Tag: Authority

Management Notes

Factors influencing the Organization Structure (Environment, Strategy, Technology, Size, People)

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Organization Structure refers to the formal framework that defines how activities like task allocation, coordination, and supervision are directed toward achieving organizational goals. It outlines reporting relationships (hierarchy), departmentalization, communication channels, and spans of control. Common structures include functional, divisional, matrix, and network designs. A well-defined structure clarifies roles, enhances efficiency, and facilitates decision-making by establishing clear lines of authority and responsibility. While rigid structures ensure stability, flexible designs (e.g., flat or hybrid) promote adaptability. The choice of structure depends on factors like size, strategy, and environment.

  • Environment

The external environment significantly shapes the structure of an organization. Factors like economic conditions, competition, market trends, legal regulations, and technological changes force organizations to adapt their structures to stay relevant. A stable environment may allow for a centralized and formal structure, while a dynamic or uncertain environment requires flexibility and decentralization. For example, a company in a rapidly changing industry like technology or fashion might opt for a flat, adaptive structure to respond quickly to market demands. Environmental complexity also influences how many layers of decision-making are needed. The organization must remain agile to handle uncertainties, customer needs, and evolving regulations. Therefore, understanding the environment is crucial to designing a structure that supports survival and growth.

  • Strategy

Organizational strategy defines the long-term direction and goals of the business, and it directly influences how the structure is set up. A growth-oriented strategy may require a decentralized structure to empower regional units, while a cost-leadership strategy might demand centralization for efficiency and control. Similarly, a company focused on innovation may favor a flexible, team-based structure to promote creativity and fast decision-making. Structure must align with strategy to ensure that resources, responsibilities, and communication flows are geared toward achieving strategic objectives. If strategy and structure are misaligned, it leads to confusion, delays, and failure to execute plans. Thus, structure serves as the skeleton that supports strategic execution effectively.

  • Technology

The type and complexity of technology used in an organization greatly impact its structure. Organizations using routine technologies (like mass production) often adopt a mechanistic structure—formal, hierarchical, and rule-bound. In contrast, firms using non-routine, innovative technologies (such as software development or R&D) require more organic structures—flexible, decentralized, and collaborative. Technology also affects communication flow, coordination, and decision-making processes. Advanced information systems may reduce the need for middle managers by streamlining reporting and data analysis. Automation and digital tools can redefine roles and eliminate certain job functions. Therefore, structure must evolve with technological advancements to maximize efficiency and innovation. Ignoring this alignment can result in operational disconnects and underperformance.

  • Size

The size of the organization—measured in terms of employees, production, geographic spread, or revenue—plays a crucial role in determining its structure. Small organizations usually have simple, flat structures with direct supervision and informal communication. As an organization grows, it requires more specialization, departments, layers of management, and formal processes. Larger firms often adopt complex, hierarchical structures to manage diverse activities and large workforces efficiently. With size, the need for coordination, delegation, and standardized procedures increases to avoid confusion and inefficiencies. However, very large structures may become bureaucratic, slowing down decision-making and reducing adaptability. Therefore, as an organization scales, its structure must be carefully redesigned to balance control with responsiveness.

  • People

Human resources—both in terms of quantity and quality—have a profound impact on organizational structure. The skills, attitudes, experience, and behavioral patterns of employees influence how roles are designed and how authority is distributed. Highly skilled and motivated employees thrive in decentralized, autonomous structures, whereas less experienced workers may require more supervision and structured processes. Leadership style, employee expectations, and organizational culture also shape structural design. For example, a collaborative culture may support team-based structures, while a traditional mindset may lean toward hierarchical forms. Additionally, the willingness of people to accept change affects how flexible or rigid the structure can be. Thus, the structure must reflect and support the capabilities and aspirations of its people.

Management Notes

Process of Organizational Conflict

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Organizational conflict refers to a situation in which individuals, groups, or departments within an organization experience disagreements, opposition, or incompatibility regarding goals, interests, values, ideas, resources, or methods of performing work. It occurs when one party perceives that another party is negatively affecting or is likely to affect something important to them. Conflict is a natural outcome of human interaction because employees differ in their backgrounds, personalities, attitudes, perceptions, and objectives.

In organizations, conflict may arise between employees, managers and subordinates, teams, departments, or even between the organization and external stakeholders. While conflict is often associated with tension and disagreement, it is not always harmful. Properly managed conflict can lead to innovation, improved decision-making, and organizational growth.

The concept of organizational conflict is based on the understanding that differences among people and groups are inevitable in any workplace. Organizations consist of individuals with diverse skills, experiences, values, and expectations. These differences often create situations where goals, interests, or opinions clash, resulting in conflict.

Process of Organizational Conflict

Organizational conflict develops through a series of stages. Understanding these stages helps managers identify, control, and resolve conflicts effectively. The conflict process generally consists of five stages: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility, Cognition and Personalization, Intentions, Behaviour, and Outcomes.

1. Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

Potential opposition or incompatibility is the first stage of the organizational conflict process. At this stage, conditions exist that create the possibility of conflict, although the conflict has not yet become visible. These conditions act as sources of disagreement and tension among individuals or groups. Conflict does not emerge suddenly; it begins when certain factors create opportunities for differences and misunderstandings.

The major sources of potential conflict include communication problems, structural factors, and personal differences. Communication barriers such as incomplete information, unclear instructions, misunderstandings, and poor feedback often create confusion. Structural factors include competition for limited resources, differences in departmental goals, work interdependence, authority relationships, and organizational policies. Personal factors such as differences in personality, values, beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions also contribute to conflict.

For example, the marketing department may request a larger budget for advertising, while the finance department wants to reduce organizational expenses. Both departments have different objectives, creating the possibility of future conflict. Similarly, two employees assigned overlapping responsibilities may experience tension because their roles are not clearly defined.

Characteristics

  • Conflict is not yet visible.
  • Conditions for disagreement already exist.
  • Differences in goals, resources, or perceptions create tension.
  • Potential conflict may remain hidden until triggered.

Managerial Actions

  • Clarify roles and responsibilities.
  • Improve communication channels.
  • Allocate resources fairly.
  • Address employee concerns promptly.

Example: A software development team receives contradictory instructions from two project managers. Although no argument has occurred yet, confusion exists regarding priorities. This situation creates potential opposition and increases the likelihood of future conflict.

2. Cognition and Personalization

The second stage occurs when individuals recognize the existence of conflict and begin to experience emotional involvement. Cognition refers to awareness or perception of conflict, while personalization refers to the emotional reactions associated with that conflict.

