words, the ecological domain is treated as narrower that the natural realm. While the ecological is grounded in the natural and includes a spectrum of environmental conditions from the the profoundly modified, through the relatively untransformed, the natural realm includes all of that, and much more. It includes nature beyond the reach of the Anthropocene: the infinitely big and infinitesimally small. The distinction between the social realm and the natural realm, with the natural as a ‘context’ for human action, is common in traditional (cosmological) and modern (scientific) understandings, but we are adding a further dimension.

Our definition recognizes these understandings without being confined to them. It lays ‘the ecological’ across both terms — that is, across ‘the natural’ and ‘the social’ — as naming the connections of human and non-human engagement with and within nature, ranging from objects and bodies to zones of engagement. This means that the ecological domain pertains to questions of social-environmental interconnection, including the unintended consequences of humans living on the planet. The ecological is thus not treated as a background context for human action but rather a place of being human and non-human.

Perspectives and Aspects of Ecology

1. Materials and Energy
   1. Availability and Abundance
   2. Soil and Fertility
   3. Minerals and Metals
   4. Electricity and Gas
   5. Petroleum and Biofuels
   6. Renewables and Recyclables
   7. Monitoring and Reflection
2. Water and Air
   1. Vitality and Viability
   2. Water Quality and Potability
   3. Air Quality and Respiration
   4. Climate and Temperature
   5. Greenhouse Gases and Carbon
   6. Adaptation and Mitigation Processes
   7. Monitoring and Reflection
3. Flora and Fauna
   1. Complexity and Resilience
   2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Diversity
   3. Plants and Insects
   4. Trees and Shrubs
   5. Wild Animals and Birds
   6. Domestic Animals and Species Relations
   7. Monitoring and Reflection
4. Habitat and Settlements
   1. Topography and Liveability
   2. Original Habitat and Native Vegetation
   3. Parklands and Reserves
   4. Land-use and Building
   5. Abode and Housing
   6. Maintenance and Retrofitting
   7. Monitoring and Reflection
5. Built-Form and Transport
   1. Orientation and Spread
   2. Proximity and Access
   3. Mass Transit and Public Transport
   4. Motorized Transport and Roads
   5. Non-motorized Transport and Walking Paths
   6. Seaports and Airports
   7. Monitoring and Reflection
6. Embodiment and Sustenance
   1. Physical Health and Vitality
   2. Reproduction and Mortality
   3. Exercise and Fitness
   4. Hygiene and Diet
   5. Nutrition and Nourishment
   6. Agriculture and Husbandry
   7. Monitoring and Evaluation
7. Emission and Waste
   1. Pollution and Contamination
   2. Hard-waste and Rubbish
   3. Sewerage and Sanitation
   4. Drainage and Effluence
   5. Processing and Composting
   6. Recycling and Re-use
   7. Monitoring and Evaluation

An environmental management system (EMS) is “a system and database which integrates procedures and processes for training of personnel, monitoring, summarizing, and reporting of specialized environmental performance information to internal and external stakeholders of a firm”.

The most widely used standard on which an EMS is based is International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001. Alternatives include the EMAS.

An environmental management information system (EMIS) or Environmental Data Management System (EDMS) is an information technology solution for tracking environmental data for a company as part of their overall environmental management system.

Goals

The goals of EMS are to increase compliance and reduce waste:

• Compliance is the act of reaching and maintaining minimal legal standards. By not being compliant, companies may face fines, government intervention or may not be able to operate.
• Waste reduction goes beyond compliance to reduce environmental impact. The EMS helps to develop, implement, manage, coordinate and monitor environmental policies. Waste reduction begins at the design phase through pollution prevention and waste minimization. At the end of the life cycle, waste is reduced by recycling.

To meet these goals, the selection of environmental management systems is typically subject to a certain set of criteria: a proven capability to handle high frequency data, high performance indicators, transparent handling and processing of data, powerful calculation engine, customised factor handling, multiple integration capabilities, automation of workflows and QA processes and in-depth, flexible reporting.

