Tag: organizational culture

Human resource planning is used by organisations to ensure that they have the right number and the right kind of people at the right place and at the right time. Where this process is carried out properly, it brings maximum long-run benefits to both the organisation and the individual employee.

Human Resource Planning is the planning of Human Resources. It is also called manpower planning/ personnel planning/ employment planning. It is only after Human Resource Planning that the Human Resource department can initiate the recruitment and selection process. Therefore, Human Resource Planning is a sub-system of organisational planning.

Definitions “Human Resource Planning is a strategy for the acquisition, utilisation, improvement and preservation of an organisation’s human resource” – Y.C. Moushell

“Human Resource Planning is a process of forecasting an organisation’s future demand for human resource and supply of right type of people in right numbers” – J.Chennly.K

Scope of Human Resource Planning

• It keeps the record of current manpower with the organization.
• Assessing the future requirements of manpower for organization objectives.
• To make the manpower recruitment plans.
• To phase out the surplus employees.
• To make a layout of training programme for different categories of employees.

Need for Human Resource Planning      

• Shortage of Skills: These days we find shortage of skills in people. So it is necessary to plan for such skilled people much in advance than when we actually need them. Non-availability of skilled people when and where they are needed is an important factor which prompts sound Human Resource Planning.
• Frequent Labour Turnover: Human Resource Planning is essential because of frequent labour turnover which is unavoidable by all means. Labour turnover arises because of discharges, marriages, promotion, transfer etc. which causes a constant ebb and flow in the workforce in the organisation.
• Changing needs of technology: Due to changes in technology and new techniques of production, existing employees need to be trained or new blood injected into an organisation.
• Identify areas of surplus or shortage of personnel: Manpower planning is needed in order to identify areas with a surplus of personnel or areas in which there is a shortage of personnel. If there is a surplus, it can be re-deployed, or if there is a shortage new employee can be procured.
• Changes in organisation design and structure: Due to changes in organisation structure and design we need to plan the required human resources right from the beginning.

Approaches

On the theoretical plane there are three options to any educational planner. The first option is to treat the education as consumption goods and demand for education as an aggregate of individual consumer’s demand schooling, and to provide the facilities for education and training according. The second option is to view education an investment goods, evaluate the investments in education at par with investment in education with the rate of return on investment in physical capital. The third option is to considered skilled manpower as basic inputs to the production goods and services within the economy; assess the skill requirements to achieve any predetermined economic growth target, and to gear the expansion of educational system to provide the needed education and training.

There are three approaches to educational planning:

• Social demand approach
• Rate of return approach, and
• Manpower requirement approaches.

Social Demand Approach: The social demand approach lies on the assessment of society’s requirement for education. In principles, it is an aggregate of individuals demand for education in respect of all individuals within the society. It is not always possible particularly in large societies, to assess individual demand for education. In practice, therefore, social demand approach relies on a projection of past trends in demographic aspects of population and the enrollment at the different levels of education.

Social demand approach is thus capable of revealing the number of students with differently types of professional preparations that may be a given target date, based on past experiences. Projections of social demand for education are contingent upon given levels of:

• Income of educated people,
• Taste and references of household for education,
• Demographic characteristics such as fertility and mortality,
• Direct costs of education,
• Student grants, and
• Existing standard of admission to various levels of education.

Added to these constraints, there are the perennial problems associated with the data base on demographic aspects at disaggregated levels such as districts, blocks and villages and data on wastage and stagnation in education, and intensity of utilization of existing educational facilities. Social demand approach thus suffers from the difficulties associated with any futurological exercise.

Rate of Return Approaches: Critics of social demand approach argue that the decision to choose more or less of education, beyond a legal school-learning age, is made by an individual who attaches a positive value to the present and the future benefits of education. Aggregate of individuals demand for education, which is constructed the social demand for education, should then be based exaggerate of individuals assessment of benefits of education-reflecting the social benefits.

This brings us the rate of return approach to education:

Rate of return approach looks upon education as a contributor to productivity and this sense, it is expected to facilitate investment decisions in education whether or not the students should undergo more schooling, or whether or not the state should invest more and expand educational facilities.

Like in the rate of return-on-investment analysis, rate of return on investment in education is used to expand educational facilities until schooling equalizes.

• On the one hand yield of investment in different types of education, and
• On the other hand, yield of investment in education vis-à-vis other sectors of economy.

Manpower Requirement Approach: The fundamental axioms of manpower requirements approach is that there is a definite link between the education and economic growth and that lack of skilled manpower in required number impedes growth. In this approach an attempt is made to forecast future requirements of educated manpower to fulfill a future target of Gross National Product (GNP) or specified targets of industrial production. Based on the forecasts of educated manpower requirement over a specified period, the planners would then indicate the directions of development of the educational sector over the same specific period.

The basic steps involved in this exercise are as under:

• Anticipating the directions and the magnitude of development of each individual sectors of the economy.
• Evolving norms of the employing manpower in each individual sector keeping the view the
• Technological options Present as well as future for each sector of the economy.
• Translating the physical targets for the development of each individual sector into the manpower requirement using the sector specific manpower norms.
• Estimating the educational; equivalents of the manpower requirement.
• Analyzing the implications of estimates of educated manpower requirements for educational development, based on assumptions regarding the enrollment rates, transitions probability and wastage and the stagnation rates at each level of education.

Limitations of the Manpower Requirement Approach:

The first limitation assumes that the educated manpower of different types is used in fixed proportions and that there no substitutions possibilities among the various categories of educated manpower.

