Category: Management Notes

India has a long history and its cultural tradition is quite old and extremely complex. India’s cultural division is not only one of the most ancient, but also it is one of the most widespread and varied. Traditional features of India are very strong. French, British and other cultures are seen in India, but Indian value systems still remain. It is second most populated country in the world. It has its own geographic, ethnic, religious, and linguistic background. 

1. Geographical Factor

• The natural boundaries provide India a geographical unity.
• It is a country in South Asia that lies entirely on Indian Plate in the northern portion of Indo Australian Plate.
• The area of Indian society was so vast. The land area is 33 million square kilometer. India is the 7th largest country in the world.
• It lies north Equator.

2. Unity and Diversity

• India is the second most populous and seventh largest country of the world.
• It has 2.4 per cent of world’s land area and about 16 percent of world’s population.
• It has a history spanning over 5000 years of human habitation, 3000 years before Christ and 2000 years after Christ.
• It has a cultural heritage handed down by the immigrant Aryans from across the Himalayas, the natives – the pre-Aryan settlers called Dasyus or Dasas by the Aryans and invading civilizations.
• Its social, economic and cultural diversities are also reflected in habital conditions in rural, urban and semi-urban areas.
• Despite these diversities, what is observed about India is that there is unity in diversity.
• This unity in diversity has become a part of India’s self identity.

3. Religious Factor

• India, being a democratic, socialistic and secular republic, has no state religion.
• India is the birth place of many world religions and almost all major world religions are practiced by their respective followers.
• India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony is seen in the celebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all the religions and cultures of India.
• The major religions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá’í Faith.

4. Language

• The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages (a branch of Indo-European) spoken by 74% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 24% of Indians.
• Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.
• The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language.
• The constitution of India states that “The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script”.
• Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred; the 1961 census recognized 1,652.
• According to Census of India of 2001, 30 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000.
• Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia.
• Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.

5. Races and Ethnicity

Indian population is polygenetic and is a mixture of various races.

There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India.

The 6 main ethnic groups are as follows:

(i) Negrito

• The Negritos were the earliest people to come to India.
• They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples.
• Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India.

(ii) Proto – Australoids or Austrics

• These were the next ethnic group to arrive in India after the Negroids.
• They were people with wavy hair distributed all over their brown bodies, long faces with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, thick jaws, noses with low and broad roots, large teeth and palates and small chins.

(iii) Mongoloids

• The Mongoiloids are found mainly in the North eastern parts of India in the states like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura.
• They are also found in parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh.
• They are people with highly yellowish complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, thin hair and of a medium height.

(iv) Mediterranean or Dravidian

• These are the people of South India.
• They have been believed to come before the Aryans.
• They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean.
• They appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and pre- Hellenic Aegean’s of Greece.
• They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the Indus valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjo- daro and Harappa and other Indus cities.

(v) Western Brachycephals

• These include the Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids.
• The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category.
• They are the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

(vi) Nordic Aryans or Indo-Aryans

• This group were the last one to immigrate to India.
• They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C.
• They are now mainly found in the northern and central part of India.

6. Caste System

A social structure used to designate any social class of extreme rigidity. It is composed of four varna or classes, and from this, a rank-order of different subcastes or jati was formed.

Note: This fig. is for Knowledge purpose only, www.theintactone.com doesn’t endourse any Caste System

(i) Brahmins: The first and the highest class; intellectuals of the nations such as landowners, scholars, and priests.

(ii) Kshatriyas: A class directly follows Brahmins; mostly rulers and warriors. They manage the land, military service, and administration.

(iii) Vaisyas: The third class composed of traders, shopkeepers, moneylenders, farmers, and artisans; Trading and banking.

(iv) Sudras: The fourth class composed of laborers, craft-workers, servants and slaves.

7. Tribes

• India has the second largest tribal population in the world only next to Africa.
• According to 1941 census report tribal population of India was 2.47 crores.
• According to 1981 census it was 5.16 crores and it is estimated to have increased to 5.20 crores in 1991.
• It forms 7.8% of the country’s total population.
• About two-thirds of the total tribal population in India are found in the five states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharastra.
• More than 20 lakhs of tribal population are found in each state of Rajasthan, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
• In Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura tribals constitute 70% to 95% of the population of the states/territory.

8. Cultural Factor

• Indian Culture is very different.
• Hindu, Muslims and Christian marriages has their own values.
• Hinduism is a mixture of various cultures like, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity.
• Hindu philosophies are very strong and its culture was not much changed.

9. Political Factor

• India is called by other name Bharathavarsha.
• India’s political unity is an off shoot of the religious and cultural unity.
• India is a democratic country which has a written constitution.
• Indians enjoy certain fundamental rights and duties.
• India being democratic, socialistic republic is based on equality, justice, liberty and secularism.
• Indian laws apply all people without any discrimination.

1. Emotional Needs

For satisfaction of needs like love, affection, hunger, fear, self-preservation, self-gratification, and fear of the supernatural.

2. Economic Needs

Satisfies the material needs of people and for satisfaction of basic necessities of food, clothing and shelter.

3. Familial Needs

Establishes the institution of marriage and family for the continuation of human species through structured means.

4. Religious Needs

Deals with man’s inherent fear of the supernatural. It deals with this fear through religious prayers and offerings.

5. Political Needs

Deals with the basic necessity of governing large groups of people through formalized means of government and laws.

(i) Institutions are important means, by which social behaviour can be regulated and controlled.

(ii) Institutions are instrumental in transmitting culture from one generation to another.

(iii) Institutions unite people and groups. They maintain unity and harmony in so­ciety by providing unified patterns of behaviour that is followed by all members despite diversities.

(iv) Institutions provide status to every individual. For instance, the status of married/unmarried, status of son/daughter or sibling, economic status and so on can come under this.

(v) Not all the functions of institutions are positive. Certain aspects of institutions have a negative impact on the functioning of society. For example, the institu­tion of religion has led to religious fundamentalism, besides reinforcing reli­gious identities, that has resulted in conflicts and communalism.

In India, the caste system, which is a part of the Hindu religion, resulted in the emergence of untouchability. Similarly, marriage has resulted in the birth of social evil of dowry. Thus, institutions also have certain negative repercussions on society.

In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which anyone who wished to study went to a teacher’s (Guru) house and requested to be taught. If accepted as a student by the guru, he would then stay at the guru’s place and help in all activities at home. This not only created a strong tie between the teacher and the student, but also taught the student everything about running a house. The guru taught everything the child wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the holy scriptures and from Mathematics to Metaphysics. The student stayed as long as she wished or until the guru felt that he had taught everything he could teach. All learning was closely linked to nature and to life, and not confined to memorizing some information.

The modern school system was brought to India, including the English language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature was broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the student.

