Tag: Income Statement

Management Notes

Audit of Educational Institutions

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Maintenance of Accounts of Educational Institutions

A large number of educational institutions are registered under the India Society Registration Act, 1860. The purpose behind the formation of educational institutions is to spread education and not just earn profits. The following table lists out the sources for collection of amount and also the different types of expenses incurred by the educational institutions:

Main Source of Collection

  • Admission fees, tuition fees, examination fees, fines, etc.
  • Securities from students.
  • Donations from public
  • Grants from Government for building, prizes, maintenance, etc.

Types of Expenses / Payments

  • Salary, allowances and provident fund contribution for teaching and non-teaching staff.
  • Examination expenses
  • Stationery & printing expenses
  • Distribution of scholarships and stipends
  • Purchase and repair of furniture & fixture
  • Prizes
  • Expenses on sports and games
  • Festival and function expenses
  • Library books
  • Newspaper and magazines
  • Medical expenses
  • Audit fees and audit expenses
  • Electricity expenses
  • Telephone expenses
  • Laboratory running & maintenance
  • Laboratory equipment
  • Building Repair & maintenance

Preliminary Audit of Educational Institutions

Following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of educational institutions:

  • It is to be confirmed whether the letter of his appointment (the Auditor’s) is in order.
  • The Auditor should obtain a list of books, documents, register and other records as maintained by the educational institutions.
  • He should examine the audit report of last year and should note down the observation and qualification, if any.
  • He should note down the important provisions regarding to accounts and audit from the Trust Deed, Charter of Regulations.
  • He should examine the Minutes of Meetings of the Board of Trustee or the Governing Body for important decisions regarding the sale or purchase of fixed assets, investments or delegation of finance power.
  • In case of colleges and university, the Grants Commission provides Grants to them subject to certain conditions. The Auditor should study all the conditions concerning grants.
  • The Auditor should examine the Code of State regarding grant-in-aid.
  • He should be aware of all the provisions and rules of related laws concerning books of account and audit.

Internal Control System

The Auditor should independently check the internal control system regarding authorization procedures, record maintenance, safeguarding of assets, rotation and division of staff duty, etc. Following are some of the important aspects that need to be considered by an Auditor to keep a check on the internal control system −

  • Whether internal control and internal check system is working, if yes, how effectively.
  • Is there is any system to physically verify the fixed assets, stores and consumables at regular interval.
  • An Auditor should verify the control system concerning proper authorization, obtaining quotations, proper maintenance of accounts and record regarding purchase of fixed assets, purchase of material, investment, etc.
  • Whether bank reconciliation statement is prepared at regular intervals and what kind of action is taken for uncleared cheque which were pending since long.
  • Whether waiver of fees is properly sanctioned by appropriate authorities.
  • The person who is collecting fees and the cashier should not be the same person.
  • Class wise fees receivable and the actual fees received reconcile or not.
  • Whether collected fees is deposited in bank on a daily basis.
  • Fees collection register should be maintained on a daily basis.
  • Whether approved list of supplier of sports material, stationery, lab items are readily available.
  • Whether control system for payment is adequate or not.
  • The system of letting out conference hall and class rooms, etc. for seminars and conventions.
  • Whether fees structure is properly authorized along with change in fee structure if any.

Audit of Assets and Liabilities

The following points need to be considered while conducting an audit of Assets and Liabilities −

  • Verification of Assets register should be done considering grants on purchase of assets, if any received from State Government/ University Grant Commission (UGC).
  • Verification of depreciation is very important; it should be according to useful life of assets or as per the Companies Act, whichever is applicable.
  • If educational institution is running under Indian Public Trust Act, it is must for an Auditor to check, where investments have been made, because as per the Indian Public Trust Act, investment can be made in specific securities only.
  • If donation is received in the form of investment, an Auditor has to check all related correspondence with the donor.
  • All the applicable requirements of law should be fulfilled for the purchase of investments and fixed assets.
  • An Auditor should read and note down the state code and provisions relating to the conditions and procedures of Grants. He should also verify the requirements of State/UGC which are to be fulfilled by educational institutions for receiving Grants and also for continuations of Grants.