Features

An environmental management system (EMS):

• Serves as a tool, or process, to improve environmental performance and information mainly “design, pollution control and waste minimization, training, reporting to top management, and the setting of goals”
• Provides a systematic way of managing an organization’s environmental affairs
• Is the aspect of the organization’s overall management structure that addresses immediate and long-term impacts of its products, services and processes on the environment. EMS assists with planning, controlling and monitoring policies in an organization.
• Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through the allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes
• Creates environmental buy-in from management and employees and assigns accountability and responsibility.
• Sets framework for training to achieve objectives and desired performance.
• Helps understand legislative requirements to better determine a product or service’s impact, significance, priorities and objectives.
• Focuses on continual improvement of the system and a way to implement policies and objectives to meet a desired result. This also helps with reviewing and auditing the EMS to find future opportunities.
• Encourages contractors and suppliers to establish their own EMS.
• Facilitates e-reporting to federal, state and provincial government environmental agencies through direct upload.

EMS Model

An EMS follows a Plan-Do-Check-Act, or PDCA, Cycle. The diagram shows the process of first developing an environmental policy, planning the EMS, and then implementing it. The process also includes checking the system and acting on it. The model is continuous because an EMS is a process of continual improvement in which an organization is constantly reviewing and revising the system.

This is a model that can be used by a wide range of organizations from manufacturing facilities to service industries to government agencies.

It has been estimated that more than 50 million species of plants, animals and micro-organisms are existing in the world. Out of these, about 2.15 million species have been identified so far. Each species is adapted to live in specific environment, from mountain peaks to the depth of seas, from polar ice caps to tropical rain forests and deserts. All this diversity of life is confined to only about one kilometer thick layer of lithosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere which form biosphere.

Though the study of environment and ecology is quite old, the term biodiversity has been introduced by Walter Rosen in 1986. Biological diversity or Biodiversity is defined as the variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.

It refers to the variability’s among species of plants, animals and microorganisms; ecosystems; ecosystem including terrestrial, aerial, marine and other aquatic system and ecological complexes of which they are part. 

Significance of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and monetary asset to the nation. Human society depends on biological resources, their diversity and the ecosystems that sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into three categories as below:

Productive use:

This is assigned to the products that are commercially harvested for exchange in formal markets and is, therefore, the only value of biological resources that is concerned in national income. Biodiversity provides us many products, such as fuel, timber, fish, fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines. In 1994-95 the income from agriculture, forestry and fisheries in India was nearly 30 per cent or 736.88 billion rupees.

Consumptive use:

Consumption value is related to natural products that are consumed directly, i.e., the goods which do not come under normal circulation of trade. For example, a significant number of such non-timber forest products as soft broom grass and cane come under this category.

Indirect use:

Indirect use of biodiversity is of much significance because this value is related primarily with functions of ecosystem and is concerned with national accounting systems. They may provide us indirect benefits as non-consumptive values. Maintenance of ecological balance, conservation of natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be considered as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity.

Types of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is of three types:

1. Species diversity
2. Genetic diversity
3. Ecological diversity

1. Species Diversity:

According to Biological Species Concepts (BSC), species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one another and produce offspring’s and share a common lineage. Species diversity refers to biodiversity at the most basic level and is the ‘variety and abundance of different types of individuals of a species in a given area’. It includes all the species on Earth, ranging from plants such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and all the species of animals including unicellular protozoans to mammals.

Certain regions support a more diverse populations than others. Regions that are rich in nutrients and have well balanced climatic factors, such as moderate temperature, proper light and adequate rainfall, show high degree of diversity in their life forms. The tropical areas support more diverse plant and animal communities than the desert and polar areas, as for examples, tropical forest has a higher species diversity as compared to a timber plantation. The regions that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of biodiversity.

2. Genetic Diversity:

‘Genetic diversity pertains to the range of diversity in the genetic resources of the organisms’. Every individual member of a plant or animal species differs from other individuals in its genetic constitution. Each individual has specific characters, which is due to the genetic makeup or code. The genes present in the organisms can form infinite number of combinations that causes genetic variability.

Thus, we find that each human, who is representative of the same species, i.e. Homo sapiens, is distinct from another. Similarly, there are many varieties within the same species such as rice, wheat, apples, mangoes, etc. that differ from one another in shape, size, colour of flowers and taste of fruits and seeds due to the variations at the genetic level.

3. Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity:

Each ecosystem consists of organisms from many different species, living together in a region connected by the flow of energy and nutrients. The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all the ecosystems. The Sun’s radiant energy is converted to chemical energy by plants. This energy flows through the different systems when animals eat the plants and then are eaten, in turn, by other animals. Fungi and bacteria derive energy from the decomposing dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the soil as they do so.

