Receipts and Payments Account is a financial statement used by not-for-profit organizations to record all cash transactions during a specific period, typically a year. It is a summary of the cash inflows (receipts) and outflows (payments) that the organization has experienced. Unlike a profit and loss account, it does not differentiate between capital and revenue items, nor does it include any non-cash transactions, such as depreciation or accruals.

The receipts section includes all sources of income, like donations, membership fees, grants, and fundraising, while the payments section includes expenses such as salaries, rent, and utilities.

This account is mainly used for internal purposes and is presented on a cash basis, offering a clear view of the cash position at any given time. The surplus or deficit shown at the end of the period is transferred to the Income and Expenditure Account or Balance Sheet.

Features of Receipts and Payments Account:

• Cash-based Accounting

The Receipts and Payments Account follows a cash-based accounting method, meaning it only records cash transactions—receipts when cash is received, and payments when cash is disbursed. Non-cash transactions like credit purchases or depreciation are excluded. This method offers a straightforward representation of an organization’s liquidity.

• Chronological Order

This account is presented in chronological order, meaning transactions are listed as they occur throughout the accounting period. Each receipt or payment is recorded under the date it takes place. This helps in understanding the timing of the organization’s financial activities and its cash flow throughout the period.

• Summarizes all Cash Transactions

The Receipts and Payments Account summarizes all cash receipts and payments made by the organization during a specific period, usually annually. Receipts may include donations, grants, and income from fundraising activities, while payments include expenses such as salaries, rent, and utilities. It is an exhaustive record of every cash movement, whether related to operational expenses or capital activities.

• No Distinction Between Revenue and Capital

Unlike other financial statements like the Income and Expenditure Account, the Receipts and Payments Account does not differentiate between revenue and capital transactions. For example, both regular income (like membership fees) and capital receipts (such as donations for building projects) are listed under receipts, and both operating expenses and capital payments (e.g., purchasing a fixed asset) are listed under payments.

• Closing Balance Shows Cash Position

At the end of the period, the Receipts and Payments Account shows the closing balance, representing the cash available with the organization. This balance is the sum of the opening cash balance plus total receipts minus total payments for the period. The closing balance is transferred to the Balance Sheet under the cash or bank balance heading.

• Simple and Easy to Understand

One of the key features of the Receipts and Payments Account is its simplicity. It is a straightforward statement with no complex adjustments or accruals, making it easy for stakeholders to understand the inflow and outflow of cash. The simplicity helps organizations with limited accounting expertise to keep track of their finances effectively.

• Used for Internal Reporting

The Receipts and Payments Account is primarily used for internal reporting and is not necessarily intended for external stakeholders. While it provides an overview of cash transactions, it does not give a full picture of the organization’s financial health, as it does not account for accruals, depreciation, or non-cash transactions. External stakeholders may require other reports like the Income and Expenditure Account or Balance Sheet for a more detailed understanding of financial performance.

Preparation of Receipts and Payments A/c:

Receipts and Payments Account is a financial statement that records all cash transactions of a not-for-profit organization during a specific period. It provides a summary of the inflows (receipts) and outflows (payments) of cash, offering a clear picture of the organization’s liquidity and cash position.

1. Identify the Receipts

• Sources of Income: Include all receipts that come into the organization. Common examples include donations, membership fees, subscription income, grants, and fundraising proceeds.
• Capital Receipts: These are one-time cash inflows that may come from the sale of fixed assets or donations for specific purposes like building funds or endowments.
• Interest, Dividends, and Bank Deposits: Any income from interest on bank deposits, investments, or dividends should also be included in the receipts section.

2. Identify the Payments

• Operating Payments: Include all expenses made in the course of regular operations, such as salaries, rent, office supplies, utilities, and postage.
• Capital Payments: Include payments for the purchase of fixed assets, like land, buildings, furniture, or equipment.
• Repayments: Payments made for clearing liabilities like loans or outstanding debts.
• Miscellaneous Payments: Other one-time or extraordinary payments should also be included, such as contributions to other organizations, donations, or grants.

3. Prepare the Account

• List the receipts on the left-hand side (debit side) of the account.
• List the payments on the right-hand side (credit side) of the account.
• Ensure that each receipt and payment is recorded with the appropriate date and amount.
• Total both the receipts and payments at the end of the period.