The Uttar Pradesh (a state in India) Board of High School and Intermediate Education was the first Board set up in India in the year 1921 with jurisdiction over Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. In 1929, the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana, was established. Later, boards were established in some of the states. But eventually, in 1952, the constitution of the board was amended and it was renamed Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). All schools in Delhi and some other regions came under the Board. It was the function of the Board to decide on things like curriculum, textbooks and examination system for all schools affiliated to it. Today there are thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both within India and in many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.

Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a cherished dream of the new government of the Republic of India. This is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the government appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen. The pressures of economic growth and the acute scarcity of skilled and trained manpower must certainly have played a role to make the government take such a step. The expenditure by the Government of India on school education in recent years comes to around 3% of the GDP, which is recognized to be very low.

“In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are;

(a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP.

(b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes.

(c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty.

(d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years.

(e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.”

Education in Ancient India

Broadly speaking three different types of institutions were in vogue which imparted education to the people in Ancient India. In the first instance there was the popular system under which the teacher, as a settled householder, admitted pupils of a tender age and imparted instructions to them.

We also get references in the earlier period when a child received education from his father. Usually the pupils were admitted by the teachers on request by the preceptor and the rite of upanayana was performed. The students usually spent twelve years with their guru. During this period the student lived at the house of teacher and performed several duties as a means of his moral and spiritual discipline.

The usual duties performed by the students included begging for the teacher, collec­tion of wood for sacrificial fires, looking after the house work as well as the cattle. They devoted the rest of the time to their studies.

On his part the teacher had also to fulfill certain moral and spiritual conditions. He was to be well versed in sacred lore and live entirely as a Brahman. He was expected to teach his pupil the truth as was known to him, without concealing anything. Education was open to people of all classes of the Indo-Aryan stock. But the course of training and subjects were not uniform for students of all castes.

While the Brahmana student was specially trained up for teaching and performing sacrifices for others and receiving gifts, the Kshatriya was taught about defence or protection of his people.

But we frequently come across references in Upanishads of Brahmanas of the learned Kshatriyas and princes who studied the Vedas and attained proficiency in the sacred lore, which was special pro­perty of the Brahmans. For example king Janaka of Videha was a learned Kshatriya who imparted sacred knowledge to the Brahmanas.

Women were also permitted to receive education in Ancient India. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we get a reference to Gargi taking impor­tant part in the philosophical discussions. The Upanishads also mention several women taking as teachers. However, the women specialised in fine arts like dancing and singing, the accomplishments which were considered unfit for men.

Education was imparted through discourses by the teachers. The students could ask questions and were supposed to introspect and contemplate on those topics. They were to acquire knowledge about Ultimate Truth and Reality through meditation.

The acqui­sition of knowledge was supposed to precede by annihilation of all desire and annihilation of the illusion of a manifold universe, of the consciousness of plurality. This could be attained through sannyasa and yoga.

The former meant casting off of one’s home, possessions and family and all that stimulated desire. Yoga meant withdrawal from all organs of sense and concentrating mind on the Inner Self endeavors with a view to secure union with Atma.

The second type of institutions were meant for the imparting of advanced education to the students who were not satisfied with the knowledge acquired as students and were popularly known as academies. Usually the specialists and literary celebrities held academic meetings in different parts of the country for the purpose of philosophical discussion.

The students keen to acquire advanced education held discussions with these specialists and learnt the truth about the Atma. Participation in debates with these academies enabled the students to check their knowledge which they had acquir­ed at elementary schools.

In addition to these academies located in different areas, the king often called special national gatherings or Congress, in which the representative thinkers of the country of various schools were invited to meet and exchange their views.

Such Congresses helped a great deal in the spread of learning in those days. We learn of one such Congress of rishis in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Satapatha Brahmana and the Vayu Purana.

Education in the Medieval Times

During the Medieval times the education continued to operate on the ancient lines. No doubt, some of the prominent Hindu universities of Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramshila, the great centres of learning, suffered a decline on account of the onslaughts of early Muslim invaders.

Professor A.L. Srivastava has said, “Muslim invaders destroyed Hindu seats of learning as well as Hindu temples and one of the first and most injurious result of the early Turkish rule was the decline, if not disappearance, of the ancient learning in Northern India.”

Though the temples and educational institutions suffered destruction at the hands of the Muslim invaders and Mosques were raised, the Hindu institutions continued to be a living reality. Their vitality was not killed or crushed through the Hindu edu­cation was deprived of the Government patronage, the individual patrons kept flam; of learning burning. Usually, the local popula­tion supported the village school.

Ibn Batuta writes “I saw in Hanaur thirteen schools for the instruction of the girls and twenty three for boys, a thing I have not seen anywhere else.”

During the medieval time, there were three types of Hindu educational institutions:

(1) Pathshalas or elementary schools

(2) Tols or Colleges and

(3) Private schools.

The children were sent to the Pathshalas at the age of 5 after consulting the Astrologer, where he learnt reading, writing and arithmetic. In addition, he was also given some type of elementary religious instructions. The Tols or Colleges were seats of higher learning where the students were taught Sanskrit language and literature.

The other subjects included in the curriculum were Kavya (poetry), Vyakarna (Grammar), Jyotish (astronomy and astrology), Chhanda (thetoric), Nirukta (lexicon) and Nayaya Durshan (philosophy). In some of the colleges instructions were also imparted in Medicine, History, Geography, Puranas, the Vedas.

The chief aim of Hindu education was character building, development of personality, preservation of ancient culture and inculcation of spirit of social service and performance of religious duties. Special emphasis was laid on discipline and self-dependence.

There was no printed Premier and the children were taught orally. During the primary stage, the children learnt alphabets and figures on wooden board (Takhti) or on the dust of the ground in their fingers. The pupils were usually taught under shadow of a tree where they sat in rows. The master attended to them either standing or sitting on a mat or deer skin. The classes were held twice a day—in the morning and evening with an interval for meals.

Education was imparted free. It was considered to be a pious and noble duty to impart education and it was a handmaid of religion. The State did not extend any financial assistance and the necessary funds were provided by individuals as a matter of religious duty with the object of acquiring personal merit in the next world.

According to Professor K.A. Nilakantha Shastri, “Adult edu­cation was provided throughout the country by endowments in temples for the recitation and exposition of the Epics and Puranas. An intelligent and popular expositor seldom contained himself to the words of his text, but at once instructed and amused his audience by ranging over a variety of popular instruction is not unknown even at the present day. The singing of devotional hymns in temples by choirs regularly maintained for that purpose and the training of young men for the same purpose in schools generally attached to it has is another side of education that deserve notice. Besides mathas, Jain Pallis and Buddhist Viharas played an important part in educating the people wherever they existed, and they had large libraries of books in all branches of learning which were being copied from time to time.”

Physical punishments were not that common in Hindu educa­tional institutions. Physical punishment was inflicted only to those students who did not behave properly or consistently failed to do their homework. Usually, punishments given to the students, included their detention after school hours or re-writing a particular lesson 10 or 15 times.

There was no system of regular examinations or award of degrees. The promotion of student to the next higher class depended entirely on the discretion of the teachers.