A conflict becomes real only when people perceive it. Two individuals may experience the same situation differently. One person may view a manager’s comments as constructive feedback, while another may perceive them as criticism. Once employees believe that their interests, values, or goals are being threatened, they become emotionally involved.

Emotions such as anger, frustration, anxiety, disappointment, fear, and resentment often emerge during this stage. These emotions can significantly influence how individuals respond to conflict. If emotions become intense, the conflict may escalate quickly.

For example, an employee who is passed over for promotion may perceive the decision as unfair. Even if management selected another employee based on qualifications, the disappointed employee may feel resentment toward management and colleagues.

Characteristics

  • Individuals become aware of conflict.
  • Emotional involvement develops.
  • Perceptions influence reactions.
  • Conflict becomes personal and meaningful.

Managerial Actions

  • Listen actively to employee concerns.
  • Clarify misunderstandings.
  • Encourage open discussions.
  • Address emotional issues sensitively.

Example: A supervisor assigns a challenging task to an employee. The employee interprets the assignment as a sign of distrust rather than an opportunity for growth. This perception creates emotional dissatisfaction and conflict.

3. Intentions

Intentions represent the decisions individuals make regarding how they will respond to conflict. After recognizing the conflict and experiencing emotional reactions, people choose a strategy for handling the situation. Intentions serve as a bridge between perception and actual behaviour.

There are five common conflict-handling intentions:

  • Competing: An individual seeks to satisfy personal interests regardless of the impact on others.
  • Collaborating: Both parties work together to find a solution that satisfies everyone’s concerns.
  • Compromising: Each party gives up something to achieve a mutually acceptable outcome.
  • Avoiding: Individuals withdraw from or ignore the conflict.
  • Accommodating: One party sacrifices personal interests to maintain relationships and harmony.

The choice of intention depends on factors such as personality, organizational culture, power relationships, previous experiences, and the significance of the issue.

For example, two department heads disagree over resource allocation. Instead of fighting for control, they decide to collaborate and develop a resource-sharing arrangement that benefits both departments.

Characteristics

  • Individuals select a conflict-management style.
  • Intentions guide future actions.
  • Different approaches may lead to different outcomes.
  • Conflict may move toward resolution or escalation.

Managerial Actions

  • Encourage collaboration and compromise.
  • Discourage aggressive competition.
  • Provide conflict-resolution training.
  • Promote mutual understanding.

Example: A team member disagrees with a colleague but chooses accommodation to preserve team harmony. Although the issue remains unresolved, the individual prioritizes the relationship over personal interests.

4. Behaviour

The behaviour stage is where conflict becomes visible through actions, statements, and interactions. This stage includes everything that parties do in response to the conflict. Behaviour may range from simple discussions and debates to aggressive confrontations and formal complaints.

Conflict behaviour can be constructive or destructive.

(a) Constructive Behaviour

  • Open communication
  • Healthy discussions
  • Negotiation
  • Problem-solving meetings
  • Exchange of ideas

(b) Destructive Behaviour

  • Personal attacks
  • Hostility
  • Blame and accusations
  • Refusal to cooperate
  • Aggressive confrontations

The intensity of behaviour can vary. Some conflicts involve polite discussions, while others escalate into severe disputes. Managers must monitor behaviour carefully to prevent conflict from becoming dysfunctional.

For example, two employees may openly discuss different approaches to completing a project. If the discussion remains respectful, it can lead to better solutions. However, if personal criticism begins, the conflict may become destructive.

Characteristics

  • Conflict becomes observable.
  • Individuals express their views openly.
  • Actions directly affect relationships and performance.
  • Behaviour can be positive or negative.

Managerial Actions

  • Encourage respectful communication.
  • Focus discussions on issues rather than personalities.
  • Use mediation and negotiation techniques.
  • Prevent aggressive behaviour.

Example: During a meeting, managers from different departments debate budget priorities. Their professional discussion helps identify better allocation strategies. This represents constructive conflict behaviour.

Thus, the behaviour stage is the most visible part of the conflict process and requires active managerial involvement.

5. Outcomes

Outcomes represent the final results of the conflict process. Depending on how conflict is managed, outcomes can be functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative). The effects influence individuals, groups, and the organization as a whole.

(a) Functional Outcomes

Functional outcomes contribute positively to organizational effectiveness. They encourage innovation, creativity, better decision-making, and improved communication. Employees become more engaged and willing to share ideas.

Examples of Functional Outcomes

  • Improved problem-solving
  • Better decisions
  • Enhanced teamwork
  • Increased innovation
  • Greater employee participation

For example, a conflict over product design may result in a more innovative and customer-focused product.

(b) Dysfunctional Outcomes

Dysfunctional outcomes harm organizational performance. They create stress, hostility, reduced cooperation, poor communication, and lower productivity.

Examples of Dysfunctional Outcomes

  • Employee dissatisfaction
  • Increased absenteeism
  • Reduced morale
  • Poor teamwork
  • Employee turnover

For example, ongoing personal conflicts between supervisors may create divisions among employees and reduce organizational efficiency.

Characteristics

  • Outcomes can be positive or negative.
  • Effects influence future relationships.
  • Results impact organizational performance.
  • Lessons can be learned from conflict experiences.

Managerial Actions

  • Encourage functional conflict.
  • Minimize dysfunctional conflict.
  • Analyze conflict outcomes.
  • Promote continuous improvement.
Management Notes

Personality Trait Theory, Concept, Theories, Features, Types, Advantages and Limitations

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Personality Traits Theory explains personality in terms of specific characteristics or traits that remain relatively stable over time and influence an individual’s behavior across different situations. According to this theory, personality is not random but consists of identifiable and measurable traits such as honesty, emotional stability, extroversion, openness, and conscientiousness. These traits help predict how a person will behave in a workplace.

The theory suggests that individuals differ from each other because they possess different combinations and levels of traits. For example, some employees may be highly organized and disciplined, while others may be more flexible and creative. These differences affect job performance, leadership style, communication, and teamwork in organizations.

One of the most widely accepted approaches within trait theory is the “Big Five Personality Traits” model, which includes openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits are used by organizations to understand employee behavior and improve recruitment, selection, and training processes.

Key Concepts of Trait Theory

  • Traits as Stable Characteristics

Traits are defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that remain relatively consistent throughout life. Trait theory suggests that while individuals may change in certain ways due to life experiences, the core traits remain stable. For example, an extroverted person is likely to continue being sociable, assertive, and energetic throughout their life, regardless of specific circumstances.