4. Calculate the Closing Balance

• The closing balance is calculated as the difference between the total receipts and total payments, along with the opening balance (if applicable). The formula is: $$\text{Closing Balance }=\text{Opening Balance }+\text{Total Receipts }-\text{Total Payments}$$
• The closing balance should be transferred to the Balance Sheet as the cash/bank balance.

Example

Receipts and Payments Account for the Year Ending 31st December 2024

Notes:

1. Opening Balance: Cash in hand or at the bank at the beginning of the period.
2. Receipts: Income or funds received during the period, including donations, grants, membership fees, etc.
3. Payments: All cash expenditures made during the period, including operating and capital payments.
4. Closing Balance: The difference between receipts and payments, representing the cash position at the end of the period.

Income and Expenditure Account is a financial statement used by not-for-profit organizations to record their revenue and expenses during a specific period, usually a year. Unlike the Receipts and Payments Account, which focuses on cash transactions, the Income and Expenditure Account follows an accrual basis of accounting, recognizing income and expenses when they are earned or incurred, not when cash is received or paid. The account shows the organization’s net surplus or deficit, reflecting the difference between total income and total expenses. This account helps assess the organization’s financial performance over a given period.

Features of Income and Expenditure Account:

• Accrual Basis of Accounting

The Income and Expenditure Account follows the accrual basis of accounting. This means income is recorded when it is earned (e.g., when a service is provided), and expenses are recorded when they are incurred (e.g., when goods or services are received). Unlike the Receipts and Payments Account, which focuses on cash transactions, the Income and Expenditure Account includes all income and expenses, regardless of whether cash has been received or paid.

• Records Revenue and Expenditures

The account records the revenue (income) and expenditures (expenses) of the organization for the period. Revenue sources include donations, membership fees, interest income, and grants. Expenditures may include salaries, rent, utilities, and other operating costs. Both revenue and expenses are categorized into appropriate heads to reflect the organization’s financial performance.

• Surplus or Deficit

The Income and Expenditure Account shows the net surplus (income exceeds expenses) or deficit (expenses exceed income) for the period. This reflects the organization’s financial health and is used to assess whether it is operating efficiently. If there is a surplus, it indicates that the organization has generated more income than its expenses, whereas a deficit suggests it needs to reduce costs or increase revenue.

• Excludes Capital Transactions

The Income and Expenditure Account excludes capital transactions such as donations for capital purposes or the sale of fixed assets. These are instead recorded in the Receipts and Payments Account or the Balance Sheet. The account focuses solely on day-to-day operational activities, not long-term investments or funding for fixed assets.

• No Profit Motive

Since it is prepared by not-for-profit organizations, the Income and Expenditure Account does not aim to show a profit. Instead, it helps to determine whether the organization’s activities are financially sustainable. Any surplus generated is typically reinvested into the organization to support its objectives, such as funding social programs, expanding services, or maintaining infrastructure.

• Represents Financial Performance

The Income and Expenditure Account represents the financial performance of the organization over a specific period, typically one year. It helps stakeholders, such as trustees, donors, and members, understand how effectively the organization is managing its resources. The surplus or deficit indicates whether the organization is living within its means or if it needs to adjust its financial practices.

• Prepared on a Periodic Basis

This account is prepared at the end of a specific period, generally annually, to give a snapshot of the organization’s financial performance during that time. It serves as a tool for financial planning and management. Regularly preparing the Income and Expenditure Account helps the organization make informed decisions regarding its operations, fund allocation, and strategic goals.

• Used for Internal and External Reporting

The Income and Expenditure Account is not only used for internal reporting to monitor financial performance but also for external reporting to stakeholders, including members, donors, and government authorities. It helps demonstrate the organization’s efficiency in utilizing funds and fulfilling its non-profit goals. This transparency is crucial for building trust and ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements.

Preparation of Income and Expenditure Account:

Income and Expenditure Account is prepared to determine the surplus or deficit of a not-for-profit organization over a specific period (usually one year). It includes all incomes earned and expenditures incurred during the period, following the accrual basis of accounting. The surplus (or deficit) represents the difference between total income and total expenses.