Audit of Income of Educational Institutions

The following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of the Income of Educational Institutions:

  • Fees and charges received on account of admission fees, tuition fees, sports fees, examination fees etc. should be verified based on the approved fees structure.
  • Verification of counterfoil copies of fees receipt with fees received register should be done.
  • Prescribed conditions by the State Government and the University Grants Commission should be verified whether fulfilled or not.
  • Cash book should be verified with counterfoil of receipt book and fees register.
  • Fees receivable and actual fees received should be reconciled.
  • Charges and fees received and receivable should be examined on account of hostel accommodation, mess, housekeeping and clothing, etc.
  • Cash book should be verified with the donation received register.
  • Donation received should be accounted for according to the nature of donation means careful distinction should be there for revenue nature donation and capital nature donations; the same procedure is to be followed for Grants received.
  • The purpose and utilization of grant should be same.
  • Investment register and cash book should be verified for income received on account of interest on investment and dividends, etc.

Audit of Expenses of Educational Institutions

The following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of Expenses of Educational Institutions:

  • Electricity expenses, telephone expenses, water charges, stationery and printing, purchase of sports items should be properly verified with quotation, purchase bills, inward register and Bills received from service providers, etc. All purchases should be authorized by appropriate person.
  • In case where hostels purchase food items, provisions, clothing, etc. should be properly verified.
  • Verification of Tax Deducted at Source, Employee State Insurance and Provident Fund should be checked. It is also very important that all deducted amount should be deposited in appropriate Government accounts well within time without any default. These can be verified from relevant bank challans.
  • Payment made on account of salary should be verified from terms of appointment and increment policy. Auditor should verify the computation of salary and check whether all required deductions are made out of it or not like advance salary, loan installment, absence from duty, ESI (Employee State Insurance), PF (Provident Fund), etc. The Net Salary Payable amount will be verified from cash book and bank pass book for salary paid.
  • Terms and conditions, cash book, voucher and receipts should be the basis for the verification of scholarship paid.
  • Appropriate provision should be made on account of outstanding payments.
Management Notes

Vouching of Payments: Cash Purchases

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In vouching, payments shown on cash book, an auditor should see that payment has been made wholly and exclusively for the business of the client and that it is properly authorized by the person who is competent to do so.

Vouching of Cash Transaction

In a business concern, cash book is maintained to account for receipts and payments of cash. It is an important financial book for a business concern. Errors and frauds arise mostly in connection with receipts and payments of cash by making misappropriations wherever possible. Hence the auditor should see whether all receipts have been recorded in cash book and no fictitious payment appears on the payment side of cash book.

General Points to be Considered while Vouching Cash Transactions

The auditor should consider the following general points while vouching the cash transactions:

  1. Internal Check System

Before starting the vouching of cash book, the auditor should enquire about the internal check system in operation. If there is no well organized internal check system, there are lot of chances of misappropriation of cash. He should study carefully the internal check systems regarding cash sales and other receipts. The internal control needs to be revised periodically and suitable modification is done to make it more effective.

  1. The auditor should verify and test the system of accounting

The system of accounting should be tested for its accuracy of recording cash transactions. By suppressing the receipt of cash and overstatement of payments, fraud can be committed.

  1. Examination of Test Checking

As far as possible, all cash transactions are to be checked elaborately. However, if the auditor is satisfied that there is an efficient internal check system, he can resort to test checking. In such a case, he may check a few items at random and if he finds that they are all in order and free from irregularities, he has reason to assume that the remaining transactions will be correct.

  1. Comparison of rough Cash Book with the Cash Book

Usually, cash receipts are entered first in the rough cash book before they are entered in the cash book. The auditor should examine the entries in the rough cash book and main cash book and then compare them to detect whether there is any error or irregularity.

  1. Examine the Method of Depositing Cash Receipts Daily

The auditor should examine the method adopted for depositing daily cash receipts in bank. The pay in slip should invariably be used for this purpose. Accounting of receipts should not be delayed. Adjusting customer’s account with allowances and rebates are not actually allowed. Misappropriation of cash is possible to the extent of adjustment.

  1. Preparing of Bank Reconciliation Statement

The auditor should prepare a Bank Reconciliation Statement verifying the bank balance with cash book and pass book and find out the reasons for the difference between the bank balance as per Pass Book and that of in the Cash Book.

  1. Verification of Cash in Hand

The auditor should verify the cash in hand by actually counting it and see whether it agrees with cash book balance.

  1. Ensuring Proper Control of Receipts Book

The auditor should see whether receipt books are kept under proper control. While doing so, he should enquire as to whether all receipts are in printed forms, whether counterfoil receipts are used or a system of carbon copy is used, and all receipt books and all receipts are separately and consecutively numbered.

He should compare the particulars as regards to date, amount, name, etc. with cash book entries. If there are certain entries in cash book for which receipts have been issued, they should be carefully checked. The receipts have to be signed by a responsible officer, and not by the cashier.