  • Trait Continuum

Traits exist on a continuum, meaning individuals are not simply one thing or another (e.g., introverted or extroverted), but rather fall somewhere along a spectrum. For example, some people may be highly extroverted, while others may exhibit moderate levels of extroversion, and still, others may be strongly introverted. This allows trait theory to account for the complexity of human behavior and the variations in personality between individuals.

  • Individual Differences

Trait theory places a strong emphasis on individual differences. It argues that personality differences between people are the result of variations in the levels of traits they possess. Since these traits can be measured, trait theory has inspired various psychological assessments designed to evaluate where individuals fall on specific traits.

  • Origins of Traits

Trait theorists are interested in the origins of personality traits. Many theorists suggest that traits are partly biological and are influenced by genetic factors. Twin and adoption studies, for example, have shown that identical twins raised apart often exhibit similar traits, lending support to the idea that traits are partly hereditary. However, environmental factors, such as upbringing and culture, are also believed to play a role in shaping certain traits.

Features of Trait Leadership Theory

  • Focus on Inborn Qualities

Trait Leadership Theory emphasizes that leadership qualities are largely inherent. It suggests that leaders are born with special traits like confidence, charisma, and intelligence, which set them apart from non-leaders. According to this perspective, not everyone can become a leader through training or experience. Instead, leadership is seen as a natural gift possessed by certain individuals. This feature distinguishes the theory from behavioral or situational approaches, which highlight acquired skills and learned practices.

  • Identification of Universal Traits

The theory is based on the idea that certain universal traits make individuals effective leaders regardless of time, culture, or situation. These traits may include decisiveness, honesty, integrity, responsibility, and communication skills. Researchers attempted to create a fixed list of such characteristics that could predict leadership success. Although later studies found variations, this focus on universal attributes was one of the earliest systematic attempts to study leadership scientifically. It provided a strong foundation for leadership research.

  • Leader-Centered Approach

This theory adopts a leader-centric perspective, focusing on the personality of the leader rather than the behavior of followers or the surrounding situation. It assumes that the presence or absence of specific traits in individuals directly determines leadership potential. As a result, leadership effectiveness is explained by personal attributes rather than environmental or contextual factors. This feature highlights the individuality of leaders and reinforces the idea that leadership is about “who they are.”

  • Predictive in Nature

One of the important features of Trait Leadership Theory is its predictive value. By identifying essential traits, it aims to predict who is likely to become a successful leader. For example, a person possessing confidence, decision-making ability, and effective communication is predicted to perform better as a leader. Organizations often use this approach in selection and recruitment processes to assess potential leaders. Despite some limitations, the predictive aspect remains a practical application of this theory.

  • Emphasis on Personality and Character

Trait Theory strongly emphasizes personal qualities such as honesty, emotional stability, courage, and determination. These traits are considered central to building trust, inspiring followers, and handling responsibilities. The theory views leadership as a reflection of one’s personality and moral character. This focus made organizations and scholars pay closer attention to leadership traits in areas like politics, military, and business. It highlights the belief that leadership is not just functional but deeply personal and moral.

  • Independent of Situational Context

Unlike contingency or situational theories, Trait Leadership Theory assumes that traits alone determine leadership success, independent of context. It suggests that a person with the right traits can lead effectively in any situation, whether in business, politics, or military. This universal application simplifies leadership understanding but also draws criticism for ignoring environmental and follower-related factors. Still, the theory’s simplicity makes it attractive in identifying leadership qualities without analyzing situational complexities in depth.

  • Provides Basis for Leadership Development

Although Trait Theory emphasizes inborn qualities, it also indirectly supports leadership development programs. Organizations use the identified traits as benchmarks to evaluate, select, and train potential leaders. For example, traits like communication or confidence can be enhanced through practice and training. Thus, even if the theory stresses natural abilities, it provides a framework for recognizing essential traits that can guide leadership grooming. This feature makes it relevant in modern recruitment, promotion, and training processes.

  • Historical and Foundational Importance

Trait Leadership Theory is one of the earliest systematic approaches to studying leadership, giving it historical significance. It laid the foundation for later theories by shifting focus from mystical or divine views of leadership to scientific and psychological analysis. Although criticized for its limitations, it opened the path for leadership research in management, psychology, and sociology. Its foundational role continues to influence modern theories, making it an important milestone in the evolution of leadership studies.

Types of Personality Traits Theory

1. Cardinal Traits

Cardinal traits are the most dominant and influential personality traits that shape almost every aspect of an individual’s life. These traits are so powerful that they define the entire personality structure of a person. When a cardinal trait is present, it becomes the central identity of the individual and influences their thoughts, emotions, behaviour, decision-making, and interactions in all situations.

In simple terms, a cardinal trait is a “master trait” that dominates all other personality characteristics. It is so strong that a person is often recognized, remembered, or described entirely through this trait. For example, a person may be known for extreme honesty, strong ambition, exceptional leadership, or deep compassion. These traits influence all actions and decisions consistently.

Cardinal traits are rare in nature. Not every individual develops such a strong dominating trait. Only a few people in society exhibit such intense personality characteristics that shape their entire life and legacy. These traits are usually seen in historical leaders, reformers, or highly influential personalities.

Examples of Cardinal Traits

Cardinal traits are often found in extraordinary personalities:

  • Extreme honesty
  • Strong ambition
  • Deep compassion
  • Leadership dominance
  • Religious devotion
  • Revolutionary thinking

For example, Mahatma Gandhi is widely associated with non-violence as a cardinal trait. This trait defined his personality, leadership style, and actions throughout his life.

Characteristics of Cardinal Traits

  • Highly Dominant Nature

Cardinal traits are extremely dominant personality traits that influence almost every aspect of an individual’s behavior. They override all other traits and become the central force guiding thoughts, emotions, and actions. A person with a cardinal trait consistently behaves according to it in different situations. This dominance makes the trait easily noticeable and strongly linked to the individual’s identity in both personal and organizational life.

  • Rare in Individuals

Cardinal traits are very rare and are not commonly found in most individuals. Only a few people develop such strong and overpowering traits that define their entire personality. Most individuals have central and secondary traits instead. Because of their rarity, cardinal traits are often associated with extraordinary personalities, leaders, or historical figures who have had a strong influence on society or organizations.

  • Life-Defining Influence

Cardinal traits have a life-defining impact on individuals. They influence major life decisions such as career choice, relationships, behavior patterns, and goals. A person’s actions are consistently shaped by this dominant trait. For example, strong ambition may drive continuous achievement, while extreme honesty may guide ethical decision-making. This trait becomes the guiding principle of life and shapes overall personality development and direction.