Steps for Preparing the Income and Expenditure Account

1. Identify All Income Sources

• Income from Membership Fees: This includes regular subscription or membership fees paid by members during the period.
• Donations and Grants: Donations from members or outside entities, as well as any grants received for specific projects or general use.
• Interest Income: Interest earned from investments or savings accounts during the period.
• Other Income: Revenue from events, fundraising activities, or services offered (e.g., ticket sales, selling of merchandise).
• Capital Contributions: Any contributions designated for capital purposes, such as funds for buildings or long-term assets, should not be included in the Income and Expenditure Account. These are recorded separately.

2. Identify All Expenditures

• Operating Expenses: Include regular and routine costs like salaries, rent, utilities, repairs, office supplies, and depreciation on fixed assets.
• Administrative Expenses: Expenses related to administrative functions like salaries of administrative staff, office expenses, etc.
• Program Expenses: Costs incurred to run the organization’s core activities, such as organizing events, community services, or educational programs.
• Depreciation: An accounting adjustment to reflect the wear and tear on fixed assets.
• Other Expenses: Include miscellaneous costs such as bank charges, postage, and membership renewals.

3. Adjust for Outstanding and Prepaid Items

• Outstanding Expenses: If expenses have been incurred but not yet paid, they should be included as liabilities in the account.
• Prepaid Expenses: If any expenses are paid in advance (e.g., insurance premiums), they should be subtracted from the account as they do not belong to the current period.
• Accrued Income: Income earned but not yet received (such as interest on investments) should be included as income for the period.

4. Calculate Surplus or Deficit

• The difference between total income and total expenditure determines the surplus (income > expenses) or deficit (expenses > income) for the period.
• Surplus is added to the organization’s accumulated fund or reserves.
• Deficit is subtracted from the accumulated fund or reserves, indicating that the organization has spent more than it earned.

5. Prepare the Account Format

The Income and Expenditure Account is presented in a columnar format with two sections:

• Debit Side (Expenses): This side lists all the expenditures incurred during the period.
• Credit Side (Income): This side lists all the income earned during the period.

Example of Income and Expenditure Account

Important Points to Note:

• Accrual Accounting:

The Income and Expenditure Account is based on accrual accounting, meaning it recognizes income when earned and expenses when incurred, not when cash is exchanged.

• Capital Items Excluded:

Capital receipts (e.g., sale of assets or funds for capital purposes) and capital expenditures (e.g., purchases of land, building) are excluded from this account.

• Surplus or Deficit:

The final balance (surplus or deficit) is shown in the bottom of the account and will be transferred to the organization’s Balance Sheet as part of the accumulated funds or reserves.

• Reflecting the Financial Health:

This account gives a clear picture of whether the not-for-profit organization is operating efficiently and within its financial means during the reporting period.

In any organization, particularly in a departmental undertaking system, expenses can be categorized into department-specific expenses and common expenses. These classifications help in allocating costs accurately, ensuring better budgeting, cost control, and financial decision-making.

Department-Specific Expenses:

Department-specific expenses are costs that can be directly attributed to a particular department or unit within the organization. These expenses are incurred as a result of the activities and operations of the department, and thus, they are specific to that department. Such expenses are easy to identify and assign directly to the department generating them.

• Salaries and Wages of Departmental Staff

The salaries and wages paid to employees working within a specific department, such as a finance department, marketing department, or research and development team, are considered department-specific expenses. For instance, the salary of a customer service representative working in the “Customer Support” department is a direct expense of that department.

• Raw Materials and Supplies Used

If a department is responsible for manufacturing or producing goods, the cost of raw materials used in the production process would be classified as a departmental expense. For example, in a manufacturing department, the cost of materials like steel, plastic, or chemicals used for production is directly attributed to that department.

• Depreciation on Departmental Equipment

Depreciation related to the equipment used by a specific department, such as machinery in a production unit or computers in an IT department, is considered a departmental expense. If a piece of equipment is used exclusively by the marketing department, its depreciation is treated as a departmental expense.

• Utilities (Specific to the Department)

If certain departments use more electricity, water, or gas for their operations, the utility costs specific to the department’s activities are considered department-specific. For example, the heating and cooling costs in a laboratory for a research department would be charged to that department.