The second limitation is that it postulates a definite link between an industrial task and an educational level. Prices, either in terms of cost of producing educated manpower or in terms of salaries and wages of educational people do not play any role in matching demand with supplies of educated manpower in this brand of educational planning. This makes the good sense if formal education and training is the only means of producing educated manpower. If there are alternative ways of producing a given category of skilled manpower, then prices play a significant role and the manpower requirements approach fails to take cognizance of this respect. In the Indian context, even in the case of highly skilled occupation where graduate level engineers are required, it has been observed that over 30 per cent of the manpower do not have the basic minimum qualification. They have reached these levels through on-the-job training and such other informal training, in the requisite skills. Such persons are categorized as “practical” and these practical are to be found in every occupation.

The crucial information in all forecasting exercises is the assumptions about the distant unknown future. Any error in judgment, in this regard, will seriously affect manpower balances at a later date resulting in either excess supply or excess demand. In the context of educational planning, excess demand is relatively easier to manage. Excess supply, on the other hand, leads to serious economic and sociological problems which are often difficult to deal with.

Human Resource Planning is done at various levels for their own purposes by various institutions. There are various levels of human resource planning in an industrial enterprise:

• National Level
• Sectoral Level
• Industry Level
• Unit Level
• Departmental Level
• Job Level

1. HRP at National Level:

HRP at the national level helps to plan for educational facilities, health care facilities, agricultural and industrial development, and employment plans etc. The government of the country plans for human resources at the national level.

2. Sectoral Level:

Central and state governments also plan human resource requirements at sectoral level. It tries to satisfy needs of some particular sectors like Agriculture Sector, Industrial Sector and Service Sector.

3. Industry Level:

This level of planning is done to suit manpower needs of a particular industry such as Engineering, Heavy Industries, Paper Industry, Consumer Goods Industries. Public Utility Industries, Textile, Cement/Chemical Industries etc.

4. HRP at the Unit Level:

HR Planning at the company level is based on the estimation of human resource needs of the particular company in question. It is based on the business plan of the company.

5. Departmental Level:

This level of planning is done to suit the manpower needs of a particular department in a company e.g., Marketing Department, Production Department. Finance Department, etc.

5. Job Level:

This level of planning fulfills the human resource needs of a particular job family within department. For example, the requirement of number of sales executes in the marketing department.

Need for HRP at Macro Level

Major reasons for the emphasis on HRP at macro level include:

Technological Changes: The myriad changes in production technologies, marketing methods and management techniques have been extensive and rapid. Their effect has been profound on job contents and job contexts. These changes cause problems relating to redundancies, retraining and redeployment. All these suggest the need to plan manpower needs intensively and systematically.

Organizational Changes: In the turbulent environment marked by cyclical fluctuations and discontinuities, the nature and pace of changes in organizational environment, activities and structures affect manpower requirements and require strategic considerations.

Employment-Unemployment Situation: Though in general the number of educated unemployed is on the rise, there is acute shortage for a variety of skills. This emphasises the need for more effective recruitment and retaining people.

Demographic Changes: The changing profile of the work force in terms of age, sex, litercy, technical inputs and social background have implications for HRP.

Skill Shortages: Unemployment does not mean that the labour market is a buyer’s market. Organizations have generally become more complex and require a wide range of specialist skills that are rare and scarce. Problems arise when such employees leave.

Legislative Controls: The days of executive fiat and ‘hire and fire’ policies are gone. Now legislation makes it difficult to reduce the size of an organization quickly and cheaply. It is easy to increase but difficult to shed the fat in terms of the numbers employed because of recent changes in labour law relating to lay-offs and closures. Those responsible for managing manpower must look far ahead and thus attempt to foresee manpower problems.

Governmental Influences: Government control and changes in legislation with regard to affirmative action for disadvantaged groups, working conditions and hours of work, restrictions on women and child employment, casual and contract labout, etc. have stimulated the organizations to become involved in systematic HRP.

Impact of Pressure Groups: Pressure groups such as unions, politicians and persons displaced from land by location of giant enterprises have been raising contradictory pressures on enterprise management such as internal recruitment and promotions, preference to employees’ children, displace persons, sons of the soil etc.

Lead Time: The long lead time is necessary in the selection process and for training and deployment of the employee to handle new knowledge and skills successfully.

Systems Concept: The spread of systems thinking and the advent of the macro computer as part of the on-going revolution in information technology which emphasises planning and newer ways of handling voluminous personnel records.

Human Resource Audit is a systematic and comprehensive review of an organization’s HR policies, practices, procedures, and strategies. Its purpose is to evaluate the effectiveness, compliance, and alignment of HR functions with organizational goals and legal requirements. The audit identifies strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement, ensuring the organization’s HR management is efficient and up-to-date. It covers various aspects such as recruitment, training, performance management, compensation, employee relations, and compliance with labor laws. By providing actionable insights, a Human Resource Audit helps organizations enhance their HR practices, reduce risks, and foster a productive and legally compliant workplace.

Need of Human Resource Audit:

• Compliance with Labor Laws

An HR audit ensures adherence to local, national, and international labor laws and regulations. It reviews policies, contracts, and practices to confirm compliance, reducing the risk of legal penalties and reputational damage.

• Identifying Strengths and Weaknesses

The audit evaluates existing HR policies, practices, and strategies, identifying areas of strength that can be leveraged and weaknesses that require improvement. This enables organizations to maintain effective HR management.

• Aligning HR with Organizational Goals

HR audits assess whether HR activities align with the organization’s strategic objectives. This alignment ensures that human resource efforts contribute directly to business growth and success.

• Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness

By reviewing HR processes such as recruitment, training, and performance management, an audit identifies inefficiencies and recommends solutions to enhance productivity and employee satisfaction.