  • Long-Term Stability

Cardinal traits remain stable throughout an individual’s life and do not change easily with time or environment. They are deeply rooted in personality and tend to persist across different situations. Even when circumstances change, the influence of the cardinal trait remains strong. This stability makes the trait reliable for understanding long-term behavior patterns and predicting how a person is likely to act in various situations.

  • Identity Defining Nature

A cardinal trait becomes the defining identity of a person. Individuals are often recognized and remembered by this dominant characteristic. For example, a person known for honesty will be identified as an honest individual in all contexts. This identity-defining nature makes cardinal traits highly influential in shaping reputation, personality perception, and social recognition in both organizational and societal environments.

  • Strong Behavioral Influence

Cardinal traits strongly influence how a person behaves in everyday situations. They affect decision-making, emotional responses, and interpersonal relationships. Because of their powerful nature, individuals consistently act in ways aligned with the trait. This strong behavioral control makes the trait highly predictable and helps others understand and anticipate the individual’s actions in organizational settings.

  • Emotional and Psychological Depth

Cardinal traits are deeply rooted in an individual’s emotional and psychological makeup. They are not superficial behaviors but core internal characteristics. These traits influence thinking patterns, value systems, and personal beliefs. Because of this deep psychological connection, they are difficult to change and remain a central part of personality throughout life, shaping both personal and professional behavior.

  • Influence on Social and Organizational Role

Cardinal traits significantly affect an individual’s role in society and organizations. In workplaces, individuals with strong cardinal traits often become influential leaders or role models. Their behavior sets standards for others and can shape organizational culture. For example, a leader with strong integrity may promote ethical practices, while a highly ambitious leader may drive organizational growth and competitiveness.

Cardinal Traits in Organizational Behaviour

  • Influence on Leadership Behaviour

Cardinal traits play a major role in shaping leadership behaviour in organizations. Leaders with dominant traits such as integrity, ambition, or compassion strongly influence how they manage teams and make decisions. Their personality becomes the foundation of their leadership style. For example, an honest leader promotes ethical behaviour across the organization, while an ambitious leader focuses on achieving high performance targets and growth.

  • Impact on Organizational Culture

Cardinal traits of leaders and key employees significantly influence organizational culture. Employees often observe and follow the dominant behavioural patterns of leaders. If a leader has a cardinal trait of discipline, the organization may develop a disciplined work environment. Similarly, a compassionate leader may create a supportive and employee-friendly culture. Thus, cardinal traits help shape values, norms, and working style within the organization.

  • Decision-Making Influence

In Organizational Behaviour, cardinal traits strongly affect decision-making processes. Individuals tend to make decisions based on their dominant personality trait. For example, a highly ethical manager will always prioritize fairness and honesty, while a highly ambitious manager may focus on rapid growth and expansion. This trait-driven decision-making influences organizational strategies and long-term planning.

  • Employee Motivation and Inspiration

Employees are often motivated and inspired by individuals who possess strong cardinal traits. Such individuals act as role models within the organization. Their behavior encourages others to adopt similar values and work ethics. For example, a leader with strong dedication and discipline can motivate employees to improve performance and commitment toward organizational goals.

  • Workplace Behaviour Consistency

Cardinal traits ensure consistency in workplace behaviour. Employees or leaders with strong dominant traits behave in a predictable manner across different situations. This consistency helps organizations understand and anticipate their actions. For example, a highly responsible employee will consistently complete tasks on time regardless of workload or pressure.

  • Role in Employee Perception

Cardinal traits shape how employees are perceived in the organization. Individuals are often identified based on their dominant traits. For example, an employee known for honesty will be trusted more in sensitive roles. Similarly, a highly ambitious employee may be seen as a potential leader. This perception influences job assignments and career growth opportunities.

  • Influence on Organizational Performance

Cardinal traits can positively or negatively affect organizational performance. Positive traits like integrity, leadership, and ambition improve productivity, efficiency, and teamwork. However, if a negative trait dominates, such as excessive dominance or rigidity, it may create conflict or reduce flexibility in decision-making. Therefore, the nature of the cardinal trait is crucial for organizational success.

  • Role in HR Practices

Human Resource Management uses personality understanding, including cardinal traits, for recruitment and selection of top-level positions. While cardinal traits are rare, identifying strong personality characteristics helps in leadership development and succession planning. Organizations prefer candidates whose dominant traits align with organizational values and long-term goals.

2. Central Traits

Central traits are the general and most common personality characteristics that form the basic foundation of an individual’s personality. These traits are less dominant than cardinal traits but are widely present in most individuals and remain relatively stable over time. Central traits describe how a person usually behaves in everyday situations and help others form a clear impression of that individual’s personality.

Central traits act as the core building blocks of personality. They do not completely dominate behaviour but strongly influence how a person responds in most situations. Examples include honesty, friendliness, intelligence, cooperation, reliability, and responsibility. These traits are very important in understanding employee behaviour in Organizational Behaviour.

Characteristics of Central Traits

  • General Nature of Behaviour

Central traits are general personality characteristics that describe how an individual usually behaves in most situations. They are not extreme or rare but commonly observed in everyday workplace behaviour. Traits such as honesty, friendliness, and responsibility fall under this category. They help managers form a basic understanding of employee personality and predict routine behaviour in organizational settings effectively.

  • Moderate Influence on Personality

Central traits have a moderate level of influence on an individual’s personality. They are stronger than secondary traits but not as dominant as cardinal traits. They guide behaviour in many situations but do not completely control actions. This balanced influence makes them useful for understanding employee conduct without being overly rigid or extreme in interpretation.

  • Stability Over Time

Central traits are relatively stable and consistent over time. Employees who possess traits like dependability or cooperation tend to show similar behaviour in different situations. Although minor variations may occur, the overall pattern remains steady. This stability helps organizations rely on central traits for predicting long-term employee behaviour and ensuring consistency in workplace performance.

  • Common in Most Individuals

Central traits are widely found in almost all individuals, making them a common part of personality structure. Every employee possesses a combination of such traits in varying degrees. This universality makes them useful in Organizational Behaviour because managers can easily compare and evaluate employees based on shared behavioural characteristics present in the workplace.

  • Basis for Behavioural Understanding

Central traits form the foundation for understanding human behaviour in organizations. They help managers interpret how employees will likely act in routine work conditions. For example, a cooperative employee is expected to support teamwork, while an intelligent employee contributes to problem-solving. This makes central traits essential for behavioural analysis and HR decision-making.