• Departmental Marketing and Advertising Costs

Expenses related to marketing and promotions undertaken by a specific department, such as advertising costs for a retail division, are department-specific. This includes costs for creating advertisements, promotional materials, and events that are specific to that department’s products or services.

• Departmental Travel and Training

Costs associated with travel for departmental meetings, client visits, or conferences that are directly related to a department’s work are department-specific. For instance, travel costs for employees in the sales department attending client meetings are a specific expense for that department.

• Repairs and Maintenance of Departmental Assets

Expenses incurred to repair or maintain assets (such as machinery, computers, or vehicles) used by a specific department are charged directly to that department. For instance, the maintenance cost of a server in the IT department is a departmental expense.

• Departmental Insurance Premiums

Insurance costs for assets or operations specific to a department, like insurance on machinery used by the production department, are treated as department-specific.

Common Expenses:

Common expenses, on the other hand, are costs that are incurred for the benefit of the organization as a whole, and cannot be traced directly to a single department. These expenses are shared across multiple departments or units, and thus need to be allocated based on specific allocation methods (e.g., usage, space occupied, headcount).

• Rent for Office Space

If the organization leases office space, the rent is a common expense shared among all departments occupying that space. For example, if each department occupies a certain amount of square footage, the rent can be allocated based on this proportion.

• Office Supplies (General)

General office supplies like paper, pens, printer ink, and other office essentials that are used by multiple departments are common expenses. These supplies cannot be attributed to one specific department, and thus their cost is distributed proportionally among departments based on usage.

• Administrative Salaries

Salaries of employees working in support roles, such as human resources, accounting, or general administration, are common expenses. These roles serve the entire organization, so their costs are distributed among all departments.

• Utilities (Shared Resources)

For utilities such as electricity, water, and internet services, which are used across multiple departments, these costs are considered common expenses. These expenses are typically allocated based on the department’s square footage or actual usage.

• Depreciation on Common Assets

Depreciation on common assets like office buildings, shared vehicles, or office furniture that benefit multiple departments is a common expense. This is spread across the departments according to the allocated usage or asset distribution.

• Corporate Insurance

The cost of insurance policies for the entire organization, such as liability insurance or health insurance for employees, is a common expense. The total cost is divided among the departments based on criteria like headcount or usage of assets.

• Centralized IT Services

If the organization has a central IT infrastructure (e.g., servers, software licenses, cybersecurity), the associated costs are common expenses. These costs are allocated to each department based on usage or headcount.

• Marketing and Advertising (Corporate)

Expenses incurred for corporate-wide advertising, brand promotion, and general marketing activities, such as a national advertising campaign, are common expenses. These costs are allocated to various departments based on their budgetary share or involvement in the campaign.

• Professional Fees

Fees paid to consultants, auditors, or legal advisors who provide services to the entire organization, rather than a single department, are common expenses. These fees are allocated across departments based on factors such as the size of the department or specific service utilization.

• Interest Expense

Interest paid on company-wide loans or bonds is typically considered a common expense. This is because the loan or bond benefits the entire organization, and the cost is spread across departments, usually proportionate to their financial contributions or usage.

List of accounting standards issued by the Accounting Standards Board (ASB) in India, along with brief explanations of each:

• AS 1: Disclosure of Accounting Policies

Ensures clarity by requiring entities to disclose significant accounting policies adopted in the preparation of financial statements.

• AS 2: Valuation of Inventories

Prescribes methods for valuing inventories and ensures they are recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value.

• AS 3: Cash Flow Statements

Provides guidelines for presenting cash inflows and outflows under operating, investing, and financing activities.

• AS 4: Contingencies and Events Occurring After the Balance Sheet Date

Covers the accounting treatment of events and contingencies occurring post-balance sheet date but before financial statements are approved.

• AS 5: Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items, and Changes in Accounting Policies

Ensures proper classification and disclosure of prior period items, extraordinary items, and changes in accounting policies.

• AS 6: Depreciation Accounting (Withdrawn)

Previously dealt with the depreciation of assets; now integrated with AS 10 (Revised).

• AS 7: Construction Contracts

Deals with revenue recognition and cost accounting for construction contracts based on the percentage of completion.

• AS 9: Revenue Recognition

Provides criteria for recognizing revenue from sales, services, and other business activities.

• AS 10: Property, Plant, and Equipment

Governs accounting for tangible fixed assets, including acquisition, depreciation, and disposal.