• Managing Risks and Mitigating issues

An HR audit helps detect potential risks, such as non-compliance, outdated policies, or high employee turnover. Proactively addressing these risks prevents long-term problems and ensures smooth operations.

• Enhancing Employee Satisfaction

The audit evaluates employee engagement and satisfaction levels. By identifying gaps in employee welfare and communication, it helps create a supportive workplace that fosters loyalty and reduces turnover.

• Ensuring Data Integrity and Security

HR audits review the accuracy and security of employee records and HR systems. This ensures that sensitive information is managed appropriately and reduces the risk of data breaches.

Objectives of Human Resource Audit:

• Assessing Compliance with Laws and Policies

The primary objective of an HR audit is to ensure compliance with labor laws, regulations, and internal policies. It examines employment contracts, workplace practices, and policy documents to identify gaps and avoid legal risks, penalties, or reputational harm.

• Evaluating HR Strategies and Alignment

An HR audit ensures that HR strategies and processes align with the organization’s mission, vision, and objectives. By reviewing recruitment, training, and performance management practices, it identifies whether these efforts effectively support long-term business goals.

• Enhancing HR Efficiency and Effectiveness

The audit seeks to measure the efficiency of HR operations and their impact on overall organizational performance. It identifies redundancies, inefficiencies, or bottlenecks in HR workflows and recommends strategies for optimization and resource allocation.

• Identifying Strengths and Weaknesses

One of the critical objectives of an HR audit is to pinpoint strengths that can be leveraged and weaknesses that need improvement. This analysis provides actionable insights to enhance HR practices and policies, ensuring they remain competitive and relevant.

• Improving Employee Experience

An HR audit evaluates the employee lifecycle, from hiring and onboarding to engagement, retention, and exit processes. By identifying areas for improvement, the audit helps create a positive work environment that enhances employee satisfaction and reduces turnover.

• Supporting Risk Management

An HR audit identifies potential risks, such as non-compliance, inadequate record-keeping, or workforce mismanagement. It provides solutions to mitigate these risks, ensuring the organization operates smoothly and avoids costly disruptions.

Process of Human Resource Audit:

The process of conducting a Human Resource (HR) Audit involves a systematic, comprehensive review of HR practices, policies, and procedures to evaluate their effectiveness and alignment with organizational goals. The process typically follows several stages, from planning and data collection to analysis and reporting.

1. Planning and Defining Objectives

The first step in an HR audit is to clearly define the objectives and scope of the audit. This involves identifying specific areas of HR to be reviewed (e.g., recruitment, training, compensation, compliance, etc.) and determining the key performance indicators (KPIs) that will be used to assess HR effectiveness. The planning stage ensures that the audit is focused on areas that directly impact organizational goals and performance.

2. Data Collection

Data collection is the next critical phase of the audit. This involves gathering relevant information from various sources, such as:

• HR records: Employee files, contracts, compensation details, and performance reviews.
• Policies and Procedures: Current HR policies, employee handbooks, training manuals, and compliance documents.
• Employee Feedback: Surveys, interviews, or focus groups to gather insights into employee satisfaction, engagement, and organizational culture.
• Compliance Documents: Legal and regulatory records to ensure adherence to labor laws and industry standards.

The goal is to collect comprehensive data to evaluate all aspects of HR operations.

3. Evaluation of Current HR Practices

During this phase, the collected data is analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of HR functions against industry standards and best practices. The HR audit team looks at:

• Compliance with legal requirements: Ensuring that employment laws, tax laws, and health and safety regulations are followed.
• Alignment with organizational goals: Evaluating whether HR strategies support the organization’s mission and objectives.
• Employee engagement and satisfaction: Assessing the employee experience, from recruitment to retention.
• HR process efficiency: Analyzing recruitment, training, performance management, and compensation processes for effectiveness and cost-efficiency.

4. Identifying Gaps and Areas for Improvement

After evaluating current HR practices, the audit team identifies gaps, inefficiencies, or areas of non-compliance. These can:

• Outdated policies or procedures
• Gaps in employee training or development
• Inefficient recruitment practices
• Non-compliance with labor laws
• Lack of alignment between HR functions and organizational goals
• Low employee engagement or satisfaction

This stage provides valuable insights into what is working well and where improvements are needed.

5. Reporting and Recommendations

Once the audit is complete, the findings are compiled into a detailed report. The report includes:

• Key findings: An overview of the audit’s results, highlighting strengths, weaknesses, and areas of concern.
• Actionable recommendations: Specific, practical recommendations to improve HR policies, practices, or processes.
• Strategic recommendations: Suggestions for aligning HR practices more closely with organizational goals, improving employee satisfaction, or mitigating risks.
• Legal compliance: Any identified compliance issues and how to address them.

This report serves as a roadmap for HR management to take corrective actions.

6. Implementing Changes and Monitoring

Based on the audit findings and recommendations, the organization takes steps to implement the suggested changes. This could involve revising HR policies, improving training programs, addressing compliance issues, or realigning HR strategies with business goals. After implementation, ongoing monitoring is essential to ensure that the changes are effectively integrated and yield the desired results.

7. Follow-Up and Re-Audit

The final step involves conducting follow-up reviews and re-audits to assess whether the changes have been successfully implemented and whether further improvements are necessary. This ensures that HR practices evolve with changing business needs, regulatory requirements, and industry trends.

Areas of Human Resource Audit:

1. Recruitment and Staffing

This area examines the organization’s hiring practices to ensure that the recruitment process is efficient, fair, and aligned with the organization’s needs. The audit looks at:

• Job descriptions and specifications
• Recruitment strategies (advertising, sourcing)
• Selection processes (interviews, testing)
• Adherence to diversity and inclusion policies
• Onboarding and orientation procedures

The goal is to ensure that the organization attracts, selects, and retains the right talent efficiently.