  • Influence on Job Performance

Central traits directly affect employee job performance. Traits such as responsibility, intelligence, and discipline improve efficiency and work output. Employees with strong positive central traits are more likely to meet deadlines and maintain quality standards. This makes central traits an important factor in performance evaluation and job success within organizations.

  • Role in Teamwork and Relationships

Central traits significantly impact teamwork and workplace relationships. Traits like friendliness, cooperation, and trust help employees work effectively in groups. Such employees reduce conflicts and improve communication within teams. This leads to better coordination, higher morale, and improved organizational productivity through stronger interpersonal relationships.

  • Importance in HR Practices

Central traits are widely used in human resource practices such as recruitment, selection, and performance appraisal. Organizations look for candidates with positive central traits to ensure better job fit and long-term success. These traits help managers assign suitable roles and design training programs that enhance employee development and organizational efficiency.

Central Traits in Organizational Behaviour

  • Influence on Work Behaviour

Central traits strongly influence how employees behave in routine work situations. Traits such as honesty, responsibility, cooperation, and intelligence guide employee actions and responses. For example, a responsible employee completes tasks on time, while a cooperative employee works well in teams. These traits help organizations predict employee behaviour in most workplace situations and improve overall productivity and coordination.

  • Basis for Job Performance

Central traits act as an important basis for evaluating employee job performance. Employees with positive central traits tend to perform better because they are reliable, disciplined, and cooperative. These traits help in achieving organizational goals effectively. Managers use them to assess whether an employee is suitable for a particular job role, improving efficiency and performance standards within the organization.

  • Role in Teamwork and Cooperation

Central traits play a key role in promoting teamwork and cooperation among employees. Traits such as friendliness, trustworthiness, and helpfulness improve interpersonal relationships in the workplace. Employees with strong central traits are more likely to support their colleagues and work collaboratively. This improves group performance, reduces conflict, and creates a healthy working environment within the organization.

  • Importance in Recruitment and Selection

Organizations use central traits during recruitment and selection processes to identify suitable candidates. Traits like honesty, intelligence, and dependability are highly valued when hiring employees. These traits help organizations select individuals who can adapt well to the work environment and perform consistently. This improves job-person fit and reduces employee turnover in the long run.

  • Stability of Behaviour

Central traits provide a relatively stable pattern of behaviour in employees. Although not as dominant as cardinal traits, they remain consistent over time and across situations. This stability helps managers understand and predict employee behaviour in different organizational contexts. It also supports long-term planning and effective workforce management.

  • Impact on Organizational Culture

Central traits contribute to shaping a positive organizational culture. When employees collectively show traits such as cooperation, honesty, and responsibility, the workplace becomes more disciplined and productive. These traits help build trust and improve communication within the organization, leading to a more supportive and efficient working environment.

  • Support for Managerial Decision-Making

Central traits assist managers in making better decisions related to employee management. By understanding employee traits, managers can assign suitable roles, design training programs, and evaluate performance effectively. This leads to improved productivity, better employee satisfaction, and overall organizational success.

3. Secondary Traits

Secondary traits are the least influential and least consistent personality characteristics that appear only in specific situations. These traits do not form the core of personality and are not stable over time. Instead, they are situation-specific and may change depending on mood, environment, or circumstances. Secondary traits are often related to preferences, attitudes, emotional reactions, and temporary behavioural tendencies.

In Organizational Behaviour, secondary traits help explain why employees behave differently in different situations. For example, an employee may be confident in routine tasks but nervous during presentations, or may prefer teamwork in one project but independent work in another. These variations are explained through secondary traits.

Features of Secondary Traits

  • Situation-Specific Nature

Secondary traits are highly situation-specific and appear only in particular circumstances. They do not represent the overall personality of an individual but are triggered by specific environments or conditions. For example, an employee may feel nervous only during presentations but remain confident in routine tasks. This makes secondary traits useful for understanding behavioural variations in different workplace situations.

  • Low Consistency

Secondary traits are not consistent across time or situations. An individual may show a certain behaviour in one situation and behave completely differently in another. This inconsistency makes them unreliable for predicting long-term personality. For instance, an employee may enjoy teamwork in one project but prefer individual work in another depending on task type and mood.

  • Temporary Behavioural Expression

Secondary traits reflect temporary behavioural responses rather than permanent personality characteristics. They are often influenced by mood, stress, or external conditions. For example, anxiety before a meeting or excitement during a creative task represents temporary behaviour. These traits disappear once the situation changes, making them less stable than central or cardinal traits.

  • Low Predictive Power

Secondary traits have very low predictive power in Organizational Behaviour. They cannot be used to forecast long-term employee behaviour or performance. Since they change frequently based on situation, they are not reliable indicators for recruitment or major HR decisions. They only help in understanding short-term reactions and immediate responses of employees.

  • Influence of External Environment

These traits are highly influenced by external factors such as workplace environment, peer behaviour, leadership style, and organizational culture. A supportive environment may reduce anxiety, while a stressful environment may increase nervousness. This dependency shows that secondary traits are not purely internal but shaped by situational conditions.

  • Reflects Preferences and Attitudes

Secondary traits often represent personal preferences, likes, dislikes, and temporary attitudes. For example, an employee may prefer working in quiet environments or may temporarily dislike a specific task. These preferences do not define personality but influence behaviour in specific contexts.

  • Variation Among Situations

An individual may show different secondary traits in different situations. The same employee may be confident in familiar tasks but anxious in new or challenging tasks. This variation makes secondary traits useful for understanding behavioural flexibility but difficult for general personality assessment.

  • Limited Role in Organizational Decisions

Secondary traits have limited use in major organizational decisions such as recruitment, promotion, or performance evaluation. However, they are helpful in task assignment, training, and employee support. Managers use them to understand emotional responses and improve employee comfort in specific roles.

Secondary Traits in Organizational Behaviour

  • Situation-Based Behaviour

Secondary traits are highly dependent on situations. Employee behaviour changes according to the environment, task type, or pressure level. This means the same individual may show different behaviour in different workplace conditions. For example, an employee may perform well under normal workload but struggle under tight deadlines. This situation-based nature makes secondary traits important for understanding behavioural flexibility.

  • Temporary Nature of Behaviour

In Organizational Behaviour, secondary traits represent temporary behavioural expressions rather than stable personality characteristics. These behaviours may appear due to stress, excitement, fear, or external influence. Once the situation changes, the behaviour usually disappears. For example, nervousness during a presentation is temporary and does not define the overall personality of the employee.

  • Influence on Work Performance

Secondary traits can directly influence employee performance in specific situations. For instance, an employee may perform excellently in familiar tasks but may underperform in unfamiliar or high-pressure situations. These traits help managers understand performance fluctuations and identify areas where employees may need support or training.