The unused receipt book should be kept in safe custody with some responsible officials. Along with cash receipt, the rule for granting cash discount should be examined. If there is a system under which a receipt accompanies the receipt of cash, such a receipt, usually known as delivery note should be properly signed and returned to the customer.

Management Notes

Proceeds of the sale of Investments

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When a company sells an investment, it results in a gain or loss which is recognized in income statement. A gain on sale of investment arises when the (disposal) value of an investment exceeds its cost. Similarly, a capital loss is when the value of investment drops below its cost.

Accounting treatment of a disposal of investment depends on:

  • The nature of the investment i.e. whether it is a share of common stock, preferred stock, a bond, etc.,
  • The extent of the investment i.e. the percentage holding, and
  • The initial recognition and continuing accounting of the investment.

Investments in shares of common stock are accounted for using either the fair value through profit and loss, fair value through other comprehensive income, equity method or consolidation depending on the extent of ownership.

Management Notes

Audit Notebook

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Audit Note Book is a register maintained by the audit staff to record important points observed, errors, doubtful queries, explanations and clarifications to be received from the clients. It also contains definite information regarding the day-to-day work performed by the audit clerks. In short, audit note book is usually a bound note book in which a large variety of matters observed during the course of audit are recorded. The note book should be maintained clearly, completely and systematically. It serves as authentic evidence in support of work done to protect the auditor against any legal charge initiated against him for negligence. It is of immense help to the auditor in preparing audit report. It also acts as a valuable guide for conducting audit for future years.

E.L. Kohler formulated a detailed definition for the term. According to him,

“Audit note book is a record, used chiefly in recurring audits, containing data of work done and comments outside the regular subject matter of working papers. It generally contains such items as the audit programme, notations showing how sections of the audit are carried out during successive examinations, information needed for the auditor’s office and for staff administration, personnel assignment, time requirements and notations for use in succeeding examination”.

Contents of Audit Note Book

An audit notebook generally consists of the following information:

  1. The nature of the business and summary of important documents relating to the constitution of the business such as Memorandum of Association, Articles of Association or Partnership Deed, etc.
  2. A list of the books of accounts maintained.
  3. Particulars as to the system of accounts followed and the system of internal check in force.
  4. Names of principal officers, their duties and responsibilities.
  5. Progress of audit work together with the dates on which the work was undertaken and completed.
  6. Extracts from correspondence with different authorities.
  7. Audit programme.
  8. Allocation of work among different audit staff.
  9. All queries which have not been clarified so far.
  10. Lists of missing receipts, vouchers, bills, etc.
  11. Any special point arising during the course of audit to which the attention of the auditor must be drawn.
  12. Particulars of cash balances, investments, fixed deposits, and the reconciliation statements of principal bank accounts.
  13. Extracts of the minutes and contracts affecting the accounts.
  14. Record of audit work done with dates of commencement and of completion.
  15. Particulars regarding the financial policies followed by the business.
  16. All mistakes and errors discovered.
  17. Points to be incorporated in the audit report.
  18. Points, which need further explanations and clarifications.
  19. All important matters for future reference at subsequent audits.
  20. Information of permanent nature relating to the business and notes of all important technical transactions.

These matters are very useful in preparing the audit programmes for subsequent audits.

Advantages of Audit Note Book

  1. Facilitates Audit Work

It facilitates the work of an auditor as all important details about the audit are recorded in the note book which the audit clerk cannot remember everything at all the time. It helps in remembering and recalling the important matters relating to the audit work.

  1. Preparation of Audit Report

Audit note book helps in providing required data for preparing the audit report. An auditor examines the audit note book before preparing and finalizing the audit report

  1. Serves as Documentary Evidence

Audit note book serves as a documentary evidence in the court of law when a suit is filed against the auditor for his negligence.

  1. Serves as a Guide

When a audit assistant is changed before the completion of audit work, audit note book serves as a guide in completion of balance work. It also acts as a guide for carrying on subsequent audits.

  1. Evaluating Work of Audit Staff

It helps to assess the work performed by the audit staff and helps in evaluating their level of efficiency.

  1. Fixation of Responsibility

Audit note book helps in fixing responsibility on concerned clerk who is responsible for any undetected errors and frauds in the course of audit.

  1. No Dislocation of Audit Work

An audit note book contains all important details about audit hence any change in the audit staff will not disturb or dislocate the audit work.