The chief centres of Hindu learning, which can be designated as the universities, were usually set up at places where eminent scholars resided. Usually these universities came up at places of pilgrimage so that the pilgrims could offer necessary financial assistance.

The teachers and scholars thus rid themselves of financial worries and devoted themselves to the acquisition and dispersal of education. Amongst the prominent seats of learning during the Medieval time mention may be made of Banaras (Varanasi), Nadia, Mithila, Madura, Srinagar, Prayag, Ayodhya etc.

Banaras which had been a great centre of learning from earliest times, suffered a great setback during the early Muslim rule due to their policy of religious persecutions. With the advent of the Mughals it once again regained its importance as a seat of learning and attracted scholars from remotest corners of India.

Bernier was greatly impressed by the facilities of higher education available at Banaras and compared it with Athens of ancient Greece as a centre of learning.

He says in his travels, “The town contains no colleges or regular classes as in our universities, but resembles rather the schools of the ancients, the masters being dispersed over different parts of the town in private houses and principally in the gardens of the suburbs, which the rich merchants permit them to occupy. Some of these eminent may have twelve or fifteen, but this is the larger number. It is usual for the pupils to remain ten or twelve years under their respective preceptors, during which time the work of instruction proceeds, but slowly…”

Kabir and Tulsidas carried on their literary activities at Banaras. Raja Jai Singh also founded a college for the education of the Princes at Banaras. In addition, there were number of other scholars of Hindu religion and philosophy which dispersed their knowledge.

Nadia in Bengal was another rare centre of Hindu learning during the Mughal period. This university rose to prominence after the destruction of the university of Nalanda and Vikramshila. The University of Nadia consisted of three branches at Nabadvipa, Santipura and Gopalpara and attracted students from all parts of the country. It is said that in 1618 there were 4,003 pupils and 600 teachers at Nadia. At Nadia the famous Nyaya school was set up by Vasudeva Sarvabhauma and it soon out-rivalled the school of Mithila. Separate sections were also set up for the study of logic,, philosophy and astronomy.

Mithila, located in North Bihar, which was a centre of great learning from the earliest times retained its importance as a centre of learning throughout the medieval period. It made notable contributions in the realm of scientific subject.

During the Mughal days it drew students from all parts of the country and became great seat for the study of logic. With Nadia gaining prominence as a seat of learning Mithila suffered a setback and many students from Mithila started migrating to Nadia. The other important centres of Hindu learning were Mathura, Brindaban, Prayag and they specialised in certain special subjects.

Modern Education System in India

In India the education system has various aspects and it has evolved since ancient time. The unique things about Indian education system are diversity in fundamentals like language, culture and dialect etc. In the times of yore, India had the Gurukula System of education where the teacher and the pupils used to live together in a distant place and were taught philosophy, arts, science administration and military techniques. Guru was the central persona and the students returned the favour by helping their teacher in their daily chores. Women like Gargi, Gayatri and Maitrayi were prominent personas who participated in educational debates and scholarly researches. However the biggest demerit of the Vedic education was that only one section of society such as the Brahmins had the privilege of education. The Kshatriyas were also given gurucula educations but the lower strata of the society were never imparted any kind of knowledge.

The modern school system was brought to India, including the English language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature was broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the student. Today there are thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both within India and in many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a cherished dream of the new Government of the Republic of India. This is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the Government appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen.

Modern day education is aided with a variety of technology, computers, projectors, internet, and many more. Diverse knowledge is being spread among the people. Everything that can be simplified has been made simpler. Science has explored every aspect of life. There is much to learn and more to assimilate. Internet provides abysmal knowledge. There is no end to it. One can learn everything he wishes to. Every topic has developed into a subject. New inventions and discoveries have revealed the unknown world to us more variedly. Once a new aspect is discovered, hundreds of heads start babbling over it, and you get a dogma from hearsay. Not only our planet but the whole universe has become accessible. Skill-development and vocational education has added a new feather to the modern system of education. There is something to learn for everyone. Even an infant these days goes to a kindergarten. Rightly said by  Aristotle, “Education is an ornament in prosperity and a refugee in adversity.” what everybody feels now.

Well, that was the positive side, but every story has two telling. Of all the virtue, our education system has developed into mere schooling now. Firstly our education is confined to schools and colleges. It has become a process of spoon feeding. “Spoon feeding in the long run teaches us nothing but the shape of the spoon”. Not art, not books, but life itself is the true basis of teaching and learning. Cramming of facts and dates, hi-fi mathematical formulas, theories and doctrines should be at college levels when one has chosen his area of interest. Secondly, an art can only be learned from a workshop of those who are earning their bread from it. Modern education has spread more ignorance than knowledge. “How” is missing in our world which causes ignorance. Thirdly all education is bad which is not  self-education. Presently, children after school are sent to tuitions. This is a clear question mark on the ability of school teacher. Students are thought of like they can’t do anything on their own and so are sent even to do the homework.. Homework is a waste of time, if it is to repeat class work done today or to be repeated as class work to be done tomorrow. Our schooling does not leave us with time to get educated.  My neighbour’s daughter once requested me to give her a print of article from internet on Baisakhi festival as her teacher has ordered for a nice article from internet and not to write on her on. I told her to write it on her own otherwise  she will not use her mind  but a print command from computer will do the purpose which is not a right thing. Finally our education is producing machines out of pupil. They read books, they speak books and they do books. Discussing in class lead to complications, which  remains as confusions for a life time if left untreated.  “Discussion in class, which means letting twenty young blockheads and two cocky neurotics discuss something that neither their teacher nor they know.” The private education market in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrollment, and a 19% increase in girl’s enrollment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its education has been questioned particularly in its Government run school system. Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25 percent of teachers everyday. It is the duty of Government and education authorities to improve system of education for producing intellectual brains for future and not machines for job.

“Indian value systems do not encourage us to replicate the same consumer culture that is rampant in the West,” For example: Families in India still make younger children wear the clothes worn by older children in the house, not because of poverty, but because Indian value systems encourage ‘recycle and reuse’ of material goods at home.

India is a pluralistic and multi-cultural society where many faiths and belief systems regulate the life of individuals. India is not a Hindu society even though Hinduism is the religion of the vast majority of the people. In this part of the globe many religious traditions, both indigenous and foreign, have been established over the years. We have Buddhism, Sikhism, Bhakti cult, Sufi tradition as well as Islam and Christianity. Many religious gurus, law-givers, social reformers and statesmen have come to guide and influence the life and culture of Indians. The Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Bhagvat Gita as well as the Quran, the Bible, the Guru Bani, etc., have molded the thinking pattern and consciousness of Indians. So also the Hindu caste system and the joint family pattern have a decisive influence on the followers of other religions.

The struggle for human rights essentially reflects the concerns and requirements of modern human being whereas the cultural values operated in a traditional context where many of the agencies which at present account for the violation of human rights norms were not known. Since human rights is basically a problem between authority and the individual it is essential to examine the Indian understanding of the origin of authority.