An ecosystem, therefore, is a collection of living components, like microbes, plants, animals, fungi, etc. and non-living components, like climate, matter and energy that are connected by energy flow. Ecological diversity refers to the ‘variability among the species of plants and animals living together and connected by flow of energy and cycling of nutrients in different ecosystems or ecological complexes’. It also includes variability within the same species and variability among the different species of plants, animals and microorganisms of an ecosystem. Thus, it pertains to the richness of flora, fauna and microorganisms with in an ecosystem or biotic community.

Measuring Biodiversity:

There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the number of species diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of species is also known as species richness.

These are as follows:

Alpha diversity:

This is the diversity in species, i.e. the number of species within a community. This depends on the interaction between the biotic and abiotic factors and also takes into account immigration from other locations.

Beta diversity:

This is the change in the composition of the species with reference to the changes in the environment.

Gamma diversity:

This refers to the overall diversity and is applied to larger areas in which both alpha and beta diversity are measured.

Environment is closely related with business. There is a constant ‘give and take’ relationship between environment and business. The business receives inputs, information and technology from the environment and gives it back in the form of outputs (goods and services).

If these outputs are accepted by the environment, the environment-business interaction continues but if they are unacceptable to the environment, firms adapt to the environmental requirements and change their operations.

The organisation has to look after the interest of stakeholders like shareholders, consumers, workers, suppliers etc. The environment also offers threats and opportunities to which organisations have to respond positively.

Business and environment interaction takes place in the following ways:

1. Business is affected by economic conditions of the environment. During recessionary conditions, for example, firms reduce the production or pile their inventories to sell during normal or boom conditions. Business, on the other hand, can create artificial scarcity of goods by piling inventories and force the economic conditions to show signs of adversity while it is not actually so. Both business and environment, thus, affect and are affected by each other.
2. When financial institutions increase the lending rates, firms may resort to other sources of funds, like bank loans or internal savings (reserves). This may force the financial institutions to lower the interest rates. The financial environment and the business system, thus, act and interact with each other.
3. The firm’s micro environment consisting of workers, suppliers, shareholders etc. affects the business activities and is, affected by them. Workers demand high wages, suppliers demand high prices and shareholders demand high dividends.

Firms reconcile the interests of diverse groups and satisfy their demands. If management resolves these demands, it will be positively affected by the environmental forces but if it fails to satisfy these demands, it becomes a victim of the environment. Growing firms pay high wages and dividends to their workers and shareholders to maintain harmonious industrial relations and a positive business-environment interface.

4. Business receives useful information from the environment regarding consumers’ tastes and preferences, technological developments, Government policies, competitors’ policies etc. and provides useful information to the environment regarding its goals, policies and financial returns. This information is transmitted to environment through annual reports as a requirement of disclosure practices.
5. The basic function of a business enterprise, input-output conversion, is carried through active interaction with the environment. It receives inputs from the environment, converts them into outputs through productive facilities which are also received from the environment and sends them back to the environment. A constant feedback is received from the environment to improve its performance.
6. The environment offers threats and opportunities to business systems which they overcome and exploit through their strengths and weaknesses. SWOT analysis helps in integrating external environment with the internal environment.

The business and environment, thus, have much to give and take from each other. The economy is structured by effective interaction of the business and its environment. The business-environment interaction is a continuous process. It is like a biological organism that keeps environment and management responsive to each other.

This interaction is shown as:

Environment—————— > Management——————- > Environment——————– >

The continuous interaction of environment with business leads to new expectations of environment from business (in terms of social responsibilities and business ethics) and business from environment (in terms of regular supply of inputs at reasonable prices). This involves changes in business and environmental policies and leads to new level of business-environment interface or business-environment equilibrium.