Disadvantages of Audit Note Book

  1. Fault-finding Attitude

It leads to development of a fault-finding attitude in the minds of the staff.

  1. Misunderstanding

Very often maintenance of audit note book creates misunderstanding between the client’s staff and the audit staff.

  1. Improper Preparation

Since it serves as evidence in the court of law, it needs to be prepared with great caution. When the note book is prepared without due care it cannot be used as evidence against the auditor for negligence.

  1. Adverse Effects on Subsequent Audits

Since audit note book is used in performing subsequent audits, any mistakes in the note book may have adverse impacts on the next audit.

Management Notes

Accounting for Joint Ventures: Introduction, Meaning, Objectives

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An association of two or more persons or we may say temporary partnership combined for the carrying out a specific business, and divide profit or loss thereof in agreed ratio is called a Joint Venture. Concerned parties to joint venture are known as co-venturers. The liabilities of co-venturers are limited to their profit sharing ratio or as per agreed terms:

Suppose ‘A’ and ‘B’ undertake the job to develop a park for a consideration of Rs. 10,000/- Lacs. Since they come together for a work on a specific project, it will termed as joint venture and each of them (A and B) will be called as a co-venturer. Further, this venture will automatically terminate once the project is completed.

Major Features and Characteristics of Joint Venture

  • There is an agreement between two or more persons.
  • Joint venture is made for the specific execution of a business plan/project.
  • It is a temporary partnership without the use of a firm name.
  • Agreement for joint ventures is automatically dissolved as soon as specific project is over.
  • Profit & Share are shared on the same terms and conditions agreed upon. However, in the absence of any agreement, profit & share will be divided equally.

Salient Features of Joint Venture

  1. Agreement: Two or more firms come to an agreement, to undertake a business, for a definite purpose and are bound by it.
  2. Joint Control: There exist a joint control of the co-venturers over business assets, operations, administration and even the venture.
  3. Pooling of resources and expertise: Firms pool their resources like capital, manpower, technical know-how, and expertise, which helps in large-scale production.
  4. Sharing of profit and loss: The co-venturers agree to share the profits and losses of the business in an agreed ratio. The computation of the profit and loss is usually done at the end of the venture, however, when it continues for the long duration, the profit and loss is calculated annually.
  5. Access to advanced technology: By entering into joint venture firms get access to various techniques of production, marketing and doing business, which decreases the overall cost and also improves quality.
  6. Dissolution: Once the term or purpose of the joint venture is complete, the agreement comes to an end, and the accounts of the coventurers, are settled, as and when it is dissolved.

The co-venturers are free to carry on their own business, unless otherwise provided in the joint venture agreement, during the life of the venture.

Partnership and Joint Venture

There are following differences between partnership and joint venture −

  • Partnership always carried on with firm’s name, but for the joint venture, no such firm’s name is required.
  • The persons who run the business on partnership are called as partners and the persons who agreed to take the project as joint venture are called as co-venturers.
  • Normally, a partnership is constituted for a long period (including various projects), whereas joint venture is formed to complete a specific job/project.
  • Partnership is governed under the Partnership Act, 1932, whereas there is no enactment of such kind for the joint ventures. However, as a matter of fact in law, a joint venture is treated as a partnership.
  • There is no limit specified for the numbers of co-venturers, but the number of partners is limited to 10 under banking business and 20 for any other trade or business.
  • Liability of a partner is unlimited and may extent of his business and personal estate, whereas under joint venture, liabilities of co-venturers are limited to the particular assignment or project agreed upon.

Joint Venture and Consignment

Major differences between joint venture and consignment may be summarized as −

  • Relationship: The co-venturers of a Joint venture are the owners of a Joint venture, whereas relationship of a consignor and consignee is of owner and Agent.
  • Sharing of Profits: There is no distribution of profit between a consignor and consignee, consignee only gets commission on sale made by him. On the other hand, the co-venturers of a joint venture share profits as per the agreed profit sharing ratio.
  • Ownership of Goods: Ownership of the goods remains with the consignor. Consignor transfers only possession to the consignee, but every co-venturer of a joint venture is the co-owner of the goods/project.
  • Contribution of Funds: Investment is done by the consignor only. On the other hand, funds are contributed by all co-ventures in a certain agreed proportion.
  • Continuity of Business: In case of a joint venture, there is no continuity of the business once project is completed. On the other hand, if, everything goes smooth, consignment is a continuous process.