1. Duty-First Approach

Broadly speaking Indian culture never saw the individual and society as antagonistic to each other. The Hindu vision was that of an orderly society, with each individual doing his assigned job. The individual and society were viewed as two complementary and incomplete entities tied to a relationship of mutual obligations, a commitment which was essential to ensure the well-being of all. Those who acted as the guardians of society and worked out the delicate nuances and detailed network of the social order were neither concerned about, nor even conscious of, the concept of human rights. They were more commercial about the moral dimension of a human being’s activities than the legal aspect. Much emphasis was placed on the understanding of society from a moral perspective. Of course this understanding was highly elitist reflecting the brahminical vision of a perfect society. However, this is not to deny the existence of a legal framework and law books to regulate social relationship at various levels. Those were of different nature and have nothing to do with the present concept of Rule of Law which is the main vehicle to ensure the equality of all — a fundamental objective of the human rights movement.

As regards the origin of the government (authority), the Hindu tradition believed in a supernatural source. According to it, human beings in a state of defenselessness and social disorder appealed to the gods. The gods appointed a king in their own image and on their behalf whose task was to protect the people and maintain law and order. In return, the king would claim a share of one sixth of the produce. The caste-based social order also emerged from this divine source.

In terms of well-codified norms and level of the people’s consciousness, the notion of human rights did not exist. But in terms of implications, i.e., ensuring a person’s protected position, one can say that people enjoyed their rights. Thus in the Indian culture rights flowed from duties. The performance of one’s boundless duties in accordance with dharma (duties) ensured the rights of another. Non-adherence to the neatly defined and minutely worked out duty code would lead to a state of anarchy in society which would destroy the individual himself.

Another dimension of this duty-first value system of Indian culture is that since the emphasis on rights leads to conflicts and claims of one’s own due, the architects of society and its law-makers, probably sought to avoid a scenario wherein each one would be fighting for his rights. Such a situation would have resulted in an anarchy defeating the very purpose of arranging a stable social order.

2. Nishkama Karma

Another dictum of the Gita which has taken deep roots in the Indian mind is Karmanye badhika rastu ma falesu kadachan. That is, one must go on performing one’s duties without being worried about the rewards or the results. One finds most of the Indian parents consoling their children by citing this Gita bani in the event of the latter’s failure in any endeavour despite hard work and sincere efforts. The habit of conformism ruled out any scope for challenge which is the main vehicle to ensure one’s rights. Further, the concept of an individual was also not there. The individual as an individual had no identity as he essentially belonged to his family group, caste or sub-caste, etc. Each individual is called upon to perform his duty without being concerned about the reward for or consequences of such an action — nishkama karma.

3. Ahimsa and human rights

Ahimsa can be identified as another key Indian cultural value which ensures rights by implication and interpretation. Since the concept of ahimsa emerged out of a very healthy Buddhist tradition, it is essential to understand the Buddhist theory on the origin of government or authority. The Buddhist theory did not believe in any divinity. As opposed to the Hindu tradition, it was rooted in a republican mold. It talked about a “golden age which gradually decayed through the institution of private property and other social evils”. As a result, the people assembled and elected one from among themselves to rule over and ensure an orderly society. This has various implications. The ruler is a chosen representative of the people and not a monarch appointed by God with absolute powers. Thus the emphasis is on the sovereignty of the people which naturally leads to a stress on the rights of the individual in society. Even though the idea of the sovereignty of the people remained central to the Buddhist political philosophy, it could never be developed into a theory of the rights of the people (Romila Thapar 1985). May be it was not necessary then. Nevertheless ahimsa , which gives every life a right to live, is a reflection of the belief in the sovereignty of the people.

In a broader sense, ahimsa means much more than non-violence. It means not hurting anyone or any life both physically and psychologically. Basically it is a negative concept from which flows a positive value, i.e., protection. Ahimsa aims at ensuring and providing a protected existence to every one free from mental and physical violence and it is here that the basic postulation of ahimsa coincides with the main concern of the present human rights movement worldwide.

The value systems in societies differ considerably because the value systems are built through centuries. Japanese and Chinese ethical values differ considerably to Indian ones.

The main issues in ethics are:

(i) The academic discipline of business ethics requires approval and support of industry in those countries.

(ii) Equal treatment of technical and human resources in management. In Japan human resource is given more weightage.

(iii) Social justice and efficiency should go hand in hand.

(iv) In Japan ethical managements already in place since last two decades with emergence of large business houses and MNCs. In China the importance of business ethics is felt and being practiced under the conditions of contemporary market economy.

(v) Japanese consumers are more willing to support business that were identified as socially more responsible than Chinese.

(vi) Chinese value economic aspects of business organization whereas Japanese considered more about business conforming to legal and ethical standards.

(vii) The culture has profound base on ethical management in each country.

Some of the ethical values noticed in different countries are:

Some of ethical Vedantic principles as applied to modern business are:

(i) Treat people decently. Respect all stakeholders’ opinions, background, privacy dignity and desire to grow.

(ii) All people are having egos and selfish nature. Respect diversity.

(iii) Companies or business is created to serve people and all stakeholders.

(iv) Some are more intelligent and powerful but protect the weak.

(v) Look inside sitting alone and think is it right? Is it fair? Will it do good to all?

(vi) Be good, do good to as many and as much.

(vii) Mahabharata sums up importance of ethical behaviour in a sloka.

Ethical behaviour is important for a man. When a man goes down in ethical values, he will have no use of his money or his relatives and he has no reason to live.

As noted above, ethics was and is a traditional subject in India. Vedantic ethics had spiritual approach, which is summed up in its entirety (what you do not wish unto you do not do it to others). Business ethics is a new branch of study giving ethic plus business combination in decision making processes in industry and commerce.

Indian ethos was introduced in daily walk of life for everyone by various methods. Religious teachings, listening to Puranas, Kathas, Bhajans, Yoya, Pooja, Yajyas and the like are some examples where these remind time and again the essence of ethical behavior in a society. Over the centuries many of these became mechanical and ritualistic and lost the ethical touch in them.

Two other religions which had their origins in India are Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism and Jainism stress the ethical behavior and non-violence in more stringent manner to the society. In fact ‘The Digambar’ sect of Jainism advocated no attachments of possession to any worldly goods.

Indian ancient texts give guidelines to ethical behaviour of a man in his daily life since days of Veda. The same principles apply to modern day business.

Some of the important ethical lessons are:

(i)  Foundation for a healthy business is sound morals and ethics.

(ii) For managers to be good decision makers and to stand up to temptation and pressures, he should have his own peace of mind, strength of will and ethics.

(iii) Selfishness and greed are source of evil that reduces ethical standards in an organization.

(iv) Ethical levels should be built up from top down to curb lies, hurting, cheating or unethical acts.