Most of the following agreements are legally binding for countries that have formally ratified them. Some, such as the Kyoto Protocol, differentiate between types of countries and each nation’s respective responsibilities under the agreement. Several hundred international environmental agreements exist but most link only a limited number of countries. These bilateral or sometimes trilateral agreements are only binding for the countries that have ratified them but are nevertheless essential in the international environmental regime. Including the major conventions listed below, more than 3,000 international environmental instruments have been identified by the IEA Database Project

The United Nations is very much conscious of the world-wide problem of maintaining the environment safe for human beings. The United Nations on the conference on the Human Environment was held at Stockholm in June 1972. The conference evolved the principles and action plan for controlling and regulating environment degradation. Institutional and financial arrangements were made for achieving that purpose. The United National General Assembly passed a resolution on December 15, 1972 emphasising the need of active cooperation among the States in the field of human environment. The resolution had designated June 5 as the World Environment day and had urged governments and organisations in the United Nations system to undertake on that day every year, world-wide activities reaffirming their concern for the preservation and enhancement of the environment.

Another resolution was passed, which provided for institutional and financial arrangement for international environment cooperation. Provisions were made for establishing a government council for environment program (UNEP) having global jurisdiction, environmental secretariat and environmental fund. Some of the recommendations of the first conference were regarding long and short term plans at the regional, sub-regional levels in the field of environment relating to the advancement of developing nations.

The international environmental legislation chart included:

‘The protection, preservation and the enhancement of the environment for the present and future generations is the responsibility of all states and they should ensure that the activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment. All states should cooperate in evolving natural laws and norms regulations in the field of environment.’

Recently in 2009, a conference was held in Copenhagen , Denmark relating to the changing environment and climate around the world. Many leaders actively participated in that so as to find solution to rapid environment change.

In the Directive Principles of State Policy, Article 48 says “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”; Article 51-A states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”

India is one of the parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty. Prior to the CBD, India had different laws to govern the environment. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972 protected the biodiversity. It was amended later multiple times. The 1988 National Forest Policy had conservation as its fundamental principle. In addition to these acts, the government passed the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 and Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992 for control of biodiversity.

1. Forest cover: As per India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2015, which was released in December 2015, the total forest cover of the country has increased by 3, 775 square kms in two years. As a result the total forest and tree cover has reached 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 percent of the total geographical area.
2. Wildlife population: As per the estimate released by the World Wildlife Fund and the Global Tiger Forum in 2016, the number of wild tigers has gone up to 3,890, from the earlier 2010 estimate of 3200. It is a good sign since the population of tiger is a keystone species and considered as a better parameter to gauge the state of wildlife population.
3. Pollution levels: Despite a series of measures, the quality of air and water pollution has been deteriorating due to various reasons. The reports suggesting that nearly 80% of India’s surface water is polluted and worsening air quality index are still the cause of concern and illustrate the need for strengthening of the existing policy measures in this regard.
4. Administrative Efficiency: The performance of the administration has improved in recent years due to procedural reforms and deployment of technology on a large scale. As a result, the average time needed to give an environmental clearance has declined to 109 days over the last three years from the erstwhile 600 days.

The Court’s directions on environmental issues goes beyond the general questions of law, as is usually expected from the highest Court of a democratic country. The Supreme Court of India, in its order, includes executive actions and technical details of environmental actions to be implemented. Indeed, some critics of India’s Supreme Court describe the Court as the Lords of Green Bench or Garbage Supervisor. Supporters of India’s Supreme Court term these orders and the Indian bench as pioneering, both in terms of laying down new principles of law, and in delivering environmental justice.

The reasons for the increasing interjection of India’s Supreme Court in governance arenas are, experts claim, complex. A key factor has been the failure of government agencies and the state owned enterprises in discharging their Constitutional and Statutory duties. This has prompted civil society groups to file public interest complaints with the Courts, particularly the Supreme Court, for suitable remedies.

Public interest litigation and judicial activism on environmental issues extends beyond India’s Supreme Court. It includes the High Courts of individual states.

India’s judicial activism on environmental issues has, some suggest, delivered positive effects to the Indian experience. Proponents claim that the Supreme Court has, through intense judicial activism, become a symbol of hope for the people of India. As a result of judicial activism, India’s Supreme Court has delivered a new normative regime of rights and insisted that the Indian state cannot act arbitrarily but must act reasonably and in public interest on pain of its action being invalidated by judicial intervention.