2. Training and Development

The audit assesses the effectiveness of employee development programs and their alignment with organizational goals. Key areas of evaluation include:

• Employee training needs analysis
• Design and delivery of training programs
• Career development and succession planning
• Employee skill development initiatives
• Learning management systems (LMS) usage

The aim is to ensure that training initiatives contribute to employee growth and enhance organizational capability.

3. Compensation and Benefits

This area examines the organization’s compensation structures, ensuring they are competitive, equitable, and legally compliant. The audit evaluates:

• Salary and wage structures
• Incentive and bonus programs
• Benefits (healthcare, retirement plans, leave policies)
• Pay equity and fairness
• Compliance with compensation laws and regulations

The goal is to ensure that employees are fairly compensated and that the organization remains competitive in attracting and retaining talent.

4. Performance Management

This area focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of the performance management system. Key components reviewed include:

• Goal-setting processes
• Performance appraisals and feedback mechanisms
• Alignment of performance metrics with organizational goals
• Employee recognition and rewards systems
• Coaching and mentoring programs

The audit ensures that performance management systems are motivating employees and contributing to organizational success.

5. Employee Relations and Engagement

The audit assesses the state of employee relations and engagement within the organization. It includes reviewing:

• Employee communication channels (surveys, town halls)
• Disciplinary and grievance handling processes
• Conflict resolution mechanisms
• Employee engagement and satisfaction levels
• Retention strategies

The aim is to foster a positive workplace culture, minimize turnover, and enhance employee loyalty.

6. Legal Compliance

An essential part of any HR audit, this area ensures that the organization complies with labor laws, employment regulations, and industry standards. The audit checks:

• Compliance with local, state, and federal labor laws
• Equal employment opportunity (EEO) compliance
• Occupational health and safety (OHS) regulations
• Employee record-keeping requirements
• Anti-discrimination and harassment policies

This area minimizes legal risks and protects the organization from potential lawsuits or penalties.

7. Health and Safety

The audit evaluates the organization’s health and safety policies and practices to ensure employee well-being. This includes:

• Workplace safety programs and protocols
• Health insurance and wellness programs
• Compliance with safety regulations (e.g., OSHA)
• Emergency preparedness plans
• Mental health and stress management initiatives

Ensuring a safe and healthy work environment is critical to reducing workplace injuries and improving employee morale.

8. Employee Benefits Administration

This area reviews the administration of employee benefits programs, ensuring that employees have access to competitive and compliant benefits. The audit looks at:

• Benefit options and enrollment processes
• Employee communications about benefits
• Compliance with benefits-related laws (e.g., ERISA, ACA)
• Cost-effectiveness and sustainability of benefits programs

The objective is to provide valuable benefits that attract and retain employees while maintaining cost-efficiency.

9. Organizational Structure and HR Planning

The audit assesses the alignment of the organizational structure with business goals and identifies the effectiveness of HR planning. Key points include:

• Role clarity and reporting structures
• Workforce planning and forecasting
• HR budget allocation and resource management
• Organizational change management processes

This ensures that the HR function is well-structured to support the organization’s long-term strategy.

10. Technology and HR Information Systems (HRIS)

The audit evaluates the use and efficiency of technology in HR management. Key areas include:

• Integration and functionality of HR software systems (e.g., HRIS, payroll systems)
• Data security and privacy compliance
• Automation of HR processes (recruitment, payroll, performance management)
• Use of data analytics in HR decision-making

This ensures that HR technology supports organizational efficiency, enhances data-driven decision-making, and complies with data protection regulations.

An interview is a structured conversation between an employer and a candidate aimed at evaluating the candidate’s suitability for a specific job role. It allows the employer to assess the candidate’s skills, qualifications, experience, and personality, while also giving the candidate a chance to learn more about the organization and the position. Interviews can be conducted in various formats, including one-on-one, panel, or virtual. The process typically includes questions related to the candidate’s background, technical expertise, and behavioral traits to determine if they align with the job requirements and company culture.

Personal interview

Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions are asked personally directly to the respondent. For this, a researcher can have a guide online surveys to take note of the answers. A researcher can design his/her survey in such a way that they take notes of the comments or points of view that stands out from the interviewee.

Advantage:

• More complete answers can be obtained if there is doubt on both sides or a particular information is detected that is remarkable.
• When the interviewees and respondents are face-to-face, there is a way to adapt the questions if this is not understood.
• The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the interviewee’s body language at the time of asking the questions and taking notes about it.
• Higher response rate.

Disadvantages:

• Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling an appointment in workplaces or going from house to house and not finding anyone.
• They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee, since they may be self-conscious and not answer truthfully.
• They are time-consuming and extremely expensive.
• Therefore, many interviews are conducted in public places, such as shopping centers or parks. There are even consumer studies that take advantage of these sites to conduct interviews or surveys and give incentives, gifts, coupons, in short; There are great opportunities for online research in shopping centers.
• Among the advantages of conducting these types of interviews is that the respondents will have more fresh information if the interview is conducted in the context and with the appropriate stimuli, so that researchers can have data from their experience at the scene of the events, immediately and first hand. The interviewer can use an online survey through a mobile device that will undoubtedly facilitate the entire process.

Focused group

A focus group is qualitative research because it asks participants for open-ended responses conveying thoughts or feelings. The other prominent research type is quantitative research. This is more data-driven research that uses surveys or questionnaires to derive numerical-based statistics or percentages.

With qualitative research, researchers seek more open and complete perspectives on the brand or product. However, more general interpretations and uses of the research are necessary, since you cannot as easily break down the research into facts.