Indian Values

Indian culture is much diversified because of varieties of customs, beliefs and many gods. It is difficult to find single culture at one place. Hinduism has much type of worship and festivals.

In tradition Indian has Vedantic, Buddhist, Jaina and Sikh traditions. India has also welcomed and absorbed good ethical lessons from Christian, Islamic and Parsi religions. The culture has enriched with diversity of outsiders. It is now a unity in diversity.

The important Vedantic values in Indian society valid even today are:

(i) Showing respect to elders specially teachers

(ii) Not showing emotion outward

(iii) God fear in all walks of life. In any function Pooja or offering to God is made first before the work begins.

(iv) Marriage is made in heaven and is considered lifelong bond. Some consider it as bond even after death.

(v) In recent years Indian household look western. These are outward looks, whereas the Vedantic culture flews in hearts and actions. Similarly Indian ethos had many changes when foreigners ruled India for many centuries but Vedantic identify and ethos remained intact.

(vi) Indian ethos were built and perfected long before others evolved them. Hence India contributed immensely in teaching ethical lessons to outside world with its classical books. The ethical thought process in Vedantic ethos starts with Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis and Puranas. These were told in many ways with day to day life in epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and Gita. The ethical values were told in story form in Panchatantra, Hitopdesha, Katha- Saritsagaf, Bhoja prabhand, Chanakya Neeti, Bliagavata, Sooktimuktavali, Neeti Shastra, Neeti Shataka Manusmuti and the like.

(vii) Sacred simplicity of four goals to a man.

• Dharma – Righteousness
• Artha – Creation of wealth
• Kama – Desires and needs
• Moksha – Liberation of the spiritual core.

(viii) The ethos in work life are:

• Man’s inner strength. Simple livingHolistic relationship between man and nature
• Cooperation with each other
• Yoga and meditation. That is excellence and concentration.
• Spirit of sacrifice.

(ix) Internal orientation towards work as worship.

Ashramas are the stages of life which provide training and environment for realising the ideal of our life. There are four ashramas in all: Brahmacharya (student life), Garhasthya (family life), Vanaprastha (retired life), and Sannyasa (life of renunciation). The first two provide the training and environment for the Pravrtti Marg and the last two for the Nivrtti Marg of development.

Each stage has its own specific duties (Vishesha Dharmas). We will discuss the duties of a garhasthi (householder), a student (Brahmacharin), a retired person, and a renunciated person separately. Just as ashramas refer to specific duties in life, varnas refer to duties related to the four professional roles in life: the profession of scholarship, of defence and administration, of production and distribution, and of unskilled labour. Thus, along with ashramas, we will analyse the varnas too.

1. Brahmacharya Ashram

It is a specific period of education for all young persons before they can grow independent to work for life. At home, a child gets education in how to eat, walk, talk, dress, meet other people, and behave in their presence. In some castes and communities, a child also learns how to plough land, make shoes, do pottery work, ironsmith’s work, goldsmith’s work, carpentry work, and so on. But he does not get education in reading and writing or skilled and professional training.

He gets this education from teachers (gurus). During this period of education, he has to follow some ideals and live in a specific environment. In the ancient past, schools were boarding schools where a child was admitted at the age of 8-12 years, after following certain ceremonies and imparted knowledge, skills and crafts, general and physical education, and training in logic.

What was important was ‘comradeship’ between the teacher and the taught, skills, knowledge and dedication of the teacher, and commitment of students to certain values and ideals. The students were taught discipline of life during this stage and were asked to take four vows of sexual purity (to check sex indulgence), simplicity in food and dress (to generate a sense of equality, fraternity and independence), respect for and obedience to the teacher (to create discipline) and enjoying selfexertion in acquiring knowledge and offering prayer (reciting hymns and meditation) for the cooperation of the divine powers. Thus, chastity, simplicity, hard work, devotion to knowledge, and spiritual reality were the ideals of student life.

2. Garhasthya Ashram

This period of life covers an active period of ef­fective membership of society and covers 25 years of life after the first 25 years of education. This is householder’s life, a married life. The ideal marriage was considered one which was performed for moksha or final liberation and intellectual companionship through the performance of household duties, including upbringing of children and offering reverence (shradha) to ancestors.

Thus, by developing virtues of purity of heart, fidelity, chastity and mutual love, marriage is raised from being merely a biological association. Indian culture considers marriage not merely as an association but as absolute oneness. The marriage ceremony binds a man and a woman into a single complete being of which one half is the man and the other half is the woman.

The oneness is not to last for a lifetime but it is to be continuous birth after birth. Thus, since marriage is for spiritual ends of oneness (as different from union motivated by biological and social ends), it is regarded as a sacrament and not as a contract.

3. Vanaprastha Ashram

After the responsibilities to children are over, the parents are expected to take to social welfare work, so that they do not remain entrapped in moha (attachment). The idea is not to retire to forests and live in a place away from human habitation but to live in villages, away from thickly populated cities. Thus, the idea of third stage is to develop a new level of interest and action and not merely a retirement into a particular place.

The idea also is that people in far off places (villages) will get an opportunity to consult for their problems those who have spent their best years in that field. Even kings and rulers visited re­tired people for similar purposes. Thus, vanaprastha people were superior guides on social problems. The retirement of the old people (after 50 years of age, which is not a fixed age but is an average age which permits variations) also gives an opportunity to the youth to make experiments and contribute to the variety and richness of life.

Very late retirement of the ‘old’ denies the opportunity to the young of initiation into new fields of activity. Vanaprastha stage does not expect husband and wife to break up their relationship. It is left to the option of the couple. But they are ex­pected to lead an austere and ascetic life. The cultural importance of this third stage is that after enjoying physical pleasures when the body ages, a person experiences a sense of frustration and a sense of degeneracy. One wishes to return to bodily pleasures by artificial stimulation. By retiring, one is saved from frustrations. The decline in biological urges (sex, self-assertion, etc.) is compensated by interest in human welfare.

4. Sanyasa Ashram

Sanyasa is the final stage in life’s growth. It differs from the vanaprastha stage in two respects in the development of interests and in the development of motivation. While the dominant interest in grahasthya stage is the family, in vanaprastha stage it is human society as a whole, in sanyasa stage, the interest is the Universe with its universal consciousness. Interest in the universal consciousness is identification with total existence in its deepest being.

As regards motivation in grahasthya stage, the individual is motivated to seek the interest of members of family, while in the vanaprastha stage, he is motivated to work for the interest of a particular group or community or human society. In both cases, if interests are achieved, the grahasthi and the vanaprastha feel happy and experience pleasure; if not, they feel unhappy and experience pain. When motivation is related to an end, success or failure in them leads to pleasure or pain respectively.

Such actions are called interested actions, i.e., actions inspired by fruit of action. Contrary to these, action in sanyasa is disinterested action. Let us take the example of speaking truth. A person may speak truth when it pays him, another person may do so even if he has to lose by it. One does it (speaks truth) viewing it as a duty or a command that comes from conscience without the calculation of gains or losses, or even at the cost of his life.