India’s judicial activism on environmental issues has, others suggest, had adverse consequences. Public interest cases are repeatedly filed to block infrastructure projects aimed at solving environmental issues in India, such as but not limiting to water works, expressways, land acquisition for projects, and electricity power generation projects. The litigation routinely delays such projects, often for years, whilst rampant pollution continues in India, and tens of thousands die from the unintended effects of pollution. Even after a stay related to an infrastructure project is vacated, or a court order gives a green light to certain project, new issues become grounds for court notices and new public interest litigation.

Judicial activism in India has, in several key cases, found state-directed economic development ineffective and a failure, then interpreted laws and issued directives that encourage greater competition and free market to reduce environmental pollution. In other cases, the interpretations and directives have preserved industry protection, labour practices and highly polluting state-owned companies detrimental to environmental quality of India. Proactive measures should be taken to conserve the depleting environment.

Non-Governmental Organization is a broad term, which includes charity organizations, advisory committees and various other professional organizations. NGOs in India are spread across the country and they have close contacts with communities.

They are involved in the whole spectrum of developmental activities from creating environ­mental awareness to undertaking watershed development: from disaster management to sustainable livelihoods; from joint forest management to giving inputs to policies. They range from clubs, which encourage nature camping to agencies, which undertake research and monitoring.

There are large number of NGOs in India and other countries that are exclusively working for environmental, protection, conservation, and aware­ness. The number of these non-governmental organizations which are actively involved in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more than in any of the develop­ing country. Increasingly, the government is viewing NGOs not only as agencies that will help them to implement their programs, but also as partners shaping policy and programs.

NGOs are now playing an important role in framing the environmental policy, mobi­lizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting the endangered species of forests and animals. Environmental organizations such as Earth watch and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society have been successful in creating awareness about the environmental dangers in using drift nets in the commercial fishing industry.

Through driftnet monitoring, public education and action they were successful in banning drift- net system internationally. The issues like future of environmental protection, sustain­able development and zero population growth are some of the major concerns of the environmental NGOs.

Environmental policies will achieve positive results only when they are addressed to local issues and solve the problems of local people. The policymakers should keep in mind the needs of the people while framing the policies and implementing the envi­ronment-friendly projects.

Unless the needs of the people are identified and supported, sustainable development cannot be achieved. Policymakers and administrators should take care in selecting, financing, and implementing projects, which are aimed at pro­moting social welfare. They should not encourage the enterprises that promote private ownership and cooperation.

Some of the international environmental organizations are Greenpeace, Worldwide Fund for Nature’ (WWF), Earth First, etc. Let us now have a detailed dis­cussion on some of the environmental organizations and their efforts in protecting environment.

Greenpeace:

Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims at promoting environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning organiza­tion, addressing the environmental abuse through direct, non-violent confrontations with governments and companies. It exposes the global environmental problems and provides solutions for a healthy environment.

Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planets biodiver­sity and environment.

It campaigns to:

1. Stop Climate Change:

The extensive use of oil, gas, fuel, and other energy resources leads to climatic changes, which results in global warming. In order to stop climate change, Greenpeace is campaigning on various fronts. It has been researching to stop climate change and to promote clean energy solutions.

2. Protect Ancient Forests:

Many forests of the world are in crisis. The plants and animals are facing the threat of extinction. People living in forests and depend­ing on them for their livelihood are also under threat. Greenpeace takes up the responsibility to save the forests and provides solutions for the same.

3. Save the Oceans:

Greenpeace’s save the oceans campaign currently focuses on four major threats to the world’s oceans: overfishing, pirate fishing, whaling, and intensive shrimp aquaculture.

4. Stop Whaling:

Commercial Whaling has resulted in the decline of the world’s whale population. In order to stop commercial whaling, Greenpeace is working on many fronts. Through political work public outreach and by adopting non­violent direct, action against the whalers at sea. Greenpeace is fighting against commercial whaling.

5. Say No to Genetic Engineering:

Genetic engineering enables creation of plants, animals and micro-organisms through the manipulation of genes. The organisms, which are produced through genetic engineering when interbred with the natural organisms lead to new environments, which are uncontrolled.

Their release into the environment leads to “genetic pollution”, as once released they cannot be recalled back. Greenpeace believes that “organisms,” which are genetically engineered, should not be released into the environment without adequate knowledge of their impact on the health and environment. It advo­cates taking immediate measures such as labeling of genetically engineered ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops from conven­tional ones.