Steps to conduct focus group research

• Recruit the right participants

A researcher must be careful while recruiting participants. Members need adequate knowledge of the topic so that they can add to the conversation.

• Choose a moderator

Your moderator should understand the topic of discussion and possess the following qualities:

• Ensures participation from all members of the group.
• Regulates dominant group members so others may speak.
• Motivates inattentive members through supportive words and positive body language.
• Makes the executive decision to end or continue a discussion should it become too heated.

Verify your moderator doesn’t know any of the participants. Existing relationships between a member and moderator cause bias and can skew your data.

• Record the meeting for future purposes

While conducting a focus group, it is essential to record the sessions or meetings. A researcher can record the discussion through audio or video. You must let participants know you’re planning to record the event and get their consent.

• Write clear discussion guidelines

Before the session starts, it is crucial to write down clear session guidelines. Include key questions, expectations of focus group members, whether you’re recording the discussion, and methods of sharing results. Give out the instructions in advance and request participants to comply with them.

• Conduct the session and generate a report

Once participants understand their role, the moderator leads the focus group survey. You can ask members to fill out a feedback form to collect quantitative data from the event. Use your data and generate reports on the overall findings of your study.

• Use the data to make a plan of action

Share your report with stakeholders and decisionmakers in your organization. A good report helps you design actionable plans to improve products or services according to the focus group feedback. Update focus group members on the changes you make and the results of those changes.

In 1991, marketing and psychological expert Ernest Dichter coined the name “Focus Group.” The term described meetings held with a limited group of participants with the objective of discussion.

• You use a focus group in qualitative research. A group of 6-10 people, usually 8, meet to explore and discuss a topic, such as a new product. The group shares their feedback, opinions, knowledge, and insights about the topic at hand.
• Participants openly share opinions and are free to convince other participants of their ideas.
• The mediator takes notes on the discussion and opinions of group members.
• The right group members affect the results of your research, so it’s vital to be picky when selecting members.

Types of focus groups

• Dual-moderator focus group: There are two moderators for this event. One ensures smooth execution, and the other guarantees the discussion of each question.
• Two-way focus group: A two-way group involves two separate groups having discussions on the topic at different times. As one group conducts their study, the other group observes the discussion. In the end, the group that observed the first session performs their conversation. The second group can use insights gained from watching the first discussion to dive deeper into the topic and offer more perspective.
• Mini focus group: This type of group restricts participants to 4-5 members instead of the usual 6-10.
• Client-involvement focus group: Use this group when clients ask you to conduct a focus group and invite those who ask.
• Participant-moderated focus group: One or more participants provisionally take up the role of moderator.
• Online focus group: These groups employ online mediums to gather opinions and feedback. There are three categories of people in an online focus panel: observer, moderator, and respondent.

Benefits of Focus Groups

A focus group is generally more useful when outcomes of research are very unpredictable and you’re looking for more open feedback rather than comparisons of potential results as in a quantified research method. A focus group also allows consumers to express clear ideas and share feelings that do not typically come out in a quantified survey or paper test. Because of the open conversation among group members, topics and discussions are freer flowing and members can use comments from others to stimulate recall.

Another benefit is that the moderator can observe the dynamics among members of the focus group as they discuss their opinions with each other. In many of these groups, the moderator will leave the room to allow focus group members to communicate with each other without feeling self-conscious. This type of honest commentary can often yield nuggets that you can later use to further refine your marketing strategy and your messaging.

Drawbacks of Focus Groups

“Groupthink” is a primary concern with focus groups. When you bring a group of people together to talk about a brand, the tendency exists for influential group members to affect the expressions of others within the group. Additionally, consumers are often more reluctant to express negative ideas in a face-to-face setting than in a more indirect research format when they know the company is conducting research.

Another major drawback of a focus group is that if you don’t hire a good moderator, it can be difficult to elicit the full range of thoughts, opinions, wants and needs of the group. And if your moderator is weak, some focus group members may not feel comfortable enough in the environment to offer their opinion.

In-depth Interview

As with all data collection methods, including (but not limited to) online surveys, direct mail surveys, email surveys, focus groups, mystery shoppers and so on, there are both advantages and disadvantages of in-depth interviews.

A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

In-Depth Interview Advantages

• Interviewers have greater opportunity to ask follow-up questions, probe for additional information, and circle back to key questions later on in the interview to generate a rich understanding of attitudes, perceptions, motivations, etc.
• Interviewers can establish rapport with participants to make them feel more comfortable, which can generate more insightful responses, especially regarding sensitive topics.
• Interviewers can monitor changes in tone and word choice to gain a deeper understanding. (Note, if the in-depth interview is face-to-face, researchers can also focus on body language.)
• There is a higher quality of sampling compared to some other data collection methods.
• Researchers need fewer participants to glean useful and relevant insights.
• There are none of the potential distractions or peer-pressure dynamics that can sometimes emerge in focus groups.
• Because in-depth interviews can potentially be so insightful, it is possible to identify highly valuable findings quickly.

The design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).

Exploratory questionnaires: If the data to be collected is qualitative or is not to be statistically evaluated, it may be that no formal questionnaire is needed. For example, in interviewing the female head of the household to find out how decisions are made within the family when purchasing breakfast foodstuffs, a formal questionnaire may restrict the discussion and prevent a full exploration of the woman’s views and processes. Instead, one might prepare a brief guide, listing perhaps ten major open-ended questions, with appropriate probes/prompts listed under each.