• AS 11: The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates

Covers accounting for foreign currency transactions, translation of financial statements, and exchange rate fluctuations.

• AS 12: Accounting for Government Grants

Specifies the treatment of government grants in financial statements, either as capital or revenue receipts.

• AS 13: Accounting for Investments

Provides guidance on classification, recognition, and valuation of investments.

• AS 14: Accounting for Amalgamations

Prescribes the accounting treatment for mergers and acquisitions, ensuring uniformity and transparency.

• AS 15: Employee Benefits

Deals with accounting for various employee benefits, such as pensions, gratuity, and leave encashments.

• AS 16: Borrowing Costs

Provides guidelines for capitalizing borrowing costs directly attributable to acquiring qualifying assets.

• AS 17: Segment Reporting

Requires disclosure of financial information by business or geographical segments.

• AS 18: Related Party Disclosures

Mandates disclosures about transactions with related parties to highlight potential conflicts of interest.

• AS 19: Leases

Prescribes accounting treatment for lease agreements for both lessors and lessees.

• AS 20: Earnings Per Share (EPS)

Explains how to calculate and present basic and diluted EPS in financial statements.

• AS 21: Consolidated Financial Statements

Provides guidelines for preparing consolidated financial statements for parent and subsidiary companies.

• AS 22: Accounting for Taxes on Income

Covers deferred tax accounting, recognizing tax effects of temporary differences.

• AS 23: Accounting for Investments in Associates in Consolidated Financial Statements

Explains accounting for investments in associates using the equity method in consolidated accounts.

• AS 24: Discontinuing Operations

Provides disclosure requirements for operations that are being discontinued.

• AS 25: Interim Financial Reporting

Deals with preparation and presentation of financial results for interim periods.

• AS 26: Intangible Assets

Provides guidelines for recognizing, measuring, and amortizing intangible assets like patents and copyrights.

• AS 27: Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures

Specifies accounting for joint venture interests and related disclosures.

• AS 28: Impairment of Assets

Guides the assessment of whether an asset’s carrying amount exceeds its recoverable amount.

• AS 29: Provisions, Contingent Liabilities, and Contingent Assets

Covers the recognition and measurement of provisions, contingent liabilities, and contingent assets.

Deferred Revenue expenditure refers to expenses incurred in a particular accounting period that provide benefits over multiple accounting periods. Unlike normal revenue expenditures, which are fully expensed in the period incurred, deferred revenue expenditures are capitalized and amortized over their useful life. This allows for a more accurate matching of expenses with the periods in which the related benefits are realized.

Deferred revenue expenditure can be defined as an expenditure incurred by a company that provides a benefit over a period exceeding the current accounting period. These expenditures are treated as an asset and are gradually written off over the periods to which they pertain.

Characteristics of Deferred Revenue Expenditure:

• Future Economic Benefits:

Deferred revenue expenditures are incurred with the expectation of generating future economic benefits. These benefits can arise in the form of increased revenue, reduced expenses, improved operational efficiency, enhanced reputation, or other advantages that extend beyond the current accounting period.

• Capitalization:

Unlike revenue expenditures, which are expensed immediately, deferred revenue expenditures are capitalized as assets on the balance sheet. They represent a prepayment for future benefits and are classified as deferred charges or intangible assets.

• Amortization:

Deferred revenue expenditures are gradually expensed over their useful life or the period in which they contribute to generating benefits. This allows for the matching of expenses with the periods in which the related benefits are realized.

Recognition and Accounting Treatment of Deferred Revenue Expenditure:

The recognition and accounting treatment of deferred revenue expenditure involve the following steps:

• Identification:

Companies must identify expenses that meet the criteria for being classified as deferred revenue expenditures. These are typically expenses that provide future benefits and are not fully consumed in the current accounting period.

• Capitalization:

Deferred revenue expenditures are capitalized as assets on the balance sheet. They are recorded as prepaid expenses, deferred charges, or intangible assets, depending on the nature of the expenditure.

• Amortization:

Deferred revenue expenditures are gradually expensed over their useful life or the period in which they contribute to generating benefits. The amortization period is determined based on factors such as the expected duration of the benefits and the company’s accounting policies.