  • Role in Employee Behavioural Variation

One of the key contributions of secondary traits is explaining behavioural differences in employees. Even employees with similar skills and experience may behave differently in the same situation due to secondary traits. This helps managers understand that not all behaviour is predictable based on core personality traits alone.

  • Impact of Work Environment

Secondary traits are strongly influenced by the organizational environment. A supportive and positive workplace may reduce negative behaviours like anxiety or stress, while a competitive or stressful environment may increase such behaviours. Leadership style, team dynamics, and organizational culture all affect how secondary traits are expressed.

  • Limited Use in HR Decisions

In Organizational Behaviour, secondary traits are not widely used for major HR decisions like recruitment or promotion because they are unstable and inconsistent. However, they are useful in training, employee development, and task assignment. Managers use them to understand employee comfort levels and improve workplace performance.

  • Importance in Understanding Employee Psychology

Secondary traits help managers understand the psychological and emotional aspects of employee behaviour. They reveal how employees react under pressure, change, or uncertainty. This understanding helps in creating better work environments and improving employee satisfaction and productivity.

4. Big Five Personality Traits Model

The Big Five Personality Traits Model is the most widely accepted and scientifically validated framework for understanding personality. It explains personality through five broad dimensions that describe human behaviour across cultures and situations. Unlike earlier trait theories, the Big Five model provides a structured and measurable approach to personality analysis.

The five traits are:

  • Openness to Experience
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

Every individual possesses all five traits in varying degrees, and the combination of these traits defines personality.

  • Openness to Experience

Openness refers to creativity, imagination, curiosity, and willingness to accept new ideas. High openness individuals are innovative, flexible, and open-minded. Low openness individuals prefer routine, tradition, and familiar methods.

In organizations, openness is important for creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

  • Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness reflects discipline, responsibility, organization, and reliability. Highly conscientious employees are hardworking, punctual, and goal-oriented.

This trait is the strongest predictor of job performance in most organizations.

  • Extraversion

Extraversion refers to sociability, confidence, and outgoing behaviour. Extroverts perform well in communication, leadership, and sales roles. Introverts prefer independent and analytical tasks.

  • Agreeableness

Agreeableness reflects kindness, cooperation, trust, and teamwork. Highly agreeable individuals maintain positive relationships and work effectively in groups.

  • Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

Neuroticism refers to emotional control and stress management. Emotionally stable individuals remain calm under pressure, while high neurotic individuals experience anxiety and stress.

Big Five in Organizational Behaviour

The Big Five model is widely used in:

  • Recruitment and selection
  • Leadership development
  • Performance appraisal
  • Team building
  • Career planning

It helps organizations predict employee behaviour more accurately than traditional trait theories.

Advantages of Trait Leadership Theory

  • Simple and Easy to Understand

One major advantage of Trait Leadership Theory is its simplicity. It clearly states that effective leaders possess certain personal qualities that distinguish them from others. This makes it easy for individuals and organizations to understand the basis of leadership without complex models or frameworks. Its straightforward nature allows managers, students, and researchers to grasp leadership concepts quickly, making it one of the most accessible and widely discussed theories in management and leadership studies.

  • Provides a Basis for Leader Identification

Trait theory helps in identifying potential leaders by highlighting the key traits necessary for effective leadership. Organizations can assess qualities like confidence, communication skills, honesty, and decision-making ability when selecting managers or executives. This predictive ability is highly useful in recruitment and promotion decisions. By focusing on observable personal traits, companies can identify candidates likely to succeed in leadership roles, thereby reducing risks in managerial appointments and improving the chances of organizational success.

  • Useful for Leadership Development

Even though the theory emphasizes inborn qualities, it indirectly provides a framework for leadership development. By identifying desired traits, organizations can design training programs to enhance qualities like confidence, emotional intelligence, or communication skills. This enables individuals to grow into leadership roles. The theory also encourages self-assessment, where aspiring leaders analyze their strengths and weaknesses. Thus, it not only helps in identifying leaders but also plays a role in grooming and developing future leadership talent.

  • Highlights Importance of Personal Qualities

Trait Leadership Theory emphasizes the role of personal characteristics like honesty, integrity, determination, and intelligence. This focus draws attention to the moral and ethical dimensions of leadership, encouraging organizations to value character as much as competence. It suggests that leadership is not just about authority but about inspiring trust and respect. By stressing the significance of these qualities, the theory ensures that leadership selection considers personality and character, promoting healthier and more effective organizational cultures.

  • Provides Historical Significance

Trait theory holds great historical importance as one of the earliest systematic studies of leadership. It shifted the perception of leadership from divine or mystical powers to psychological and measurable traits. This scientific approach paved the way for modern leadership theories and research. Even though later models built upon and refined its ideas, the theory remains foundational. Its historical relevance makes it essential for understanding the evolution of leadership thought and its influence on modern management practices.

  • Offers a Predictive Framework

Trait theory provides a predictive framework for leadership effectiveness. By identifying essential traits, it allows managers and organizations to forecast who may succeed in leadership roles. For example, individuals displaying decisiveness, adaptability, and confidence are more likely to perform well as leaders. This predictive value makes it practical in real-world scenarios, such as succession planning, talent management, and leadership assessment. Organizations can thus use trait-based evaluations to anticipate future leadership success and ensure continuity in management.

  • Encourages Research and Exploration

Another key advantage is that Trait Leadership Theory encouraged extensive research into leadership qualities. Scholars conducted numerous studies to identify which traits correlate with leadership success, leading to the development of psychology-based assessments and personality tests. This ongoing exploration has enriched the field of management and organizational behavior. While findings vary, the focus on traits sparked debates, innovations, and deeper insights into leadership. Thus, the theory not only influenced practice but also contributed significantly to academic development.

  • Practical Application in Organizations

Trait theory has practical applications in business, politics, military, and education. Many organizations still use trait-based models for leadership evaluation, recruitment, and succession planning. Tools like personality assessments, leadership inventories, and psychometric tests are rooted in trait theory. By offering a clear checklist of desirable traits, the theory helps organizations align leadership qualities with their culture and goals. Its continued relevance in modern HR practices demonstrates its practical utility despite theoretical limitations and criticisms.

Limitations of Trait Leadership Theory

  • Ignores Situational Factors

One major limitation of Trait Leadership Theory is that it does not consider the influence of situations. Leadership success often depends on context—what works in one environment may fail in another. For example, traits like strict discipline may be effective in the military but less useful in creative industries. By focusing only on inborn traits, the theory overlooks how external circumstances, organizational culture, and follower behavior significantly shape leadership effectiveness.