Formal standardised questionnaires: If the researcher is looking to test and quantify hypotheses and the data is to be analysed statistically, a formal standardised questionnaire is designed. Such questionnaires are generally characterised by:

• Prescribed wording and order of questions, to ensure that each respondent receives the same stimuli
• Prescribed definitions or explanations for each question, to ensure interviewers handle questions consistently and can answer respondents’ requests for clarification if they occur
• Prescribed response format, to enable rapid completion of the questionnaire during the interviewing process.

Given the same task and the same hypotheses, six different people will probably come up with six different questionnaires that differ widely in their choice of questions, line of questioning, use of open-ended questions and length. There are no hard-and-fast rules about how to design a questionnaire, but there are a number of points that can be borne in mind:

1. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research objectives. This may seem obvious, but many research surveys omit important aspects due to inadequate preparatory work, and do not adequately probe particular issues due to poor understanding. To a certain degree some of this is inevitable. Every survey is bound to leave some questions unanswered and provide a need for further research but the objective of good questionnaire design is to ‘minimise’ these problems.
2. It should obtain the most complete and accurate information possible. The questionnaire designer needs to ensure that respondents fully understand the questions and are not likely to refuse to answer, lie to the interviewer or try to conceal their attitudes. A good questionnaire is organised and worded to encourage respondents to provide accurate, unbiased and complete information.
3. A well-designed questionnaire should make it easy for respondents to give the necessary information and for the interviewer to record the answer, and it should be arranged so that sound analysis and interpretation are possible.
4. It would keep the interview brief and to the point and be so arranged that the respondent(s) remain interested throughout the interview.

Preliminary decisions in questionnaire design

There are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:

1. Decide the information required.
2. Define the target respondents.
3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents.
4. Decide on question content.
5. Develop the question wording.
6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
7. Check the length of the questionnaire.
8. Pre-test the questionnaire.
9. Develop the final survey form.

Deciding on the information required

It should be noted that one does not start by writing questions. The first step is to decide ‘what are the things one needs to know from the respondent in order to meet the survey’s objectives?’ These, as has been indicated in the opening chapter of this textbook, should appear in the research brief and the research proposal.

One may already have an idea about the kind of information to be collected, but additional help can be obtained from secondary data, previous rapid rural appraisals and exploratory research. In respect of secondary data, the researcher should be aware of what work has been done on the same or similar problems in the past, what factors have not yet been examined, and how the present survey questionnaire can build on what has already been discovered. Further, a small number of preliminary informal interviews with target respondents will give a glimpse of reality that may help clarify ideas about what information is required.

Define the target respondents

At the outset, the researcher must define the population about which he/she wishes to generalise from the sample data to be collected. For example, in marketing research, researchers often have to decide whether they should cover only existing users of the generic product type or whether to also include non-users. Secondly, researchers have to draw up a sampling frame. Thirdly, in designing the questionnaire we must take into account factors such as the age, education, etc. of the target respondents.

Choose the methods of reaching target respondents

It may seem strange to be suggesting that the method of reaching the intended respondents should constitute part of the questionnaire design process. However, a moment’s reflection is sufficient to conclude that the method of contact will influence not only the questions the researcher is able to ask but the phrasing of those questions. The main methods available in survey research are:

• Personal interviews
• Group or focus interviews
• Mailed questionnaires
• Telephone interviews.

Within this region the first two mentioned are used much more extensively than the second pair. However, each has its advantages and disadvantages. A general rule is that the more sensitive or personal the information, the more personal the form of data collection should be.

Decide on question content

Researchers must always be prepared to ask, “Is this question really needed?” The temptation to include questions without critically evaluating their contribution towards the achievement of the research objectives, as they are specified in the research proposal, is surprisingly strong. No question should be included unless the data it gives rise to is directly of use in testing one or more of the hypotheses established during the research design.

There are only two occasions when seemingly “redundant” questions might be included:

• Opening questions that are easy to answer and which are not perceived as being “threatening”, and/or are perceived as being interesting, can greatly assist in gaining the respondent’s involvement in the survey and help to establish a rapport.

This, however, should not be an approach that should be overly used. It is almost always the case that questions which are of use in testing hypotheses can also serve the same functions.

• “Dummy” questions can disguise the purpose of the survey and/or the sponsorship of a study. For example, if a manufacturer wanted to find out whether its distributors were giving the consumers or end-users of its products a reasonable level of service, the researcher would want to disguise the fact that the distributors’ service level was being investigated. If he/she did not, then rumours would abound that there was something wrong with the distributor.

Develop the question wording

Survey questions can be classified into three forms, i.e. closed, open-ended and open response-option questions. So far only the first of these, i.e. closed questions has been discussed. This type of questioning has a number of important advantages;

• It provides the respondent with an easy method of indicating his answer – he does not have to think about how to articulate his answer.
• It ‘prompts’ the respondent so that the respondent has to rely less on memory in answering a question.
• Responses can be easily classified, making analysis very straightforward.
• It permits the respondent to specify the answer categories most suitable for their purposes.

Putting questions into a meaningful order and format

Opening questions: Opening questions should be easy to answer and not in any way threatening to THE respondents. The first question is crucial because it is the respondent’s first exposure to the interview and sets the tone for the nature of the task to be performed. If they find the first question difficult to understand, or beyond their knowledge and experience, or embarrassing in some way, they are likely to break off immediately. If, on the other hand, they find the opening question easy and pleasant to answer, they are encouraged to continue.

Question flow: Questions should flow in some kind of psychological order, so that one leads easily and naturally to the next. Questions on one subject, or one particular aspect of a subject, should be grouped together. Respondents may feel it disconcerting to keep shifting from one topic to another, or to be asked to return to some subject they thought they gave their opinions about earlier.