Only a sanyasi will be motivated to perform a disinterested action which is not desirous of any fruits here or hereafter. The simple dress of a sanyasi symbolises the ideal of life for which he stands and lives. A sanyasi surrenders home and possessions because he perceives the whole Universe as his home. He is above fears, passions and hatred. Thus, sanyasa is not a life of inaction but a life of action risen to the highest level of motivation and widest interest.

It may, however, be noted that these stages of life are meant for aver­age persons. These are not necessary for a genius or for an extraordinarily gifted person. Persons like Tagore, (and Charles Dickens) never went to school. Persons like Shelley and Wordsworth did not have much college education and yet they were master poets. A genius can bypass any stage(s) and reach the highest stage.

Varnas: Four-fold Order of Society

Varna order is different from the caste system. While the latter is believed to be the greatest blot on Indian culture, since it has divided the society into conflicting camps, perpetrated harsh sufferings on a large section of the Indian people, and has made social justice difficult, or has proved socially monstrous, politically suicidal, morally obnoxious and economically disastrous, the former is the division of people into groups on the basis of aptitudes and abilities and vocations.

The Aptitudes and Abilities are Classified as Those:

(a) For scholarship

(b) For administration and defence

(c) For production and distribution

(d) For unskilled la- hour

The first group of people came to be called brahmins who were engaged in priestly function, teaching, medicine etc.; the second group Kshatriyas, who were engaged in fighting, ruling and administration; the third group vaishyas who were engaged in agriculture, trade and commerce; and the last group sudras who were engaged in unskilled work under the direction of the members of other three groups.

The Brahmins have the qualities of self restraint, austerity, purity, serenity, forgiveness, simplicity, wisdom and philosophic insight into truth and reality. The Kshatriyas have the qualities of courage, strength, firmness, skillfulness, charitableness, and administrative ability. The Vaishyas have the qualities of hard work, intelligence, and quick decision making. The Sudras lack abilities and aptitudes; hence they have to work under others’ direction and accept their authority and dominance.

The duties (dharmas) of Brahmins are: offering prayers, performing ceremonies and sacrifices, and teaching. The duties of Kshatriyas are: protecting people from external aggression and internal disturbances as well as governing them, punishing the wicked and contributing liberally for nation building institutions. The duties of Vaishyas are: engaging in agriculture, procuring commodities from others and selling them, rearing cattle and rendering help to the poor and the needy. The duties of Sudras are to do those things which others want them to do. Sudras are not per­mitted to read Vedas or observe Vedic rites or recite mantras (incantations).

Since a person or a group was entitled to a varna membership by satisfying the qualifications, any individual or a group could find a place in any of the varnas, if he/it satisfied the qualifications. Thus, membership of a varna was not determined by birth but by qualifications. A Sudra became a Brahmin in his life by sheer merit; a Brahmin became a Sudra if he did not study the Vedas; and so also a Kshatriya or a Vaishya. The Bhagwad Gita also states that the four varnas are constituted on the principle of guna, i.e., natural and acquired qualities and character, and karma, i.e., calling and profession.

Some scholars have, however, maintained that varna system was as rigid as caste system today. A few examples of upgrading of individuals mentioned in some early religious books (say, of Vasistha who was born of a prostitute, Vyasa of a fisher woman, Parasara of a low born girl) were exceptions rather than a rule.

Purushartha and Ashrama Vyavastha are closely linked with each other. These help in the conduct of human activities leading towards Moksha. Thus Ashrama and Purushartha systems run parallel to each other. Just like four Ashrama, there are four Purusharthas which are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Man is a thinking animal and all of his actions have some end or purpose behind these. We can distinguish between right and wrong behaviour on the basis of social values which are prevalent in society. Society lays down the standard of behaviour and permits human actions which are in right direction.

The standard of behaviour also restricts human actions which are socially considered incorrect and improper. The theory of Purushartha determines the values and a measuring-rod according to which human actions are to be performed or a avoided.

Literally speaking, Purushartha means those actions which are proper and correct. The aim of life of an individual is determined by the doctrine of Purushartha. It also decides the course of life of man and lays down norms and values for the behaviour patterns.

Purushartha means “Purusharthate Purushartha”, which are the efforts made by the individual to achieve the aims, goals and ultimate values of life. The ultimate end of Hindu culture is to attain ‘Moksha’ or salvation and hence, man should behave in such a manner that this aim may be achieved. By Purushartha we mean the pursuance of those actions which lead to the fulfillment of socially approved values and goal.

According to P.N. Prabhu, “The theory of Purusharthas concern themselves with the understanding, justification, management and conduct of affairs of the individual’s life in relation to the group in and through the Ashramas”. We speak of those Purusharthas as the psycho­moral bases of the Ashrama theory. Because on the one had, the individual receives a psychological training through the Ashramas in terms of lessons in the use and management of the Purusharthas, while on the other hand, in actual practice, he has to deal with society in accordance with these lessons.”

Prof. K.M’ Kapadia says, “According to this theory there are four Purusharthas or aims of life- Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. He is of the opinion that, ‘the theory of Purushartha thus seeks to co-ordinate material desires and spiritual life. It also tries to satisfy the sex of instinct in man his love of power and property, his thirst for an artistic and cultural life, his hunger for reunion with paramatman. It comprehends life as a whole, its hopes and aspirations, its acquisitions and enjoyment, its sublimation and spiritualization”

It is clear that Purushartha, according to Hindu Sastras, is the basis of Human life and it is to be regarded as basis on which the life of a man rotates. It is an amalgam of this worldliness. It coordinates the activities of a man for the realization of spirituality as well as for the maintenance of day to day life. The theory of Purushartha thus covers the total life of man. It finds concrete expression through the Ashrama system.

Different Purusharthas

There are four Purusharthas or aims of life namely Dharma., Artha, Kama and Moksha.

1. Dharma

The word Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhri’ which means to hold together or to preserve. Hence, the social implication of Dharma as a principle to maintain the stability of the society is brought out in various classical Hindu texts.

Dharma is so called because it protects all. Dharma preserves all that iscreated. Dharma, then, is surely that principle which is capable of preserving the universe. Dharma is for the welfare of mankind. It protects and preserves all human beings. Hence, Hindu view of Dharma is that it is the force of power which protects man from all kinds of dangers.

K.M Kapadia is of the view that Dharma provides a link between Artha and Kama. According to him, “Dharma is knowing that Kama and Artha are means and not ends “ He believes that if a person devotes all his energies to the satisfaction of basic urges then life becomes undesirable and even dangerous. Therefore, some power or force is required to regulate and control mankind. Dharma provides direction to the acquisitive and emotional drives in man and by enjoying life in this manner; Dharma brings about harmony between temporal interest and spiritual freedom. It provides a code of conduct through which man has to conduct his day-to-day life.