Accounting Records

To keep a record of the joint venture transactions, there are three following types of accounting methods:

  • When one of the Venturers keeps Accounts,
  • When Separate Books of Accounts are kept for the Joint Venture, and
  • When Separate Books of Accounts are not kept for the Joint Venture.

Let’s discuss each of them separately:

When one of the Venturers keeps Accounts

If one of the co-venturers is appointed to manage the joint venture, he is awarded an extra commission or remuneration out of the profit for his services.

Journal Entries

When share of investment received from other co-venturers Cash/Bank A/cDr

To Co-venturers A/c
When goods are purchased Joint Venture A/cDr

To Cash A/c (in case of cash purchase)

Or

To Creditors A/c (for credit purchase)
When expenses incurred Joint Venture A/cDr

To Cash A/c
When goods are sold Cash A/cDr

Or

Debtors A/cDr

To Joint Venture A/c
When commission allowed to working co-venturer Joint Venture A/cDr

To Commission A/c
In case of Profit balance of joint venture, account will be transferred to profit & Loss (own share of working co-venturer) and other co-venture’s personal accounts Joint Venture A/cDr

To Profit & Loss A/c

To Co-venturers personal A/c
In case of Loss Profit & Loss A/cDr

To Joint Venture A/c
On settlement of accounts All Co-venturer A/cDr

To Cash/Bank A/c

When Separate Books of Accounts are kept for the Joint Venture

Under this method, all co-venturers contribute their share of investment and deposit their shares in a Joint Bank account — newly opened for the specific purpose of the Joint Venture. They may use this bank account to make any kind of payments and to deposit sale proceeds or any other kind of receipts.

In addition to Bank account, a Joint venture account is also opened in the books to keep records of all transactions routed through this account.

This category of accounts is a personal account of the each co-venturer. Thus following three accounts are opened −

  • Joint Bank Account
  • Joint Venture Account
  • Personal account of co-venturers

When Separate Books of Accounts are not kept for the Joint Venture

It is of two types:

  • When all venturers keep separate accounts
  • Memorandum joint venture method

When all Venturers keep Separate Accounts:

  • Separate Joint venture account and personal accounts of other co-venturers are opened under this method of accounting.
  • Joint venture account is debited and bank account or creditor account is credited on the account of goods purchased or expensed.
  • Joint venture account is credited and a bank account or debtor account is debited in case of either cash sale or credit sale.
  • Each co-venturer debits joint venture account and credits personal accounts of other co-venturer on the account of either goods purchased or expensed by other co-venturers.
  • Joint venture account is credited and personal account of others co-venturer account is debited in case of sale made by other co-venturers.
  • Joint venture account is debited and commission account is credited if, commission is receivable, but if commission is receivable by other co-venturer, then the concerned co-venturer account will be credited instead of the commission account.
  • If unsold stock is taken, then goods account will be debited by crediting Joint venture account. On the other hand, if unsold stock is taken by any other co-venturer, then personal account of the co-venturer will be debited.
  • Balance in the joint venture accounts represents profit or loss and later that amount of profit or loss will be transferred to the personal accounts of co-venturers.

Note: Above transactions are possible only when all the co-venturers exchange information’s on regular basis.

Objectives of Joint Venture

  • To enter foreign market and even new or emerging market.
  • To reduce the risk factor for heavy investment.
  • To make optimum utilisation of resources.
  • To gain economies of scale.
  • To achieve synergy.

Joint ventures are primarily formed for construction of dams and roads, film production, buying and selling of goods etc.

The type of joint venture is based on the various factors like, the purpose for which it is formed, number of firms involved and the term for which it is formed.

Management Notes

Key differences between Joint Venture and Consignment

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Key differences between Joint Venture and Consignment

Basis of Comparison Joint Venture Consignment
Definition Temporary business partnership Goods sent to agent for sale
Parties Involved Co-venturers Consignor and Consignee
Ownership Joint ownership by partners Ownership remains with consignor
Objective Profit sharing Selling goods on behalf
Agreement Formal or informal Formal agreement
Risk Sharing Shared by all partners Borne by consignor
Profit Sharing Shared as per agreement Commission for consignee
Scope Broad (business activity) Narrow (selling specific goods)
Investment Contributed by partners Provided by consignor
Control Joint control by partners Control by consignor
Duration Temporary (until completion) Ongoing as per agreement
Accounting Separate joint venture account Consignment account maintained
Legal Entity Not a separate legal entity Not a separate legal entity
Risk of Loss Shared by co-venturers Borne by consignor
Termination On completion of venture As per agreement

Joint Venture

Joint Venture is a business arrangement where two or more parties come together to undertake a specific project or business activity, sharing resources, risks, and profits. Unlike a partnership, a joint venture is usually formed for a temporary period or a single project, after which it may dissolve. Each party maintains its distinct identity while contributing assets, capital, and expertise to achieve mutual goals. Joint ventures are common in large-scale projects like infrastructure, technology development, and international business expansion, where collaboration enhances competitive advantage and market reach.