Question variety:. Respondents become bored quickly and restless when asked similar questions for half an hour or so. It usually improves response, therefore, to vary the respondent’s task from time to time. An open-ended question here and there (even if it is not analysed) may provide much-needed relief from a long series of questions in which respondents have been forced to limit their replies to pre-coded categories. Questions involving showing cards/pictures to respondents can help vary the pace and increase interest.

Closing questions

It is natural for a respondent to become increasingly indifferent to the questionnaire as it nears the end. Because of impatience or fatigue, he may give careless answers to the later questions. Those questions, therefore, that are of special importance should, if possible, be included in the earlier part of the questionnaire. Potentially sensitive questions should be left to the end, to avoid respondents cutting off the interview before important information is collected.

In developing the questionnaire the researcher should pay particular attention to the presentation and layout of the interview form itself. The interviewer’s task needs to be made as straight-forward as possible.

• Questions should be clearly worded and response options clearly identified.
• Prescribed definitions and explanations should be provided. This ensures that the questions are handled consistently by all interviewers and that during the interview process the interviewer can answer/clarify respondents’ queries.

Ample writing space should be allowed to record open-ended answers, and to cater for differences in handwriting between interviewers.

Physical appearance of the questionnaire

The physical appearance of a questionnaire can have a significant effect upon both the quantity and quality of marketing data obtained. The quantity of data is a function of the response rate. Ill-designed questionnaires can give an impression of complexity, medium and too big a time commitment. Data quality can also be affected by the physical appearance of the questionnaire with unnecessarily confusing layouts making it more difficult for interviewers, or respondents in the case of self-completion questionnaires, to complete this task accurately. Attention to just a few basic details can have a disproportionately advantageous impact on the data obtained through a questionnaire.

An appraisal interview is a formal discussion process between an employee and his/her manager. It is one of the best ways for an employee to increase productivity and change work habits. In appraisal interview, the employer and the employee discuss the performances of the individual and the key areas of improvement and how the employee can grow through a feedback mechanism.

A performance appraisal interview is the first stage of the performance appraisal process and involves the employee and his or her manager sitting face to face to discuss threadbare all aspects of the employee’s performance and thrash out any differences in perception or evaluation. The performance appraisal interview provides the employee with a chance to defend himself or herself against poor evaluation by the manager and also gives the manager a chance to explain what he or she thinks about the employee’s performance.

In a nutshell, the performance appraisal interview precedes the normalization process and is subsequent to the employee filling up the evaluation form and the manager likewise doing so. The interview is the stage where both sides debate and argue the employees’ side of the story as well as the manager’s perception.

An appraisal interview gives the employee the chance to shield himself/herself from poor evaluation by the manager. It also gives the manager an opportunity to spell out his/her reviews. It helps the employees to determine whether there is a need for training if they lack in any particular skill and who will be promoted, demoted, retained or fired.

Guidelines for conducting Appraisal Interviews

The following things should be kept in minds while conducting appraisal interviews:

• Value employee’s opinion: Encourage the employee to talk. Ask his/her opinion to improve the situation.
• Don’t tiptoe around: Make sure the employee gets to know what he/she is doing correctly or incorrectly. Advise the employee on how to improve things.
• Use of work data: Use of actual numbers like productivity reports, leaves, orders and so on.
• Don’t get personal: Try and avoid negative sentences that directly affects the employee. Compare the employee’s performance with a standard not with other people.

The Right and Wrong Way to Approach a Performance Appraisal Interview

The performance appraisal interview must be taken seriously and both the employee and the manager must set aside time to go through the process. The manager cannot arbitrarily change the time or the venue and must not approach the interview in a haphazard manner. Despite all these injunctions, it is often the case that the manager has to be reminded about the interview and then he or she hurriedly arranges the meeting. This is definitely the wrong way to approach the interview. Further, the manager must make the time to go through the employees’ self-evaluation and rate the same objectively.

Though there is no right way to conduct the performance appraisal interview, it is incumbent upon the manager to avoid the pitfalls described above. A rule of thumb would be set aside a few days to conduct all the interviews with members of his or her team and ensure follow-ups to the process. The follow-up is needed when the employee is not satisfied with the interview discussion and hence requests for additional time to debate the rating. In some cases, the HR manager may need to step in to ensure that the process is concluded to the satisfaction of the employee and the manager.

Objective Evaluation versus Personal Biases

Though management theorists like to propound the benefits of objective evaluation, it is a fact in contemporary organizations that an element of personal bias enters the evaluation. This is evident from the studies and surveys done by HR consultants like Hewitt that point to the employee’s dissatisfaction with the performance appraisal process as one of the main reasons for leaving the company. To curb the incidence of biases and heuristics playing a role in the appraisal, HR managers typically conduct orientations and trainings to both the Managers and the Employees to sensitize them to these dangers that are sometimes inherent in the process.

On the other hand, the employees should approach the process without unrealistic expectations and expect the Manager to agree to whatever they write on the performance evaluation form. Hence, there is a need for both sides in the interview process to approach the same with an open mind and be as objective as possible. However, this is easier said than done and hence organizations expend resources on making the process as transparent and objective as possible.

A conference is a meeting of people who “confer” about a topic. Conference types include:

Physical

• Academic conference, in science and academic, a formal event where researchers present results, workshops, and other activities.
• Athletic conference, a competitive grouping of teams, often geographical
• Authors’ conference, or writers’ conference, where writers gather to review their written works and suggest improvements
• Conference call, in telecommunications, a call with more than two participants at the same time
• Conference hall, room where conferences are held
• Convention (meeting), meeting of a, usually large, group of individuals and/or companies in a certain field
• Conference, between the two houses of a bicameral legislature
• News conference, an announcement to the press (print, radio, television) with the expectation of questions, about the announced matter
• Parent-teacher conference, a meeting with a child’s teacher to discuss grades and school performance
• Peace conference, a diplomatic meeting to end conflict
• Professional conference, a meeting of professionals in a given subject or profession dealing with related matters or developments
• Settlement conference, a meeting between the plaintiff and the respondent in lawsuit, wherein they try to settle their dispute without proceeding to trial
• Trade fair, or trade conference
• Unconference, or open space conference, who avoids meeting [with more persons], a participant-driven meeting that tries to avoid one or more aspects of a conventional conference

Virtual

• Video conference, with the reception and transmission of audio-video signals by users at different locations.