2. Artha

Artha means the economic and the material aspects of life. According to Zimmer, “it includes the whole range of tangible objects that can be possessed, enjoyed and lost and which are required in daily life for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family income and discharge of religious duties.” According to P. N. Prabhu, “Artha is to be understood as referring to all the means necessary for acquiring worldly prosperity such as wealth or power”.

According to К. M. Kapadia, “Artha refers to “the acquisitive instinct in man and signifies his acquisition, enjoyment of wealth and all that it connotes”. The old Hindu thinkers allowed the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate action.

Apart from this, Artha is desirable because it unfolds the spirituality of man only when he is not economically starved. A man has to maintain a household and perform the Dharma as a householder. Hence, Artha is necessary for the maintenance of life and the maintenance of Dharma.

3. Kama

Kama refers to all the desires in man for the enjoyment and satisfaction of the senses including sex and the drives to which man is prone to.

N. Prabhu writs, the term “Kama” refers to “the native impulses, instincts and desires of man; his natural mental tendencies, and finds its equivalent, we may say in the use of the English terms, ‘desires, ‘needs,’ basic or primary motives “According to him, the collective use of the term Kama would refer to the totality of the innate desires and drives of man.

Hence it is clear that Kama refers to the basic impulses and desires of man and it may also be used in a broader sense to include the motivation of man which is socially acquired. Hence, due importance is also given on Artha and Kama. These, when pursued in accordance with Dharma are the right functions of a man.

According to К. M. Kapadia, “Kama refers to the instinctive and emotional life of man, and provides for the satisfaction of his sex drives and aesthetic urges. Kama as the satisfaction of the instinctive life is recognized as one of the aims of marriage, along with Dharma and procreation”. Sex refers to procreation and it is regarded as the lowest aim of marriage. According to old classical Hindu thought, Kama does not mean sex life alone. It means emotional and aesthetic life also.

Another belief of Hindu thinkers is that it is necessary to satisfy the basic desires; their suppression will ultimately be a great source of hindrance in the attainment of salvation. Hence it is necessary to allow the satisfaction of sex for the healthy development of personality.

The theory Purushartha does not prohibit physical pleasure. On the contrary, Kama is prescribed for the development of inner and outer life of man.

The good of man consists in the harmonious co- ordination of the three, “Hence, it is clear that the well-being of man depends upon the harmonious blending of these three – Dharma, Artha and Kama. These three combined together are called Trivarga.

4. Moksha

The ultimate end of life is to attain Moksha. When a person performs the above mentioned three Purusharthas he can think of salvation. According Kapadia, “Moksha represents the end of life, the realization of an inner spirituality in man. Some thinkers believe that Moksha is the most important Purusartha and remaining three are only means while Moksha is end in itself.

There had been confusion about the concept of Varna and it is identified with Jati although Varna is far from having the same meaning as the Jati. The Varna system was conceived not as caste but as a class organization.

Varna is from the root ‘vri’ which means choice according to inherent traits. Varna seems to have been the division of the society in the Rig Vedic times when there were four classes. These classes were Brahmin. Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. It is found from the Vedic literature that Varna meant the color of the skin according to which society was divided into four classes. These classes were based on the distinction and differences between the white or the Aryans and the black or the Dravidians.

Another view point means to acceptor to profess. In this senses Varna represents the occupational groups into which Hindu society was divided. So we can have at least two interpretations of the concept of Varna: First Varna has been used as colour of the skin and it been means the classification of society on the racial differences: second, Varna means the division of society on the occupational differences. The functional of each Varna were specially laid down.

Varna in Classical Literature

There are passages in Vedic literature regarding the Varnas. There is a hymn in ‘Purusha Sukta’ of Rig Veda which says that the Brahaman Varna represents the mouth of the Purusha or the universal man, Kshatriya Varna forms his arms, the Vaishya forms his thighs and the Sudra, his feet. The division into four Varnas is related to the duties assigned to each Varna. Accordingly, each Varna had to pursue a particular vocation. It appears that the original part of the Vedas did not know about the caste system and the caste system came latter on. In Rig Vedic society there was no restriction on an individual regarding a particular occupation. Persons belonging to a particular Varna could accept and practise any profession they liked. A Brahmin could take the profession of a physician. Similarly, there was no restriction regarding food, drinking or diet among Varnas. Besides, there were no restrictions on inter-marriage between the different classes of the Aryan race. Hence, the Varnas w’ere “open classes”. The classes were not water­tight compartments. These classes were based on individual traits and not on birth.

Views of Sociologists on Varna

View of J. H. Hutton

Hutton says that the concept of Varna is often confused with the concept of caste or Jati although caste and Varna have different meanings. The Varna seems to have been originally the four classes. In Vedic times, the line of demarcation between the various classes was not considered essential. A Kshatriya could become a Brahmana. At the time of Vedic invasion, the four Varnas represented a division of society into four classes, namely the Brahmanas who acted as priests, the Kshatriyas who were rulers, the Vaishyas who acted as priests, the Kshatriyas who were the servant class. Certain colours are associated with the four Varnas. The Brahmanas have white colour, the Kshatriyas red, the Vaishyas yellow and Sudras black.

View of G. S. Ghurye

Varna means distinction. In the beginning we find that there are two classes in Hindu society, the Aryas and the Dasas. Ghurye has written, “In the Rig Veda, the word Varna is never applied to any one of the classes (Brahmana, Kshatriya etc.). It is only the Arya Varna or the Aryan people that is contrasted with Dasa Varna. The Satapatha Brahmana, on the other hand, describes the four classes as four Varnas. Varna means colour and it is in this sense that the word seems to have been employed in contrasting the Arya and the Dasa, referring to their fair and dark colour respectively. He is of the opinion that the distinction between the Arya and Dasa was latter responsible for the distinction between Arya and Sudra.

In the Vedic age we find the division of society into three classes, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya. Only in the later Vedic period, a mention has been made about the fourth Varna of Sudras. In the Vidic age, there were only four Varnas and untouchables had no place in the Varna system.

The three classes of the early portion of the Rig Veda were latter solidified into four groups, more or less compact, with three or four other groups separately mentioned.

According to Ghurye, the term Varna has been used to denote the colour scheme of the different sections of the society. Since the Aryans came from outside India and conquered the indigenous population in India, they occupied a higher social status and the people who were defeated got the lowest position in the society. In this way, Ghurye has adopted the racial theory of the origin of the Varna system.

View of ML N. Srinivas

Prof. Srinivas is of the opinion that the caste system is a very complex organization and it should not be identified with the Varna system. There are only four Varnas but there are above three thousand castes. The distinction between the caste and Varna system is that the caste is a local group, whereas the Varna system has an all India basis. Similarly, there is no mobility in the caste system, whereas the Varna system is mobile. According to him, the Varna system conceals the diversity between the caste system of one region and that of an other.