Features of Joint Venture:

1. Temporary Business Relationship

A joint venture is a temporary business arrangement created between two or more parties for completing a specific project or business activity. It is formed for a particular purpose and usually ends after achieving the agreed objective. Unlike a partnership, it does not generally continue for an unlimited period. The parties work together only until the venture is completed. After completion, accounts are settled and the relationship between co-venturers may come to an end.

2. Two or More Co-Venturers

A joint venture requires two or more individuals, firms, or companies to participate in a common business activity. The parties involved are called co-venturers. Each co-venturer contributes resources such as money, goods, skills, or experience according to the agreement. They jointly perform activities, share responsibilities, and participate in the results of the venture.

3. Sharing of Profit and Loss

The profit or loss earned from a joint venture is shared among co-venturers according to the agreed ratio. The sharing arrangement is decided before starting the venture. If no agreement exists, profits and losses are generally shared equally. This feature ensures that all parties have a common interest in the success of the venture.

4. Specific Objective

A joint venture is established to achieve a specific objective or complete a particular task. The objective may include construction work, trading activities, production projects, or any other business purpose. All activities of the venture are planned and performed to achieve the agreed goal within the specified time period.

5. Mutual Agreement

A joint venture is based on a mutual agreement between the parties involved. The agreement contains important details such as contribution of capital, duties, responsibilities, profit sharing ratio, and settlement of accounts. A clear agreement helps avoid disputes and ensures smooth functioning of the venture. All co-venturers must follow the agreed terms.

6. Contribution of Resources

Each co-venturer contributes resources required for the success of the venture. Contributions may be made in the form of cash, goods, machinery, technical knowledge, or other assets. The value of contributions is recorded in the accounts. Combined resources help the parties complete the venture effectively and achieve the common objective.

7. Separate Accounting Records

Separate accounts are generally maintained for joint venture transactions to determine the profit or loss of the venture. A Joint Venture Account is prepared to record purchases, sales, expenses, and other transactions. Proper accounting helps in accurate calculation of results and final settlement among co-venturers.

8. Mutual Agency Relationship

In a joint venture, every co-venturer can act as an agent for other co-venturers while performing activities related to the venture. Decisions taken by one co-venturer within the authority of the venture may affect all parties. Therefore, trust, cooperation, and coordination among co-venturers are essential.

9. No Permanent Legal Structure

A joint venture does not usually create a permanent business organization. It is formed only for a particular purpose and dissolved after completion of the venture. The parties may continue their separate businesses independently after the venture ends. This makes joint ventures flexible for short term business opportunities.

10. Independent Identity of Parties

The co-venturers maintain their separate identity even after entering into a joint venture. Each party continues its own business activities while working together for the venture. The joint venture exists separately only for the agreed project. This allows businesses to cooperate without giving up their individual operations.

Consignment

Consignment is a business arrangement where a consignor (owner) sends goods to a consignee (agent) to be sold on their behalf. The consignor retains ownership of the goods until they are sold, while the consignee earns a commission for facilitating the sale. The consignee is responsible for marketing and selling the goods but does not bear the financial risk of unsold inventory. Once the goods are sold, the consignee remits the proceeds to the consignor, keeping a portion as agreed. This arrangement is common in retail and distribution businesses.

Features of Consignment:

1. Ownership Remains with Consignor

In consignment, the ownership of goods remains with the consignor until the goods are sold to customers. The consignee only receives the goods for the purpose of selling them and does not become the owner. Any unsold goods lying with the consignee continue to belong to the consignor. Therefore, the risk and reward of ownership remain with the consignor. This feature differentiates consignment from a normal sale transaction where ownership is transferred immediately to the buyer.

2. Consignee Acts as an Agent

The consignee works as an agent of the consignor and sells goods on the consignor’s behalf. The consignee does not purchase the goods but only helps in marketing and selling them. For these services, the consignee receives commission. The consignee must take reasonable care of the goods and follow the instructions given by the consignor regarding sales and handling of goods.