The Role of Conferences

The role of a conference is to gather like-minded individuals from across the country or across the globe, to learn, discuss thoughts, network, share ideas, create new ideas, and to ignite motivation. The benefits of attending a conference are different for everyone. By attending a conference, individuals are expanding their professional and personal development, and are provided with insightful information that couldn’t be taught internally from within the organization or online.

The Advantages of Attending Conferences

Fresh Perspective: There are many advantages to attending conferences. As Dr. Stephen Covey so eloquently says, “We must never become too busy sawing to take time to sharpen the saw.” Sharpen the Saw meaning preserving and enhancing the greatest asset an individual has – which is themselves. By seeking continuous improvement and renewal professionally and personally, an individual keeps themselves sharp. Essentially the analogy is saying that sometimes individuals must step away from the “work” of their work in order to sharpen their work skills. There is no better opportunity to sharpen one’s skills than at a conference.

Networking: Developing a strong professional network has become one of the key prerequisites for professional success. In fact, research indicates that successful managers spend 70% more-time networking than their less successful counterparts and that people with rich social networks are better informed, more creative, more efficient, and better problem-solvers than those with limited social networks. Industry conferences provide a tremendous opportunity to network. Attendees from other companies and from other areas of the country can become valuable resources for referrals, new ways of thinking, solutions, and best practices.

Learning: Another advantage of conferences is that they provide a blended learning environment with multiple opportunities for individuals to learn and engage in a wide array of formats. Conferences typically provide special guest speakers, breakout sessions, one-on-one engagements, group outings, and events for social interaction. The learning facet of a conference can expose attendees to new ways of operating and can help them discover ways to be even more productive. Whichever way an individual learns best, there are multiple ways to learn something new and impactful.

Spark New Ideas: Conferences are a great way for employees to be inspired by fresh ideas, to start rethinking the status quo, and to hopefully leave ready to tackle business challenges in creative and innovative ways. Conferences also allow individuals to share their progress, hurdles they’ve come across, and techniques devised for solving them. After hearing from leading experts and visionaries on how they found success, attendees are inspired and encouraged to think outside the box, which leads to successful outcomes for the organization.

One of the assessments and evaluation techniques for a candidate is interview. It is a type of oral exami­nation. Selection interview is the next process to conduct of tests. Even though written tests and psy­chological tests are conducted, still one-to-one communication between individuals always remains the crucial part in selection of a candidate. Behavioural traits, presence of mind and psychological bearing capacity can be tested through interview.

Selection interviews are typically conducted onsite at the hiring company. The purpose of a selection interview is to determine whether a candidate will be selected for the position he or she is interviewing for. A selection interview is typically more rigorous than a screening interview. At this point, a company is trying to decide whether or not you should either be moved to the next step in the hiring process or an offer is going to be extended, so there will be more scrutiny than with a screening interview.

Role of Interview in the Selection Procedure:

Critical Analysis of the Personality of Candidates:

As the candidate is going to be in front of the interviewer or a panel, face-to-face communication is facilitated. The interviewer can observe the behaviour, style, approach, promptness and sharpness of the candidate.

Providing Details about the Company to the Candidate:

As the company would like to know the detailed information about the candidate, the same way, the candidate is also eager to know about the work culture, the nature of the job, working schedules, etc., in the company. Interview provides the opportunity to the candidate to know more about the company.

Accurate Final Selection:

Interview facilitates to obtain additional information about the candidate through personal contact. After the detailed scrutiny of all the information about the candidate, the final selection can be made easily.

Use of Experience and Knowledge of Expert Interviewers:

Whenever the interviews are conducted, there is generally a panel of interviewers consisting of more than three members. All of them are working for the company for a long time, and when the selection interview takes place, it is their knowledge and experience which is going to give the best results in terms of a suitable and appropriate candidate.

Types of Interview:

Informal interview:

There is no specific procedure followed in this case. They are conducted at any place, and any types of questions can be asked to the candidate.

Formal Interview:

It is held in formal atmosphere with pre-decided and planned procedures and questions.

Situation Interview:

An imaginary situation is told to the candidates and they are asked to respond to it.

Stress Interview:

It is conducted to evaluate the behaviour of the candidate under stressful conditions. How does a can­didate react to stress? Whether they remains quiet and calm or becomes stressed, can be judged by creating different stressful conditions around, and the case with which they gets out of it indicates their stress-handling capacity in future.

Directive Interview:

It is structured interview. A same set of questions is repeated for every candidate to make the compari­son among the answers received from them.

Non-directive Interview:

It is non-structured interview. There is no specific format, and any questions can be asked to candidates. Candidates are free to express themselves under this type.

Panel Interview:

A selection committee appointed for interviewing candidates is called a panel. It generally consists of three or more members who collectively perform the task of selection. The final decision is taken with the consent of all panel members.

Group Interview:

Candidates are supposed to form groups, and one group together will be interviewed at one time. It is a sort of group discussion. The person’s ability to lead, their presence of mind and communication can be evaluated under this technique.

Depth Interview:

All the minute details of important nature are asked to a candidate to have the extensive information about them.