Different Varnas

Although the different Varnas were open classes and were based on the individual traits, there were distinctions between various Varnas on different grounds. The distinctions between the four Varnas can be shown on many grounds. The four Varnas were addressed in different ways and different degrees of politeness. For example, when»welcoming a person, different terms were used, namely. Agachehha, Adrava etc. Similarly, the Gayatri mantra was to be recited by the three Varnas in different ways. The Brahmin started the mantra with ‘Bhuh’, the Kshatriya with Bhubah and the Vaishya with Swah.

We also find distinction between Varnas on the basis of type of wood for sprinkling purposes as a sacrifice. The Kshatriya us Nyagrodha wood and the Vaishya uses Aswattha wood. In this manner, the distinction between the different Varnas in terms of different rites and privileges can be seen in the Rig Vedic literature to Brahminic literature, that is to say, transition of society from the Vedic age to the Samhitas, from the Brahminic to the Upanishadic age.

As far as the Sudras were concerned, they still held the position of the menial labour or slave because they were still non-Aryans. In the late period, the four Varnas have been mentioned. Although the Sudra was accepted as belonging to the fourth Varna, he was not quite free from disability because he could not perform a sacrifice which the higher Varnas did.

The Origin of the Varnas

There are different theories regarding the origin of Varna. We shall mention some of them.

1. The Theory of Parasara

According to Parasara, the vVhole of mankind has emerged from the Brahmana. It is the law of nature that the children share the common nature of their parents and therefore all the men have been of the same Varna when they were created. The question arises as to why there is distinction between the various Varnas. Parasara replies. It is true that the offspring begotton by one is none else than the begetter himself, but if the soil and the seed are inferior, the offspring born of these will be inferior. Parasara says that mankind has originated from the great Brahmana himself but all sections of society did not emerge from the same parts of the body. The Brahmana have emerged from the mouth, the Kshatriya from arms, the Vaishya from thighs, and the Sudra from the feet. Originally, the four Varnas were created and the other classes were the result of inter – mixture. Parasara has given a list of fourteen subclasses.

2. Theory of Mahabharata

In the Mahabharata, the origin of the Varna has been described from the various parts of the body of the creator. The Brahmana originated from the mouth of the Brahma or the creater, the Kshatriya from his arms, the Sudra-from his feeUhe Brahmana was created to preserve the Vedas, the Kshatriya to rule the world and to protect it, the Vaishyas to support the other two Varnas and himself by agriculture, and the Sudras to serve the other three Varnas.

3. Theory of Manu

According to Manu Smiriti, the four Varnas have been created from the limbs of the creator. To protect the universe, different duties and occupations were assigned to the different Varnas. Brahmana Varna has been regarded as the supreme creation of God. Manu has asserted that the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Sudra are the only Varnas in existence and there is no Pancham Varna.

The Indian social system rests on three pillars: the caste system, the joint family system, and the village community. Among these, the caste system appears to be the most significant feature of the Hindu Society due to its interdependence upon the social, economic and political systems. In fact, the Hindu Society has been described as the caste society par excellence. The caste system in India is in vogue from time immemorial.

As a traditional basis of stratification, caste is a distinctive category in the Indian social system. Though it had its beginning in the Hindu philosophy of four varnas corresponding to four functional divisions, it has resulted in the perpetuation of several caste groups among the Hindus.

Of course, every society is caste-ridden and the caste system exists even among the most advanced societies of the world, in one form or the other. But the irony is that the caste system became so rigid in this peninsular sub-continent of India that its impact was felt even by other religious communities, such as the Muslims and the Christians, and its regeneration became a subject of criticism throughout the world.

The division of people into various caste also existed among the Egyptians. With them, as with the Hindus, the law assigned an occupation to each individual, which was handed down from father to the son. Apart from this, from the available records one can come to the conclusion that the caste system also existed among the Mexicans, the Persians, the Peruvians, the Medes, the Iberians and many other societies.

Before we discuss the caste system in the Indian society in detail, we should look into some of the basic principles underlying the system of stratification. Social stratification stands for the placement of individuals and groups on the basis of social differences in income, occupation, status etc. The term denotes an arrangement of people in a society into various layers on the basis of social status.

Social status may either be ascribed (given at birth) or achieved. Caste in India is an ascriptive group. It is a hereditary group. Caste is a community as it is based on kinship and primordial affinity. As an institution, “caste illustrates the spirit of comprehensive synthesis-characteristic of the Hindu mind with its faith in the collaboration of races and the cooperation of cultures.”

The term ‘caste’ is derived from a Portuguese word ‘caste’ meaning breed, race or group. The castes are ascriptive groups. Thus basically caste refers to people belonging to the same breed. An individual is born into a caste, and this status is usually permanent. Though the elements of castes are found outside India, it is only in India that numerous castes are found. Apart from general features like endogamy, castes also have specific features which are the outcome of regional, linguistic or other variables.

The term ‘caste’ has been defined differently by different people. According to G.S. Ghurye “Castes are small and complete social worlds in themselves marked off definitely from one another though subsisting within the larger society.” According to MacIver “when status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any hope of change in it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”

The caste system in India can be viewed from two angles: first, from the structural point of view and secondly, from the cultural angle. As regards the structural aspect of caste it is explained by accepting it as a general principle of stratification and caste, as a cultural system, is understood in terms of prominence of ideas of pollution-purity and notions of hierarchy, segregation, and corporations. The structural view explains the stratification as a universal reality and caste is, therefore, an aspect of this reality.

A.W. Green, while defining caste says: “caste is a system of stratification in which mobility, movement up and down in the status ladder, at least ideally, may not occur.” Sociologists have given so many broad and varying definitions of caste that it is more or less impossible to arrive at a common definition. It has also become still more difficult because caste is a very old institution-an institution that has always added something to it.

Ethic is a “system of moral principles, rules and conduct.” Ethics is a “science of morals.” The words ethics has emerged from Latin ‘Ethicus’ or in Greek ‘Ethicos’.

The origin of these two words is from ‘ethos’ meaning character. Character unlike behaviour is an intrinsic or basic factor which derives from inner most. Ethics in simple words is a treatise or science of morals, moral principles and social conduct rules.

Nature of Ethics refers to the normative standards of behaviour pertaining to the ideal code of conduct of human beings. This is substantially different from that of our feeling.

The ethical choices get affected significantly by our feelings. Highly developed habits of some people make them feel guilty after doing something wrong while others might seem unperturbed by any form of wrongdoing.

The nature of ethics also cannot be associated with the influence of religion. Ethics is like a common rule which is applicable to everybody irrespective of his/her religion. Most religions advocate a high level of ethical standards.

Nature of Ethics refers to the normative standards of behaviour pertaining to the ideal code of conduct of human beings. This is substantially different from that of our feeling.

The ethical choices get affected significantly by our feelings. Highly developed habits of some people make them feel guilty after doing something wrong while others might seem unperturbed by any form of wrongdoing.

The nature of ethics also cannot be associated with the influence of religion. Ethics is like a common rule which is applicable to everybody irrespective of his/her religion. Most religions advocate a high level of ethical standards.