6. Stop the Nuclear Threat:

Greenpeace campaigns against the use of nuclear power as its use has never been peaceful. It leads to accidents, deaths, and disasters. Radiation released into the environment through the nuclear tests has led to the contamination of soil, air, rivers, and oceans, causing cancer and other diseases in people.

7. Eliminate Toxic Chemicals:

Greenpeace also campaigns against toxic chemicals, as they prove to be a global threat to the health and environment.

8. Encourage Sustainable Trade:

Greenpeace opposes the current form of glo­balization that is increasing corporate power. It demands that the World Trade Organization (WTO) adopt a policy of trade, which works for all and that pre­serves and restores the environment. Governments must work toward achieving sustainable development, which means integrating three things: environmental, social, and economic priorities.

Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, and in order to maintain its independence it does not accept funds from governments or from the corporate sector. It depends mainly on the voluntary contributions of individuals and grants from foundations. Greenpeace was founded in 1971 to oppose US nuclear testing in Alaska.

The organization has fought to protect the endangered species, stop the dumping of hazardous waste, and strengthen national and international laws that regulate environmental affairs. French intelligence agents blew up Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace ship scheduled to protest French nuclear weapons tests, in Auckland Harbor, New Zealand, on 10 July 1985. The resulting scan­dal caused the resignation of Frances minister of defense and the firing of the head of Frances intelligence service.

Greenpeace has played an important role in preserving the environment, which is proved by its successful achievements:

1. A ban on toxic waste exports to less developed countries.
2. A moratorium on commercial whaling.
3. A United Nations convention providing for better management of world fisheries.
4. A Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.
5. A 50-year moratorium on mineral exploitation in Antarctica.
6. Ban on the dumping at sea of radioactive and industrial waste and disused oil installations.
7. An end to high-sea, large-scale driftnet fishing.
8. A ban on all nuclear weapons testing their first ever campaign.

Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)—India:

WWF is an international organization for wildlife conservation with its focus on protecting particular species of wildlife fauna. As its range of activities broadened, the international organization believed that its name no longer reflected the scope of its activities and became the Worldwide Fund for Nature in 1986. But the affiliated groups in the United States and Canada retained the original name. The organization is now simply, referred to as WWF.

WWF-India is committed to protecting and saving the already degraded and threat­ened natural bounties in the country. The organization is today dedicated to the con­servation of natural habitats and ecosystems in India.

WWF-India was established as a Charitable Trust in 1969. With its network of State/Divisional and Field Offices spread across the country to implement its programs, WWF-India is the largest and one of the most experienced conservation organizations in the country.

The Secretariat of the orga­nization functions from New Delhi. The organization is part of the WWF family with 27 independent national organizations. The coordinating body, the WWF International, is located at Gland in Switzerland.

In order to suit India’s specific ecological and socio-cultural situation, WWF-India articulated its mission in 1987 as follows: “The promotion of nature conservation and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and equitable development.”

The WWF-India Mission has five broad program components:

1. Promoting India’s ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.
2. Conserving biological diversity.
3. Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.
4. Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption, promoting sustainable lifestyles.

WWF-India implements its conservation programs through Field Programs, Public Policy, Education, Communications, NGO Networking, and Resource Mobilization.

The key environmental issues, which WWF-India has involved itself with, are:

The tiger conservation program, fresh-water and wetlands program, river dolphin conservation program, wildlife trade monitoring, managing forests, environmental law, informa­tion management and environmental education.

Some Other Environmental Organizations in India:

1. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):

Founded in 1883, is recog­nized as one of the foremost conservation research organizations in the world. It aims to collect data on the specimens on natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To disseminate knowledge of flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature, expeditions and to study wildlife-related problems and rec­ommend management plans to conserve wildlife and its habitat.

It conducts field research projects on bird migration. It also conducts studies of certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitat and through environmental education imparts the knowledge and awareness of the need to conserve wildlife.

It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction with both local and overseas counter­part organizations on birds, reptiles, mammals, natural history, and the impact of developmental programs on wildlife.

2. Development Alternatives Group:

Development Alternatives Group based in Delhi works in all parts of the country. It was established in 1983 to design options and promote sustain­able development through programs of economic efficiency, equity and social justice, resource conservation, and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire nation: It is working in the field of pollution monitoring and control, waste recycling management, wasteland development, and appropriate technology.