  • Lack of Universal Traits

The theory assumes the existence of universal traits that define all great leaders, but research shows no single set of traits applies in every situation. Some successful leaders are introverted, while others are extroverted; some are authoritative, others democratic. This inconsistency makes it difficult to establish a fixed list of leadership traits. Therefore, the theory oversimplifies leadership by attempting to create a “one-size-fits-all” model, which fails to reflect the diversity of leadership styles in practice.

  • Overemphasis on Inborn Qualities

Trait theory suggests leaders are born, not made, which underestimates the role of learning, experience, and development in leadership. Modern research shows that leadership skills like communication, decision-making, and problem-solving can be cultivated through training and experience. By ignoring this developmental aspect, the theory discourages the belief that individuals can grow into effective leaders, limiting opportunities for leadership development and promoting elitist views that only a few people are “natural” leaders.

  • Difficulty in Measurement

Another drawback of Trait Theory is the difficulty in measuring abstract traits like charisma, integrity, or confidence. These qualities are subjective and may be interpreted differently by different people. Even scientific assessments cannot always provide accurate results. As a result, evaluating leaders solely based on traits can lead to bias, misjudgment, and inconsistencies. The lack of reliable measurement tools reduces the practical effectiveness of trait-based leadership selection and limits its application in real-world organizations.

  • Neglects Followers’ Role

The theory focuses entirely on the leader’s traits, ignoring the role of followers in the leadership process. However, leadership is a relationship between leaders and followers, where the latter’s needs, values, and expectations greatly influence effectiveness. For example, a leader with strong traits may still fail if they cannot build trust with their team. By neglecting the importance of followers, the theory provides an incomplete understanding of leadership and undermines its practical application in organizations.

  • Limited Predictive Power

While the theory aims to predict leadership success by identifying traits, it often fails to do so reliably. Possessing traits like confidence or intelligence does not guarantee effectiveness as a leader. Many individuals with strong personal qualities may not succeed in leadership roles due to lack of vision, poor interpersonal skills, or inability to adapt. This limitation reduces the predictive value of the theory and highlights the need to consider multiple factors beyond traits.

  • Encourages Elitist Perspective

Trait Leadership Theory promotes the idea that only people with specific inborn qualities can become leaders. This creates an elitist perspective, discouraging others from aspiring to leadership roles. It may also cause organizations to overlook capable individuals who lack certain traditional traits but can succeed through hard work, adaptability, and skill development. Such bias restricts leadership diversity and growth opportunities, leading to missed potential and reducing inclusivity in leadership development and selection processes.

  • Outdated in Modern Context

In today’s dynamic and complex organizational environments, relying solely on traits to define leadership is outdated. Modern businesses require flexible leaders who can adapt to changing situations, foster collaboration, and innovate. Traits alone cannot ensure success in such conditions. Contemporary theories like transformational and situational leadership provide more comprehensive insights. Thus, while historically important, Trait Theory is considered insufficient in addressing modern leadership challenges, making it less relevant as a standalone framework today.

Management Notes

Leadership Styles

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes1

Leadership styles refer to the different approaches, methods, and patterns of behaviour used by leaders to guide, motivate, influence, and manage employees in an organization. A leadership style determines how decisions are made, how communication flows, and how authority is exercised within a group. Different situations require different leadership styles depending on organizational goals, employee capabilities, and workplace conditions.

In Organizational Behaviour, leadership styles significantly influence employee motivation, job satisfaction, productivity, teamwork, and organizational effectiveness. An effective leader selects the most appropriate style according to the needs of the organization and employees.

Types of Leadership Styles

1. Autocratic Leadership Style

Autocratic leadership is a style in which the leader makes all decisions independently without consulting employees. Authority and control remain centralized in the hands of the leader. Employees are expected to follow instructions and perform tasks as directed. This style is useful when quick decisions are required or when employees have limited experience. However, excessive control may reduce employee morale and creativity. In Organizational Behaviour, autocratic leadership is commonly found in military organizations, manufacturing units, and crisis situations. While it ensures discipline and efficiency, it may limit participation and innovation among employees.

2. Democratic Leadership Style

Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, involves employees in the decision-making process. Leaders encourage suggestions, discussions, and feedback before making final decisions. This style promotes teamwork, trust, and employee engagement. In Organizational Behaviour, democratic leadership improves job satisfaction because employees feel valued and respected. It also encourages creativity and innovation by allowing diverse viewpoints to be considered. Although decision-making may take longer, the quality of decisions is often higher. Democratic leadership is suitable for organizations that emphasize collaboration, employee development, and long-term commitment to organizational goals.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

Laissez-faire leadership is a style in which leaders provide employees with considerable freedom and autonomy to make decisions. The leader offers guidance and resources but allows employees to determine how tasks should be completed. In Organizational Behaviour, this style is effective when employees are highly skilled, experienced, and self-motivated. It encourages creativity, innovation, and independent thinking. However, lack of supervision may lead to confusion, poor coordination, and reduced accountability. Laissez-faire leadership is most suitable in research organizations, creative industries, and professional environments where employees possess specialized expertise and require minimal supervision.

4. Transformational Leadership Style

Transformational leadership focuses on inspiring and motivating employees to achieve extraordinary performance and embrace organizational change. Leaders create a compelling vision, encourage innovation, and support employee growth. In Organizational Behaviour, transformational leaders influence employees through enthusiasm, inspiration, and personal example. They help employees develop confidence and commitment to organizational objectives. This style promotes creativity, adaptability, and continuous improvement. Employees often feel empowered and motivated under transformational leaders. It is particularly effective in dynamic and competitive environments where innovation and change are essential for organizational success and long-term growth.

5. Transactional Leadership Style

Transactional leadership is based on a system of rewards and punishments. Leaders clearly define expectations and provide rewards when employees meet performance standards. Failure to achieve goals may result in corrective action or penalties. In Organizational Behaviour, this style emphasizes discipline, efficiency, and goal achievement. It works well in structured environments where tasks and responsibilities are clearly defined. Transactional leadership ensures consistency and accountability. However, it may not encourage creativity or innovation because employees focus primarily on meeting established requirements. This style is commonly used in organizations that require strict compliance and performance control.

6. Servant Leadership Style

Servant leadership focuses on serving employees and supporting their growth and well-being. Leaders prioritize the needs of team members and help them achieve personal and professional development. In Organizational Behaviour, servant leaders promote trust, empathy, collaboration, and ethical behaviour. They focus on building strong relationships and creating a positive work environment. Employees often feel respected, valued, and motivated under this leadership style. Servant leadership contributes to employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. It is particularly effective in organizations that value teamwork, employee empowerment, and long-term relationship building.