3. No Sale at the Time of Sending Goods

Sending goods to the consignee does not mean that a sale has taken place. It is only a transfer of possession for the purpose of sale. The actual sale occurs only when the consignee sells the goods to third parties. Therefore, goods sent on consignment are not recorded as sales in the books of the consignor at the time of dispatch.

4. Profit and Loss Belongs to Consignor

The profit earned from consignment sales belongs to the consignor because he remains the owner of the goods. Similarly, losses arising from normal business conditions are also borne by the consignor. The consignee receives only the agreed commission and does not share the profit or loss unless there is a special agreement between the parties.

5. Commission Paid to Consignee

The consignee receives commission as payment for selling goods on behalf of the consignor. Different types of commission may be allowed, such as ordinary commission, del credere commission, or overriding commission. The commission depends on the agreement between the parties and is treated as an expense in the books of the consignor.

6. Separate Accounting Records

Consignment transactions require separate accounting records to determine the profit or loss of each consignment. A Consignment Account is prepared to record goods sent, expenses, sales, commission, losses, and closing stock. This helps the consignor maintain proper control over each consignment and calculate accurate results.

7. Risk is Borne by Consignor

Since ownership remains with the consignor, the risk related to goods is generally borne by him. Losses due to normal causes, accidents, or changes in market conditions are the responsibility of the consignor. However, if the loss occurs due to negligence of the consignee, the consignee may become responsible for such loss.

8. Unsold Stock Belongs to Consignor

Goods that remain unsold with the consignee at the end of the accounting period are known as consignment stock. These goods are still owned by the consignor and are shown as closing stock in his books. Proper valuation of unsold stock is necessary to calculate the correct profit or loss on consignment.

9. No Debtor Creditor Relationship

A consignment transaction does not create a debtor and creditor relationship between the consignor and consignee. The consignee is only an agent and does not purchase the goods. The relationship is based on principal and agent, where the consignee performs selling activities on behalf of the consignor.

10. Based on Mutual Agreement

Consignment business operates according to an agreement between the consignor and consignee. The agreement specifies terms regarding commission, expenses, sales conditions, and responsibilities. Both parties must follow the agreed conditions to ensure smooth business operations. A clear agreement helps avoid misunderstandings and disputes between the parties.

Management Notes

Consignor, Consignee

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

The consignor, in a contract of carriage, is the person sending a shipment to be delivered whether by land, sea or air. Some carriers, such as national postal entities, use the term “sender” or “shipper” but in the event of a legal dispute the proper and technical term “consignor” will generally be used.

If Sender sends a widget to Receiver via a delivery service, Sender is the consignor and Receiver is the consignee.

In a contract of carriage, the consignee is the entity who is financially responsible (the buyer) for the receipt of a shipment. Generally, but not always, the consignee is the same as the receiver.

If a sender dispatches an item to a receiver via a delivery service, the sender is the consignor, the recipient is the consignee, and the deliverer is the carrier.

Consignor vs. Consignee

Now that the idea of consignment is clear, the matter of consignor vs. consignee can be discussed. A consignor is an individual or party that brings a good to be sold on their behalf by another party, which is called the consignee.

The consignee acts as a sort of middleman, which is the individual that buys or retains the goods and passes them along to a third party or the final buyer. Regardless of whether the item is being sold and purchased or simply transferred from one party to the other through the consignee, ownership remains in the hands of the consignor until the deal is finalized, either through payment by or delivery to the final buyer.

The consignor may also be referred to as the shipper, obtaining shipping or transfer documents for the goods they are selling to the consignee. The consignor keeps the title/ownership of the property until it is transferred to or sold to the final party.

Example of a Consignor/Consignee Relationship

To understand the consignor/consignee relationship better, consider the following example. A family is looking to sell its collection of valuable items. They make an arrangement with an auction house to sell the items. Here, the family is the consignor and the auction house is the consignee. The auction house markets the items, but the family retains ownership of them until a third party purchases the items.

Once payment’s been made from the third-party buyer to the auction house the money is turned over to the consignor, minus a fee for the consignee for hosting the items and facilitating the sale. Ownership is then transferred to the buyer.

Consignee

A consignee is the party identified on shipping documents as the recipient of goods to be delivered. This party is responsible for paying customs duties as the designated owner of the goods. The consignee does not formally take possession of the goods until it pays the consignor. The consignor is usually the party that shipped the goods.

The consignee is typically responsible for damage to the goods given into its care, even if ownership still resides with the consignor during the holding period.

An intermediate consignee is a party that receives a shipment on behalf of the ultimate consignee. The ultimate consignee is the intended final recipient of a delivery, which is forwarded to it by the intermediate consignee.