• Amortization Method:

The amortization of deferred revenue expenditures can be performed using various methods, such as straight-line amortization or systematic allocation based on the pattern of expected benefits. The method chosen should reflect the economic reality of the expenditure and the expected pattern of benefits.

• Financial Statement Presentation:

The amortization expense associated with deferred revenue expenditure is recognized in the income statement as an operating expense. It is typically reported separately or included within a broader expense category, depending on the company’s financial statement presentation.

Account treatment of Deferred Revenue Expenditure:

Examples of Deferred Revenue Expenditure:

• Advertising Expenditure:

Companies often incur significant expenses on advertising campaigns that aim to promote their products or services over an extended period. The benefits of these campaigns are realized over time, beyond the period in which the expenses are incurred. Such advertising expenses can be treated as deferred revenue expenditure and amortized over the expected duration of the advertising campaign.

• Research and Development (R&D) Costs:

Expenditures on research and development activities can lead to the creation of intangible assets, such as patents, copyrights, or trademarks, which provide future economic benefits. These costs are often capitalized as deferred revenue expenditure and amortized over the estimated useful life of the intangible assets.

• Start-up Costs:

When a company is established or a new business line is launched, there are often significant initial expenses involved, such as legal fees, market research costs, and pre-opening advertising. These costs are typically considered as deferred revenue expenditure and amortized over a reasonable period of time or the expected life of the business.

• Employee Training Costs:

Expenses incurred for training employees to enhance their skills and knowledge can be treated as deferred revenue expenditure. The benefits of employee training are realized over the long term, as the trained employees contribute to improved productivity and performance.

• Software Development Costs:

Expenditures related to the development or acquisition of customized software can be classified as deferred revenue expenditure. The costs are capitalized as an intangible asset and amortized over the estimated useful life of the software.

• Infrastructure Development:

In certain cases, companies may invest in infrastructure development projects that provide long-term benefits. For example, construction of a dedicated facility or installation of specialized machinery may result in deferred revenue expenditure that is amortized over the expected useful life of the assets.

Importance and Benefits of Deferred Revenue Expenditure:

The concept of deferred revenue expenditure is essential for accurate financial reporting and the matching of expenses with the periods in which the related benefits are realized.

• Accurate Income Measurement:

By capitalizing and amortizing deferred revenue expenditure, companies can more accurately measure their income by allocating expenses to the periods in which they contribute to generating revenue or other benefits.

• Improved Decision Making:

Recognizing deferred revenue expenditure allows management to evaluate the long-term impact of certain expenses on the company’s financial performance. This helps in making informed decisions regarding resource allocation, budgeting, and strategic planning.

• Enhanced Financial Statement Presentation:

Proper recognition and disclosure of deferred revenue expenditure provide transparency in financial statements. Stakeholders, including investors, lenders, and analysts, can gain a better understanding of the company’s financial performance and the impact of significant long-term expenses.

• Compliance with Accounting Standards:

Recognizing and appropriately accounting for deferred revenue expenditure ensures compliance with relevant accounting standards, such as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Compliance with these standards enhances the credibility and comparability of financial statements.

• Tax Planning and Reporting:

The treatment of deferred revenue expenditure for tax purposes may differ from its accounting treatment. Companies can consider the tax implications and regulations related to deferred revenue expenditure to optimize their tax planning and reporting strategies.

Challenges and Considerations:

• Subjectivity in Determining Useful Life:

Estimating the useful life of deferred revenue expenditure requires judgment and assumptions. The duration over which the benefits will be realized may vary, and changes in circumstances may require reassessment of the amortization period.

• Disclosure and Transparency:

It is essential for companies to provide sufficient disclosures in their financial statements regarding the nature, amount, and amortization policy of deferred revenue expenditure. This helps stakeholders understand the impact of these expenditures on the company’s financial position and performance.

• Regulatory Compliance:

Companies must ensure compliance with relevant accounting standards and regulations governing the recognition and amortization of deferred revenue expenditure. Failure to adhere to these requirements can result in financial misstatements and potential legal or regulatory consequences.

• Impact on Financial Ratios and Metrics:

The capitalization and amortization of deferred revenue expenditure can affect financial ratios and performance metrics used by investors and analysts. Understanding and considering the impact of these adjustments is important for accurate financial analysis and comparison.