Its objective is to design options and promote sustainable development through programs of:

1. Economic efficiency,
2. Equity and social justice,
3. Environmental harmony,
4. Resource conservation, and
5. Self-reliance.

3. The Energy Research Institute (TERI):

Established in 1974, is a wholly indepen­dent, non-profit research institute. Its mission is to develop and promote technolo­gies, policies, and institutions for efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It has been imparting environmental education through projects, workshops, audio-visual aids, and quiz competitions.

It deals with policy-related works in the energy sector, research on environmental subjects, development of renewable energy technologies and promotion of energy efficiency in the industry and trans­port sector. TERI also has a major program in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented toward increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful products and mitigating the harmful environmental impacts of several economic activities.

TERI established the TERI University in 1998. Initially set up as the TERI School of Advanced Studies, it received the status of a deemed university in 1999. The University is a unique institution of higher learning exclusively for programs leading to PhD and master level degrees. Its uniqueness lies in the wealth of research carried out within TERI as well as by its faculty and students making it a genuinely research oriented University.

Environmental clearances are required for 29 types of projects specified in Schedule 1 of the Environment Impact Assessment Notification, 2006.

Moreover, the Central Pollution Control Board introduced a colour codification for industries depending on their impact on the environment. Industries were classified on a pollution potential index as red, orange, green and white industries. Only ‘white’ industries can function without seeking environmental clearances.

Environmental clearances are also required regardless of the type of project in areas which are ecologically fragile, such as-

• Religious and historic places
• Archaeological monuments
• Scenic areas
• Hill resorts
• Beach resorts
• Coastal areas rich in mangroves, corals, breeding grounds of specific species
• Estuaries
• Gulf areas
• Biosphere reserves
• National parks and sanctuaries
• National lakes and swamps
• Seismic zones
• Tribal settlements
• Areas of scientific and geological interest
• Defence installations, especially those of security importance and sensitive to pollution
• Border areas (international)

Early Legislation

Pre-Independence

Environmental regulations in India received a began during British times, with the coming of the Industrial Revolution. These laws, however, were less protective of the environment and more oppressive for the native Indians. The Forest Acts of 1865 and 1927, for example, were the first laws protecting the forests, but focussed more on curtailing the customary rights of the local forest communities.

Criminal sanctions for water and atmospheric pollution were also introduced under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, along with a number of legislations in different Presidencies. Again, the aim of these laws was not to conserve the environment, but to restrict their use by the natives and allow their exploitation by the British.

Post-Independence

After Independence and before the 1970’s, the only environmental regulation in India was done by a few scattered regulations, a few Central and various State Acts.

• Factories Act, 1948

The Factories Act, 1948 required factories to effectively manage waste disposal and gave State governments the ability to make rules under it.

• River Boards Act, 1956

Under the River Boards Act, 1956, river boards were established to deal with the problem of pollution of rivers spanning multiple states.

• State Acts

Some states also took steps to remedy environmental degradation by enacting their own legislation, such as the Orissa River Pollution Prevention Act, 1953 and the Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969.

Regulatory Framework

The 1970’s saw, for the first time. The formulation of comprehensive policies and legislation for the preservation of the environment.

Legislations

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was aimed at a modern and rational management of wildlife.

The Act established a network of ecologically-important protected areas where industrial activity was absolutely banned and provided protection to listed species of flora and fauna. The government was given the power to-

• Declare any area as a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area
• Regulate the hunting of wild animals. This led to a prohibition on the hunting of animals except with prior permission when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or disabled beyond recovery.
• Restrict trade in animals and animal artifacts.

A permit is required for any activity such as mining, industry or infrastructure that is likely to destroy or harm any wildlife or their habitat in a Protected Area, or divert, stop or enhance the flow of water in a Protected Area.

Global Warming is the increase in Earth’s mean surface temperature because of the effect of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb long wave radiations and warm the atmosphere, and this process is called as Greenhouse effect. It had led to many changes on the planet, such as rise in sea level; massive melting of snow and land ice, elevated heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, change in the timings of seasonal events, and many others. The main greenhouse gases, namely:Carbon dioxide (CO2); Methane (CH4); Nitrous oxide (N2O); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Global Warming is the increase in Earth’s mean surface temperature because of the effect of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb long wave radiations and warm the atmosphere, and this process is called as Greenhouse effect. For both land and ocean, the global mean surface temperature indicates warming of 0.85°C during 1880 to 2012. During the period 1906-2005, the Earth’s mean surface temperature had increased by 0.74±0.18°C. Hence, it is seen that the rate of warming approximately doubled for the last half of that duration (0.13±0.03°C per decade, as compared to 0.07±0.02°C per decade).