7. Charismatic Leadership Style

Charismatic leadership is based on the leader’s personal charm, confidence, and ability to inspire followers. Such leaders influence employees through their strong communication skills, vision, and enthusiasm. In Organizational Behaviour, charismatic leaders motivate employees by creating excitement and commitment toward organizational goals. They often gain strong loyalty and admiration from followers. This style is effective during periods of change, uncertainty, or crisis. However, excessive dependence on the leader’s personality can create challenges if the leader leaves the organization. Charismatic leadership is powerful in motivating employees and driving organizational transformation.

8. Situational Leadership Style

Situational leadership emphasizes adapting leadership behaviour according to the needs of employees and the circumstances. Leaders do not follow a single style but adjust their approach based on factors such as employee competence, experience, and task complexity. In Organizational Behaviour, this flexibility makes situational leadership highly effective. Leaders may be directive in one situation and supportive in another. This style helps employees receive the appropriate level of guidance and support. Situational leadership improves communication, motivation, and performance by recognizing that different situations require different leadership approaches for achieving organizational objectives.

Importance of Leadership Styles

  • Improves Employee Motivation

Leadership styles play an important role in motivating employees to perform their tasks efficiently. An effective leadership style encourages employees to work with enthusiasm and commitment toward organizational goals. Leaders who understand employee needs and provide support create a positive work environment. Motivated employees show higher productivity, better job satisfaction, and greater dedication. Therefore, leadership styles help organizations maintain a motivated workforce and achieve better performance outcomes.

  • Enhances Employee Performance

Different leadership styles influence employee performance in various ways. Effective leaders guide employees, provide direction, and help them improve their skills and abilities. A suitable leadership style ensures that employees understand their responsibilities and perform tasks efficiently. By offering support, feedback, and encouragement, leaders help employees achieve higher levels of productivity. Thus, leadership styles contribute significantly to improving individual and organizational performance.

  • Promotes Effective Communication

Leadership styles are important for establishing effective communication within an organization. Leaders act as a link between management and employees by sharing information, instructions, and feedback. Open and clear communication helps reduce misunderstandings and workplace conflicts. Employees feel comfortable expressing their ideas and concerns when leaders encourage communication. As a result, leadership styles strengthen coordination, cooperation, and understanding among organizational members.

  • Encourages Teamwork and Cooperation

A good leadership style promotes teamwork and cooperation among employees. Leaders create an environment where employees work together to achieve common objectives. By encouraging participation and collaboration, leaders strengthen relationships among team members. Effective teamwork improves problem-solving, creativity, and productivity. Therefore, leadership styles are important in building a cooperative work culture and enhancing organizational effectiveness.

  • Facilitates Organizational Change

Organizations frequently face changes due to technological advancements, market competition, and changing customer needs. Leadership styles help employees adapt to these changes effectively. Strong leaders communicate the need for change, reduce resistance, and motivate employees to accept new methods and processes. By guiding employees through transitions, leadership styles ensure smooth implementation of organizational changes and contribute to long-term success.

  • Develops Employee Confidence and Skills

Leadership styles play a significant role in employee development. Supportive leaders provide opportunities for learning, training, and skill enhancement. Employees gain confidence when leaders trust their abilities and encourage them to take responsibility. This development improves job performance and prepares employees for future leadership roles. Therefore, leadership styles are essential for building a skilled and confident workforce.

  • Improves Decision-Making

Effective leadership styles contribute to better decision-making in organizations. Leaders analyze situations, evaluate alternatives, and choose appropriate solutions. Some leadership styles encourage employee participation, resulting in more informed decisions. Better decision-making helps organizations solve problems efficiently and achieve objectives. Thus, leadership styles influence the quality and effectiveness of organizational decisions.

  • Increases Organizational Effectiveness

Leadership styles are important because they directly affect organizational effectiveness. Effective leaders align employee efforts with organizational goals and ensure efficient utilization of resources. They create a positive work environment, improve productivity, and strengthen employee commitment. Leadership styles also help maintain discipline, coordination, and adaptability. As a result, organizations achieve higher performance, growth, and long-term success through effective leadership practices.

Based on Behavioral Approach

1. Power Orientation

The power orientation refers to the “degree of authority” that a leader adopts to influence the behavior of his subordinates. Based on this, the leadership styles can be further classified as:

  • Autocratic Leadership
  • Participative Leadership
  • Laissez-Faire

2. Leadership as a continuum

This model is given by Tannenbaum and Schmidt, who believed that there are several leadership styles that range between two extremes of autocratic and free-rein, which are shown below:

3. Employee-Production Orientation

Several types of research were conducted to study the leadership behavior that gets affected by the several characteristics that are related to each other. It was found that employee orientation and production orientation play an important role in determining the leadership style.The employee orientation is based on the premise that an employee is an important part of the group and is in parallel to the democratic leadership style. Whereas the production Orientation focuses on the production and technical aspects of the job and the employees are considered as the tools for accomplishing the jobs. Thus, the production orientation is parallel to the autocratic leadership style.

4. Likert’s Management System

Rensis Likert along with his associates studied the patterns and behavior of managers to identify the leadership styles and defined four systems of management. These four systems are: Exploitative Authoritative, Benevolent Authoritative, consultative system and participative system.

5. Managerial Grid

The managerial grid is the tool designed by Blake and Mouton to determine the leadership style. According to them, the leadership style gets influenced by both the task-oriented and relation-oriented behavior in varying degrees.

6. Three Dimensional Grid

The three-dimensional grid is also called as a 3-D leadership model given by W.J. Reddin. Reddin included the effectiveness dimension along with the task-oriented and relationship-oriented dimensions to study how a leader behaves in a given situation and a specific environment.

Based on Situational Approach

1. Fiedler’s Contingency Model

This theory is given by Fred Fiedler, who, along with his associates identified the situational variables and their relationship to determine the leadership styles. Thus, this model is comprised of three elements, leadership styles, situational variables and the interrelationship between these two.

2. Hursey and Blanchard’s Situational Model

According to this model, the leader has to adopt the leadership style that matches up with the subordinate’s maturity i.e. his willingness to direct his behavior towards the goal.

3. Path-Goal Model

The Path-Goal Model is given by Robert House, who, along with his associates tried to predict the effectiveness of leadership styles in varied situations. He believed that the foremost function of any leader is to define the goals to the subordinates clearly and assist them in finding the best path to accomplish that goal.

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