From an accounting perspective, the consignor retains ownership of consigned goods, so these inventory items remain on its balance sheet until such time as they are either sold by the consignee to a third party, or purchased outright by the consignee. The consignor does not record a sale transaction when goods are initially shipped to the consignee, since the consignor still owns the goods. A sale transaction for the consignor only occurs when goods are sold to a third party or bought outright by the consignee.

From the perspective of the consignee, goods received on consignment do not appear on its balance sheet, since it does not own the inventory. Instead, it records a commission on any sales to third parties.

Consignor

A consignor is the party who delivers goods that they own to another party to hold and sell them on their behalf. In other words, it’s the owner of a product who allows a store to take possession of it in order to sell it for him or her.

Management Notes

Journal Entries in the books of Consignor and Consignee

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes6

Consignment refers to an arrangement where the consignor (owner of goods) sends goods to the consignee (agent) for sale on behalf of the consignor. The consignee does not take ownership of the goods but sells them and earns a commission on the sales made.

1. Journal Entries in the Books of Consignor

The consignor records the consignment transaction using a Consignment Account to determine the profit or loss from the consignment. The following are the key entries:

Transaction Journal Entry
Goods sent on consignment Consignment A/c Dr.

To Goods Sent on Consignment A/c
Expenses incurred by consignor Consignment A/c Dr.

To Cash/Bank A/c
Expenses incurred by consignee (notified) Consignment A/c Dr.

To Consignee A/c
Sales made by consignee (notified) Consignee A/c Dr.

To Consignment A/c
Commission due to consignee Consignment A/c Dr.

To Consignee A/c
Payment received from consignee Bank A/c Dr.

To Consignee A/c
Profit or Loss on consignment Profit: Consignment A/c Dr.

To Profit and Loss A/c

Loss: Profit and Loss A/c Dr.

To Consignment A/c

2. Journal Entries in the Books of Consignee

Since the consignee acts as an agent, they do not record the consignment as their purchase. They only record the expenses incurred, commission earned, and the remittance to the consignor. The following are the key entries:

Transaction Journal Entry
Expenses incurred by consignee Consignor A/c Dr.

To Cash/Bank A/c
Sales made on behalf of consignor Cash/Bank A/c Dr.

To Consignor A/c
Commission due to consignee Consignor A/c Dr.

To Commission A/c
Remittance to consignor Consignor A/c Dr.

To Bank A/c

illustrative Example

Scenario:

  • A consignor, XYZ Ltd., sends goods costing ₹1,00,000 to a consignee, ABC Traders.
  • Expenses incurred by XYZ Ltd. on freight and insurance amount to ₹5,000.
  • ABC Traders incurs unloading expenses of ₹2,000 and sells the goods for ₹1,20,000.
  • ABC Traders is entitled to a commission of 10% on sales.
  • ABC Traders remits the balance to XYZ Ltd. after deducting commission and expenses.

Journal Entries in the Books of Consignor (XYZ Ltd.)

Date Particulars Debit (₹) Credit (₹)
1 Consignment A/c Dr. 1,00,000
To Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 1,00,000
2 Consignment A/c Dr. 5,000
To Bank A/c 5,000
3 Consignment A/c Dr. 2,000
To Consignee A/c 2,000
4 Consignee A/c Dr. 1,20,000
To Consignment A/c 1,20,000
5 Consignment A/c Dr. 12,000
To Consignee A/c 12,000
6 Bank A/c Dr. 1,06,000
To Consignee A/c 1,06,000
7 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 1,000
To Consignment A/c 1,000

Journal Entries in the Books of Consignee (ABC Traders)

Date Particulars Debit (₹) Credit (₹)
1 Consignor A/c Dr. 2,000
To Bank A/c 2,000
2 Bank A/c Dr. 1,20,000
To Consignor A/c 1,20,000
3 Consignor A/c Dr. 12,000
To Commission A/c 12,000
4 Bank A/c Dr. 1,06,000
To Bank A/c 1,06,000

Explanation

  • Consignor’s Books

The consignor records the consignment transaction, including the value of goods sent, expenses incurred, sales made, and the commission paid to the consignee. The profit or loss on consignment is determined at the end by comparing the total revenue with the total expenses.

  • Consignee’s Books

The consignee only records transactions related to expenses incurred, sales made on behalf of the consignor, and commission earned. Since the consignee is an agent and not the owner of the goods, no purchase or inventory entry is made.

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