It had led to many changes on the planet, such as rise in sea level, massive melting of snow and land ice, elevated heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, change in the timings of seasonal events, and many others.

Effects of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) on Global Warming

The main greenhouse gases, namely:Carbon dioxide (CO₂); Methane (CH₄); Nitrous oxide (N₂O); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆). The impact of any GHG is based on the magnitude of the rise in its concentration, its duration in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that is absorbs.

1. Carbon dioxide is the GHG which is present in the largest concentration in the atmosphere. Its emission chiefly comes from fossil fuel combustion. It is showing a rise of about 0.5% per annum.
2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are produced due to anthropogenic activity. Ozone is present in the stratosphere where ultraviolet (UV) radiations convert oxygen into ozone. Hence, the UV rays do not reach the Earth’s surface. The CFCs which goes into the stratosphere destroys the ozone, which is evidently seen over Antarctica. The reduction of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is known as the ozone hole. This permits the UV rays to pass through the troposphere.
3. Nitrous oxide is naturally produced by oceans and rainforests. Man-made sources of nitrous oxide include nylon and nitric acid production, the use of fertilisers in agriculture, cars with catalytic converters and the burning of organic matter.
4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used as refrigerants, especially after the ozone-destroying CFCs had been under the Montreal Protocol.
5. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs): Emitted as a result of production of flourites, they have an atmospheric lifetime of more than 1,000 years.
6. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆): The most powerful greenhouse gas yet discovered, it is emitted as result of production of flourites.

Global efforts have been started for decreasing the emission of GHGs into the atmosphere. Of the many initiatives, the most important one is the Kyoto protocol declared in 1997, and came into effect in 2005, authorized by 141 countries. Kyoto protocol controlled 35 industrialised nations to reduce the emission of GHGs by the year 2012 to 5% less than the levels present in the year 1990.

The concentrations of greenhouse gases are not larger than oxygen and nitrogen, because neither has more than two atoms per molecule, and so they lack the internal vibrational modes that molecules with more than two atoms possess. Both water and CO₂ have these “internal vibrational modes”, and these modes of vibrations can consume and resend infrared radiation, which causes the greenhouse effect. 

Impacts of Global Warming

1. Rising Sea level: Flooding of fresh water marshlands, low-lying cities, and islands with marine water is one of the major effects of global warming.
2. Changes in rainfall patterns: In some areas, droughts and fires happen, whereas in other areas, flooding takes place. This all is due to changes in rainfall pattern.
3. Melting of the ice peaks: Due to melting of the ice peaks, there is loss of habitat near the poles. Now the polar bears are considered to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season because of declining ice packs. 
4. Melting glaciers: There is a significant melting of old glaciers.
5. Spread of disease: There is spread of diseases like malaria due to migration to newer and currently warmer regions.
6. Thinning of Coral Reefs: due to warming seas as well as acidification because of carbonic acid formation: Almost one-third of coral reefs are now severely damaged by warming seas.
7. Loss of Plankton owing to warming seas: The large (900 miles long) Aleutian island ecosystems consisting of whales, sea lions, sea urchins, kelp beds, fish, and other aquatic animals, has now reduced due to loss of plankton.

Ozone layer depletion, is simply the wearing out (reduction) of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere. Ultra violet radiation from the sun breaks up these CFCs. The breaking up action releases Chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms react with Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in that area.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth’s Polar Regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar troposphere ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, Freon, and Halons). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloro ethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean’s photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1920s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by-products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been identified for these compounds — their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone-depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time

The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33% of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50% of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. And when the spring comes the sunshine acts as a catalyst and helps in the chemical reaction which leads to Ozone Hole formation.

Consequences of ozone layer depletion:

• Increased UV
• Basal and squamous cell carcinomas- he most common forms of skin cancer in humans
• Malignant melanoma-Another form of skin cancer
• Cortical cataracts
• An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on Cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase.