Tag: Board of Directors

Management Notes

Corporate Directors, CEOs, Expatriates and Executives

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One of the major issues that gained attention after the 2007 and 2009 financial crisis due to Wall Street movement was the unduly high compensation being paid to executives of financial institutions even when the corporations were in a state of collapse. This movement against the executive remuneration gained momentum throughout the world. In U.S and many other countries there was a lot of hue and cry about excessive compensation being paid to top executives. Even though in India the situation regarding excessive executive remuneration has not reached alarming levels yet this issue needs to be taken seriously at this stage itself. If not given proper attention then it is not long enough when this problem would be quite glaring in India too.

Many recent corporate frauds such as Satyam fraud, Kingfisher’s fraud and many others have brought into light the dark side of Indian corporate governance practices. In almost all these frauds the executives were drawing a huge salary from the company at the expense of other stakeholders of the company be it shareholders or creditors etc.They used tricks to defraud the investors as well as creditors. Thus, this issue needs adequate attention else it would lead to more such frauds.

Various studies on remuneration schemes of executives in Indian Companies have reflected majorly 3 issues:

  1. The remuneration is not strictly based on performance. The highest paid executives are usually not from the best performing companies and many a times even when the value of shares is declining constantly there is no major effect on the remuneration of top executives.
  2. There is a huge gap in the compensation level of executives and median employees. The supports for high remuneration state that this is due to the dearth of talent at the top level but even then such a glaring difference in the basic pay as well as in the % increase in pay as compared to median employees is not justified.
  3. Also, the studies have found that the promoter CEOs are paid much more in comparison to Non promoter CEOs.

In this paper I would basically study the reasons behind the above findings and would majorly focus on efficiency of current regime in curbing the same and also the role of other interested entities which can serve as a control mechanism on executive remuneration.

For this purpose firstly, analyze the context of executive remuneration and the issues associated with it wherein will focus on agency problem and also the role of ownership structure in enhancing the problem. Then would annalyse the efficacy of checks provided by the current regime on Executive remuneration i.e. Shareholders say on pay, Remuneration committee and linking Remuneration to performance. Lastly, examine the role of Institutional investors as a control mechanism against executive remuneration.

Meaning of Remuneration

Remuneration has been described in section 2(78) of the Companies Act 2013.As per this definition any payment in the form of money or its equivalent would be counted as remuneration. Perquisites would also be included in determining total remuneration. Perquisites in this case are those as defined under the Income tax Act, 1961.

Remuneration can be paid in various forms like cash, medical benefits, retirement benefits, share options, shares, sitting fee and perks and allowances like contribution to provident fund, rent free accommodation, travelling expenses, car etc. It is usually a combination of various forms. Certain perquisites and compensations are explicitly exempted from being counted as a part of remuneration

Role of Executive Remuneration

The role of executive remuneration is to attract and retain top talent at executive position and incentivize them in the way that they work for the benefit of the company while furthering the objective of the company and increasing the value of the firm.

Interplay Between Fixed and Variable Component

The role of fixed component is to fulfill the immediate needs of the employees. All types of companies are open to certain sector specific risks and fixed component reduces the effect of this risk by assuring certain determined amount of income.

On the other hand, variable component can be used to align the interest of executives to the interest of company. For example, if the executives are provided with certain number of shares as a part of remuneration then better performance would lead to increase in the share value of the company and would also increase executive’s compensation.

If the executives receive just fixed remuneration with no variable component then instead of working as incentive, it would actually dilute its effect and if the compensation would include only variable component then this would also frustrate the employee.

Thus, there must be combination of fixed as well as variable component wherein the fixed component work as an incentive to work and the variable component makes sure that the work is done in the interest of the company. Also, it is necessary that there must be interaction between various forms of compensation and the remuneration scheme must be arranged in a way that it is incentive based.

Management Notes

Capital Gain (Section. 45, 48, 49, 50 and 54)

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The income from capital gains is not an income which accrues or arises from day-to-day during a specific period but it arises at fixed point of time, namely, on the date of the transfer of a capital asset. Specifically, the income from capital gains is the amount by which the sale price of a capital asset, net of any expense incurred in connection with the sale of the asset, exceeds the acquisition cost of the capital asset. The taxation of capital gains is justified by the taxation policy and law on the premise that capital gains increases the ‘ability to pay’ capacity of the person receiving such a gain.

The provisions related to taxation of capital gains were first introduced in 1947 and then in 1956 and then said section 12B in Income tax Act, 1922 was retained as such in the relevant provisions in Income tax Act, 1961.

Charging sections – Sections 45, 46 and 46A

The charging section explains the subject matter of taxation. Thus, there is one charging section for each head of income for salaries, income from house property, business income and income from other sources. However, for capital gains, there are three independent and separate charging sections:

(i) Section 45: Capital gains

(ii) Section 46: Capital gains on distribution of assets by companies in liquidation

(iii) Section 46A: Capital gains on purchase by company of its own shares or other securities

Section 45 is the general provision while sections 46 and 46A are special provisions.

Incomes to be taxed under the head, ‘Capital Gains’

Thus, the following incomes are taxable as ‘capital gains’:

Sr. No. Particulars Section
(1) Any profits and gains arising from the transfer of a capital asset effected in the previous year. Section 45(1) to (5)
(2) Any profits and gains arising from the receipt of any money or other assets under an insurance from an insurer on account of damage to, or destruction of, any capital asset, as a result of (i) flood, typhoon, hurricane, cyclone, earthquake or other convulsion of nature; or (ii) riot or civil disturbance; or (iii) accidental fire or explosion; or (iv) action taken by an enemy or in combating an enemy. 45(1A)
(3) Capital gains in respect of any money or other assets received by shareholder of a company from the company on its liquidation 46(2)
(d) Difference between (i) value of consideration received by shareholder or holder of specified securities from company on buyback of its own shares or other specified securities; and (ii) cost of acquisition 46A

The situs/location of capital asset matters only for non-resident assessees and not to others. In the cases of Non-resident assessees, if capital asset located outside India is transferred outside India and sale proceeds are received outside India, no taxability to capital gains arises in view of section 5 of the Act. Such assessees will be liable to be taxed under section 9(1) (i) in respect of capital gains accruing or arising “through the transfer of any capital asset situate in India”.

Important Definitions in capital gains

Sr. No. Term Definition Exceptions and remarks
1 Capital Asset A capital asset means property of any kind held by an assessee, whether or not connected with his business or profession

Any securities held by an FII

 Assets Listed:

(a) jewellery;

(b) archaeological collections;

(c) drawings;

(d) paintings;

(e) sculptures; or

(f) any work of art

(g) Land other than agricultural land

(h) Rights in a company
2 Exclusions:

(i) any stock in trade

(ii) movable assets for personal use

(iii) agricultural land in India

(iv) Gold bonds issued by GoI

(v) Special bearer bonds

(vi) Gold Deposit Bonds
2 Agricultural land Land not situated within municipal jurisdiction or Cantt. Board and having population of more than 10000

Within 2 kms of municipal limits of jurisdiction with a population 10000>100000 and 6 kms for jurisdiction with population 100000>1000000 and 8kms for population >1000000

 This amendment is applicable from A Y 2014-15 and the distance from municipal limits has to be measured aerially and not on the ground.
3 Transfer Sale, exchange or relinquishment of the asset

Extinguishment of rights in the asset

Compulsory acquisition under the law

Conversion of asset into stock in trade

Maturity or redemption of a zero coupon bond

Part performance of a contract

Enjoyment of a property through acquisition of shares
Indexed Cost of acquisition an amount which bears to the cost of acquisition the same proportion as Cost Inflation Index for the year in which the asset is transferred bears to the Cost Inflation Index for the first year in which the asset was held by the assessee or for the year beginning on the 1st day of April, 1981, whichever is later; From A Y 2018-19, the year 1981 shall be replaced by 2000
Indexed Cost of any improvement An amount which bears to the cost of improvement the same proportion as Cost Inflation Index for the year in which the asset is transferred bears to the Cost Inflation Index for the year in which the improvement to the asset took place
Cost Inflation Index Such Index as the Central Government may, having regard to seventy-five per cent of average rise in the (Consumer Price Index (urban)) for the immediately preceding previous year to such previous year, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify, in this behalf

Meaning of Transfer [Section 2(47)]

“Transfer”, in relation to a capital asset, includes:

(i) Sale, exchange or relinquishment of the asset;

(ii) Extinguishment of any rights in relation to a capital asset;

(iii) Compulsory acquisition of an asset;

(iv) Conversion of capital asset into stock-in-trade;

(v) Maturity or redemption of a zero coupon bond;

(vi) Allowing possession of immovable properties to the buyer in part performance of the contract;

(vii) Any transaction which has the effect of transferring an (or enabling the enjoyment of) immovable property; or

(viii) Disposing of or parting with an asset or any interest therein or creating any interest in any asset in any manner whatsoever.

Transactions which are not regarded as transfer [Section 47]

Following transactions shall not be regarded as transfer (subject to certain condition). Hence, following transaction shall not be charged to capital gains:

Section Particulars
46(1) Distribution of asset in kind by a company to its shareholders at the time of liquidation
47(i) Distribution of capital asset on total or partial partition of HUF
47(iii) Transfer of capital asset under a gift or will or an irrevocable trust
47(iv) Transfer of capital asset by a company to its wholly owned subsidiary company
47(v) Transfer of a capital asset by a wholly owned subsidiary company to its holding company
47(vi) Transfer of capital assets in a scheme of amalgamation
47(via) Transfer of shares in an Indian company held by a foreign company to another foreign company under a scheme of amalgamation of the two foreign companies
47(viab) Transfer of share of a foreign company (which derives, directly or indirectly, its value substantially from the share or shares of an Indian company) held by a foreign company to another foreign company under a scheme of amalgamation (subject to conditions)
47(viaa) Transfer of capital assets in a scheme of amalgamation of a banking company with a banking institution
47(vib) Transfer of capital assets by the demerged company to the resulting company in a demerger
47(vic) Transfer of shares held in an Indian company by a demerged foreign company to the resulting foreign company
47(vica) Any transfer of a capital asset by the predecessor co-operative bank to the successor co-operative bank in a business reorganization.
47(vicb) Any transfer of capital asset (being shares) held by a shareholder in the predecessor co-operative bank if the transfer is made in consideration of the allotment to him of any shares in the successor co-operative bank in a scheme of business reorganization
47(vicc) Transfer of share of a foreign company (which derives, directly or indirectly, its value substantially from the share or shares of an Indian company) held by a demerged foreign company to resulting foreign company in case of demerger (subject to conditions)
47(vid) Transfer or issue of shares by the resulting company to the shareholders of the demerged company in a scheme of demerger
47(vii) Allotment of shares in amalgamated company in lieu of shares held in amalgamating company
47(viia) Transfer of capital assets (being foreign currency convertible bonds or GDR) by a non-resident to another non-resident
47(viiaa) Any transfer made outside India, of a capital asset (being rupee denominated bond of an Indian company issued outside India) by a non-resident to another non-resident
47(viiab) Any transfer of following capital assets by a non-resident on a recognised stock exchange located in any International Financial Services Centre:

a) Bond or GDR

b) Rupee Denominated Bond of an Indian Co.

c) Derivative

d) Such other Securities as may be prescribed.
47(viib) Transfer of capital assets (being a Government security carrying periodic payment of interest) outside India through an intermediary dealing in settlement of securities by a non-resident to another non- resident
47(viic) Redemption of capital asset being sovereign gold bond issued by RBI under the Sovereign Gold Bond Scheme, 2015
47(ix) Transfer of a capital asset (being work of art, manuscript, painting, etc.) to Government, University, National museum, etc.
47(x) Transfer by way of conversion of bonds or debentures into shares
47(xa) Transfer by way of conversion of bonds [as referred to in section 115AC(1)(a)] into shares or debentures of any company
47(xb) Any transfer by way of conversion of preference shares into equity shares
47(xi) Transfer by way of exchange of a capital asset being membership of a recognized stock exchange for shares of a company
47(xii) Transfer of land by a sick industrial company which is managed by its workers’ co-operative
47(xiii) Transfer of a capital asset by a firm to a company in the case of conversion of firm into company
47(xiiia) Transfer of a capital asset being a membership right held by a member of a recognized stock exchange in India
47(xiiib) Transfer of a capital asset by a private company or unlisted public company to an LLP, or any transfer of shares held in the company by a shareholder, in the case of conversion of company into LLP
47(xiv) Transfer of a capital asset to a company in the case of conversion of proprietary concern into a company
47(xv) Transfer involved in a scheme of lending of securities
47(xvi) Transfer of a capital asset in a transaction of reverse mortgage made under a scheme notified by the Government
47(xvii) Transfer of a capital asset (being share of a special purpose vehicle) to a business trust in exchange of units allotted by that trust to the transferor
47(xviii) Transfer of units of a mutual fund pursuant to consolidation of two or more schemes of equity oriented mutual fund or of two or more schemes of a mutual fund other than equity oriented mutual fund
47(xix) Transfer of units of a mutual fund from one plan to another pursuant to consolidation of plans within scheme of mutual funds.

Full Value of Consideration

Full value of consideration is the consideration received or receivable by the transferor in lieu of assets, which he has transferred. Such consideration may be received in cash or in kind. If it is received in kind, then fair market value (‘FMV’) of such assets shall be taken as full value of consideration.

However, in the following cases “full value of the consideration” shall be determined on notional basis as per the relevant provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961:

S. No. Nature of transaction Section Full Value of Consideration
1. Money or other asset received under any insurance from an insurer due to damage or destruction of a capital asset 45(1A) Value of money or the FMV of the asset (on the date of receipt)
2. Conversion of capital asset into stock-in-trade 45(2) FMV of the capital asset on the date of conversion
3. Transfer of capital asset by a partner or member to firm or AOP/BOI, as the case may be, as his capital contribution 45(3) Amount recorded in the books of accounts of the firm or AOP/BOI as the value of the capital asset received as capital contribution
4. Distribution of capital asset by Firm or AOP/BOI to its partners or members, as the case may be, on its dissolution 45(4) FMV of such asset on the date of transfer
5. Money or other assets received by share- holders at the time of liquidation of the company 46(2) Total money plus FMV of assets received on the date of distribution less amount assessed as deemed dividend under section 2(22)(c)
6. Buy-back of shares and other specified securities by a company 46A Consideration paid by company on buyback of shares or other securities would be deemed as full value of consideration. The difference between the cost of acquisition and buy-back price (full value of consideration) would be taxed as capital gain in the hands of the shareholder.

However, in case of buy-back of shares by a domestic company (whether listed* or unlisted), the company shall be liable to pay additional tax at the rate of 20% under section 115QA on the distributed income (i.e., buy-back price as reduced by the amount received by the company for issue of such shares). Consequently, capital gain arising in hands of shareholder shall be exempt by virtue of section 10(34A) in such cases.
*With effect from 05/07/2019, section 115QA has been amended to levy additional tax on buy back of shares by listed companies as well. Consequently, section 10(34A) has also been amended to exempt income arising in hands of shareholder on account of buy back of shares by listed companies. x
7. Shares, debentures, warrants (‘securities’) allotted by an employer to an employee under notified Employees Stock Option Scheme and such securities are gifted by the concerned employee to any person Fourth Proviso to Section 48 Fair Market value of securities at the time of gift
7A. Conversion of capital asset into stock-in-trade 49 FMV of the inventory as on the date of conversion
8. In case of transfer of land or building, if sale consideration declared in the conveyance deed is less than the stamp duty value 50C The value adopted or assessed or assessable by the Stamp Valuation Authority shall be deemed to be the full value of consideration. However, no such adjustment is required to be made if value adopted for stamp duty purposes does not exceed 110% of the sale consideration.

Note: Where the date of agreement (fixing the amount of consideration) and the date of registration for the transfer of property are not the same, the value adopted or assessed or assessable by Stamp Valuation Authority on the date of agreement may be taken as full value of consideration.
8A. Where consideration for transfer of unquoted shares is less than the Fair Market Value 50CA The Fair Market Value (so determined in prescribed manner) shall be deemed to be the full value of consideration

Note: The Board may prescribe transactions undertaken by certain class of persons to which the provisions of Section 50CA shall not be applicable. (w.e.f. Assessment Year 2020-21)
9. If consideration received or accruing as a result of transfer of a capital asset is not ascertainable or cannot be determined 50D FMV of asset on the date of transfer

Cost of Acquisition

Cost of acquisition of an asset is the amount for which it was originally acquired by the assessee. It includes expenses of capital nature incurred in connection with such purchase or for completing the title of the property.

However, in cases given below, cost of acquisition shall be computed on notional basis:

S. No. Particulars Notional Cost of Acquisition
1. Additional compensation in the case of compulsory acquisition of capital assets Nil
2. Assets received by a shareholder on liquidation of the company FMV of such asset on the date of distribution of assets to the shareholders
3. Stock or shares becomes property of taxpayer on consolidation, conversion, etc. Cost of acquisition of such stock or shares from which such asset is derived
4. Allotment of shares in an amalgamated Indian co. to the shareholders of amalgamating co. in a scheme of amalgamation Cost of acquisition of shares in the amalgamating co.
5. Conversion of debentures into shares That part of the cost of debentures in relation to which such asset is acquired by the assessee
5A. Conversion of preference shares into equity shares The part of the cost of preference shares in relation to which such asset is acquired by the assessee.
6. Allotment of shares/securities by a co. to its employees under ESOP Scheme approved by the Central Government a) If shares are allotted during 1999-2000 or on or after April 1, 2009, FMV of securities on the date of exercise of option

b) If shares are allotted before April 1, 2007 (not being during 1999-2000), the amount actually paid to acquire the securities

c) If shares are allotted on or after April 1, 2007 but before April 1, 2009, FMV of securities on the date of vesting of option (purchase price paid to the employer or FBT paid to employer shall not be considered)
6A. Listed Equity Shares or Units of Equity Oriented Funds or Units of Business Trust as referred to in Section 112A acquired before February 1, 2018. Higher of :

(i) Cost of acquisition of such asset; and

(ii) Lower of:

(A) The fair market value of such asset; and

(B) The full value of consideration received or accruing as a result of transfer of such asset.

Note: For meaning of ‘Fair market Value’ refer Explanation to Section 55(2)(ac).
7. Property covered by section 56(2)(vii) or (viia) or (x) The value which has been considered for the purpose of Section 56(2)(vii) or (viia) or (x)
8. Allotment of shares in Indian resulting company to the existing shareholders of the demerger company in a scheme of demerger Cost of acquisition of shares in demerged company ? Net book value of assets transferred in demerger ? Net worth of the demerged company immediately before demerger
9. Cost of acquisition of original shares in demerged company after demerger Cost of acquisition of such shares minus amount calculated above in point 8.
10. Cost of acquisition of assets acquired by successor LLP from predecessor private company or unlisted public company at the time of conversion of the company into LLP in compliance with conditions of Section 47(xiiib) Cost of acquisition of the assets to the predecessor private company or unlisted public company
11. Cost of acquisition of rights of a partner in a LLP which became the property of the taxpayer due to conversion of a private company or unlisted public company into the LLP Cost of acquisition of the shares in the co. immediately before conversion
12. Depreciable assets covered under Section 50 Opening WDV of block of assets on the first day of the previous year plus actual cost of assets acquired during the year which fall within the same block of assets
13. Depreciable assets of a power generating unit as covered under Section 50A* WDV of the asset minus terminal depreciation plus balancing charge
14. Undertaking/division acquired by way of slump sale as covered under Section 50B Net worth of such undertaking
15. New asset acquired for claiming exemptions under sections 54,  54B, 54D, 54G or 54GA if it is transferred within three years Actual cost of acquisition  minus exemption claimed under these sections
16. Goodwill of business or trade mark or brand name associated with business or right to manufacture, produce or process any article or thing or right to carry on any business or profession, tenancy right, stage permits or loom hours a) If these assets were acquired by gift, will, etc., under section 49(1) and the previous owner had purchased these assets: Cost of acquisition to the previous owner

b) If the owner has purchased these assets: Actual cost of acquisition

c) If these assets are self-generated: Nil
17. Right shares Amount actually paid by assessee
18. Right to subscribe to shares (i.e., right entitlement) Nil
19. Bonus shares a) If allotted to the assessee before April 1, 1981: Fair market value on that date

b) In any other case: Nil
20. Allotment of equity shares and right to trade in stock exchange, allotted to members of stock exchange under a scheme of demutualization or corporatization of stock exchanges as approved by SEBI a) Cost of acquisition of shares: Cost of acquisition of original membership of the stock exchange

b) Cost of acquisition of trading or clearing rights of the stock exchange: Nil
21. Capital asset, being a unit of business trust, acquired in consideration of transfer as referred to in section 47(xvii) Cost of acquisition of shares as referred to in section 47(xvii) [applicable from AY 2015-16]
Units allotted to an assessee pursuant to consolidation of two or more scheme of a mutual fund as referred to in Section 47(xviii) Cost of acquisition of such units shall be the cost of acquisition of units in the consolidating scheme of the mutual fund
Shares in a company acquired by the non-resident assessee on redemption of Global Depository Receipts referred to in Section 115AC(1)(b) Cost of acquisition of such shares shall be calculated on the basis of the price prevailing on any recognized stock exchange on the date on which a request for such redemption was made.
24. Any other capital asset: a) If it became property of taxpayer before April 1, 2001 by gift, will, etc., in modes specified in section 49(1): Cost of acquisition to the previous owner or FMV as on April 1, 2001, whichever is higher.

Note: The FMV on 1st April, 2001 shall not exceed the stamp duty value of such asset as on 1st April, 2001 where such stamp duty value is available. (this amendment will be applicable w.e.f. AY 2021-22)

b) If it became property of taxpayer before April 1, 2001 : Cost of acquisition or FMV as on April 1, 2001, whichever is more

Note: The FMV on 1st April, 2001 shall not exceed the stamp duty value of such asset as on 1st April, 2001 where such stamp duty value is available. (this amendment will be applicable w.e.f. AY 2021-22)

c) If it became property of taxpayer after April 1, 2001 by gift, will, etc., in modes specified in section 49(1): Cost of acquisition to the previous owner

d) If it became property of taxpayer after April 1, 2001 : Actual cost of acquisition

* Terminal Depreciation/Balancing Charge:

  1. a) Balancing Charge = Sales Consideration – WDV of the depreciable asset
  2. b) Terminal Depreciation = WDV – Sales Consideration
Management Notes

International Trade Laws Objectives Set 2

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  1. The exchange of goods and services are known as …………………………
  • Domestic Trade
  • International Trade
  • Trade
  • None of these.

 

  1. Which of the following is not considered as factors of production?
  • Land
  • Labour
  • Money
  • Capital

 

  1. Trade between two countries is known as ………….
  • External
  • Internal
  • Inter-regional
  • None of Above

 

  1. International Trade is most likely to generate short-term unemployment in:
  • Industries in which there are neither imports nor exports
  • Import-competing industries
  • Industries that sell to domestic and foreign buyers.
  • Industries that sell to only foreign buyers

 

  1. Free traders maintain that an open economy is advantageous in that it provides all the following except:
  • Increased competition for world producers
  • A wider selection of products for consumers
  • Relatively high wage levels for all domestic workers
  • The utilization of the most efficient production methods

 

  1. Which of the following is not a benefit of international trade?
  • Lower domestic prices
  • Development of more efficient methods and new products
  • A greater range of consumption choices
  • High wage levels for all domestic workers

 

  1. Which is not an advantage of international trade:
  • Export of surplus production
  • Import of defence material
  • Dependence on foreign countries
  • Availability of cheap raw material

 

  1. Trade between two countries can be useful if cost ratios of goods are …………..
  • Equal
  • Different
  • Undetermined
  • Decreasing

 

  1. Foreign trade creates among countries ………………
  • Conflicts
  • Cooperation
  • Hatred
  • Both a. and b.

 

  1. All are advantages of foreign trade except ………….
  • People get foreign exchange
  • Cheaper goods
  • Nations compete
  • Optimum utilization of countries’ resources

 

Q.2. Fill in the blanks.

  1. International Trade means trade between …………………. (Provinces/ Countries/ Regions)
  2. Two countries can give from foreign trade if ………… are different. (Effect/ Tariff/ Cost)
  3. ………….. encourages trade between two countries. (Different tax system/Reduced tariffs/ National currencies)
  4. Drawback of protection system is ……… (Consumers have to pay higher prices/ Producers get higher profits/ Quality of goods may be affected/ All above)
  5. ………….. is a drawback of free trade. (Prices of local goods rise/ Govt. looses incomes from custom duties/National resources are underutilized)
  6. International trade is possible primarily through specialization in production of …… goods. (All/ One/ Few)
  7. A country that does not trade with other countries is called …… country. (Developed/ Closed/ Independent)
  8. Policy of Protection in trade ……… (Facilitates trade/ Protects foreign producers/ Protects local producers/ Protects exporters)
  9. The largest item of Indian import list is ……….. (Consumer goods/ Machinery/ Petroleum/ Computers)
  10. Trade between two states in an economy is known as …… (External/ Internal/None)

 

SET 2

Q.1. Multiple Choice Questions.

  1. Who among the following enunciated the concept of single factoral terms of trade?
  • Jacob Viner
  • G.S.Donens
  • Taussig
  • J.S.Mill

 

  1. ‘Infant industry argument’ in international trade is given in support of:
  • Granting Protection
  • Free trade
  • Encouragement to export oriented small and tiny industries
  • None of the above

 

  1. Terms of trade that relate to the Real Ratio of international exchange between commodities is called:
  • Real cost terms of trade
  • Commodity terms of trade
  • Income terms of trade
  • Utility terms of trade

 

  1. The main advantage in specialization results from:
  • Economies of large-scale production
  • The specializing country behaving as monopoly.
  • Smaller Production runs resulting in lower unit costs.
  • High wages paid to foreign workers.

 

  1. Net export equals ……
  • Export * Import
  • Export + Import
  • Export – Import
  • Exports of service only

 

  1. A tariff ………………….
  • Increase the volume of trade
  • Reduces the volume of trade
  • Has no effect on volume of trade
  • Both a. and c.

 

7. Terms of Trade of developing countries are generally unfavourable because …….

  • They export primary goods
  • They import value added goods
  • They export few goods
  • Both a. and b.

 

  1. Terms of Trade a country show ……………
  • Ratio of goods exported and imported
  • Ratio of import duties
  • Ratio of prices of exports and imports
  • Both a. and c.

 

  1. Terms of trade between two countries refer to a ratio of …..
  • Export prices to import prices
  • Currency values
  • Export to import
  • Balance of trade to Balance of payments

 

10. Rich countries have deficit in their balance of payments ……..

  • Sometimes
  • Never
  • Alternate years
  • Always

 

Q.2. Fill in the blanks.

  1. BOP means balance of Receipts and payments of …… (all banks/ State bank/ Foreign exchange by a country/ Government)
  2. Favourable trade means exports are ……. than imports. (More/ Less/ Neutral)
  3. Net barter terms of trade is also known as …. Terms of trade.(Commodity/ Income/Utility)
  4. ….. is not a factor affecting TOT. (Reciprocal demand/ Size of demand/ Price of demand)
  5. If tariff is higher, then the imports will …… (Increase/ Decrease/ Same as before)
  6. ……. has given the concept of reciprocal demand. (Mills/ Adam/ Ricardo)
  7. ……… is the curve, which expresses the total demand for one good (imports) in terms of the total supply of another good (exports). (Offer/ Official / Corporate)
  8. Balance of payment is prepared by an economy ……. (Yearly/ Monthly/ Weekly)
  9. …….. kinds of accounts are included in BOP. (2/ 3/4)
  10. …….is not a type of disequilibrium in BOP. (Cyclical/ Seasonal/ Frictional/ Disguised)

 

SET 3

Q.1. Multiple Choice Questions.

  1. The first classical theory of International Trade is given by …………………..
  • Keynes
  • Adam Smith
  • Friedman
  • Heckscher-Ohlin

 

  1. In classical theory of International Trade, the exchange of goods and services takes on the basis of ………….. system?
  • Barter
  • Money
  • Labour
  • capital

 

  1. If capital is available in large proportion and labour is less, then that economy is known as ……………..
  • Capital Intensive
  • Labour Intensive
  • Both a. and b
  • None of above

 

  1. In Heckscher Ohlin theory, what is assumed to be same across the countries?
  • Transportation cost
  • Technology
  • Labour
  • capital

 

  1. Opportunity cost is also known as ……………………
  • Next Best alternative
  • Transformation cost
  • Both a. and b
  • None of above.

 

  1. Factor proportions theory is also known as the
  • comparative advantage theory
  • laissez faire theorem.
  • HeckscherOhlin theorem
  • product cycle model.

 

  1. Trade between two countries can be useful if cost ratios of goods are:
  • Equal
  • Different
  • Undetermined
  • Decreasing

 

  1. According to Hecksher and Ohlin basic cause of international trade is:
  • Difference in factor endowments
  • Difference in markets
  • Difference in political systems
  • Difference in ideology

 

  1. The theory explaining trade between two countries is called:
  • Comparative disadvantage theory
  • Comparative cost theory
  • Comparative trade theory
  • None of the above

 

  1. David Ricardo presented the theory of international trade called:
  • Theory of absolute advantage
  • Theory of comparative advantage
  • Theory of equal advantage.
  • Theory of total advantage

 

Q.2. True or False.

  1. Absolute advantage theory is given by Adam Smith.

True

  1. Ricardo has supplemented Absolute advantage theory.

 True

  1. Heckscher and Ohlin have given comparative cost advantage theory of International Trade.

False

  1. Multilateral trade means one country comes into trade with more than one country.

True

  1. Opportunity cost means unforgiving cost.

False

  1. Modern theory of International Trade is given by Ricardo.

False

  1. 2×2×2 model of International Trade is known by Heckscher Ohlin model.

True

  1. Transformation cost is also known as opportunity cost.

True

  1. Gravity model of trade was first used by Jan Tinbergen.

True

  1. Adam Smith advocated free trade and specialized.

True

 

Set 4

Multiple Choice Questions.

  1. GATT was made in the year ………………..
  • 1945
  • 1947
  • 1950
  • 1951

 

  1. The new world Trade organization WTO., which replaced the GATT came into effect from____
  • 1ST January 1991
  • 1st January 1995
  • 1st April 1994
  • 1st May 1995

 

  1. 5 banks of BRICS nations have agreed to establish credit lines in ….. currencies.
  • Legal
  • Plastic
  • Crypto currency
  • National

 

  1. Where was the 11th meeting of BRICS Trade Ministers held from 13 Nov 2019 – 14 Nov 2019?
  • Shanghai
  • Beijing
  • Tokyo
  • Brasilia

 

  1. What is the name of the SAARC satellite to be launched on May 5, 2017?
  • South Asia Satellite
  • South Asian Association Satellite
  • South East Asia satellite
  • SAARC satellite

 

  1. Full form of SAFTA is ……………………..
  • South Asia Free Trade Agreement
  • South Asia Foreign Trade Agreement
  • South Asia Framework Trade Agreement
  • Both a and b

6. Which of the following commitments has not been made by India to WTO?

  • Reduction in tariffs
  • Increase in quantitative restrictions
  • Increase in qualitative restrictions
  • Trade related Intellectual Property Rights

 

  1. The European Union was formally established on …..
  • November, 1993
  • April, 1995
  • January, 1997
  • May, 1996

 

8. SAARC was established in …..

  • 1980
  • 1985
  • 1990
  • 1995

 

  1. NAFTA came into effect in …..
  • 1990
  • 1994
  • 1998
  • 2004

10. The dominant member state of OPEC is ……………..

  • Iran
  • Iraq
  • Kuwait
  • Saudi Arabia

 

Q.2. Fill in the blanks.

  1. Headquarter of WTO is in ………….. Geneva/USA/Germany.
  2. Before WTO, ……………… was working instead of that. GATY/ GATR/ GATT.
  3. …………….. round negotiations initiated the establishment of WTO. Uruguay/ Urdun/ Urbuny .
  4. India had joined WTO in the year …………. (1995/ 1996/ 1997)
  5. In …………….. , SAARC was established. (1985/ 1986/ 1987)
  6. The first SAARC summit was organized at …….. (Dhaka/ Kathmandu/ Nepal)
  7. ……..is not a country in SAFTA. (India/ Nepal/ Pakistan/ USA)
  8. ……… countries are member of OECD. (34/ 35/ 36)
  9. ………… is not a country under OECD. (Norway/ Canada/ China)
  10. ………….. are the member states of European Union. (28/ 29/30)
Management Notes

Provisions of Ind AS-7 (old AS 3)

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Foreign currency cash flows:

  • Record cash flows (those cash flows which arise from transactions in foreign currency) in functional currency.
  • Cash flows of a foreign subsidiary shall be translated at the exchange rates between functional currency and foreign currency.
  • Exchange rate at the date of cash flows shall be applied. Ind AS 21 permits the use of exchange rate that approximates the actual rate.
  • Unrealized gains and losses arising from changes in foreign currency exchange rates are not cash flows. However, the effect of exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents is reported in the statement of cash flows in order to reconcile cash and cash equivalents at the beginning and the end of the period. This amount is presented separately from cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities.

Change in ownership (no such concept under AS 3):

  1. Cash flows from obtaining / losing control in businesses (including subsidiary) shall be presented separately and classified as Investing activity and disclose the following:
  • Total amount of consideration
  • Portion of consideration consisting of cash and cash equivalents
  • Amount of cash and cash equivalent over which control is obtained / lost
  • Assets and liabilities (other than cash and cash equivalent) over which control is obtained / lost summarised in each major category.

2. Cash flow effects of losing control are not deducted from those of obtaining control.
3. Cash paid / received as consideration is reported net of cash and cash equivalents acquired / disposed on account of such transaction.
4. Cash flows arising from changes in ownership in subsidiary that do not result in a loss of control shall be classified as cash flows from financing activities, unless subsidiary is held by investment entity.

Non-cash Transactions:

Many investing and financing activities do not impact cash flows although they do affect the capital and asset structure of an entity. These shall be excluded from the statement of cash flows. Examples:

  • Acquisition of assets by means of a finance lease;
  • Conversion of debt to equity.
  • Issue of bonus shares
  • Conversion of term loan into equity shares

Such transactions shall be disclosed in the financial statements indicating investing / financing activity.

Changes in liabilities arising from financing activities (It was an amendment in Ind AS 7 and this provision was not there in AS 3):
• An entity shall provide the following disclosures to evaluate changes in liabilities arising from financing activities including both changes arising from cash flows and non-cash changes:
o changes from financing cash flows
o changes arising from obtaining or losing control of subsidiaries or other businesses;
o the effect of changes in foreign exchange rates;
o changes in fair values; and
o other changes.
• It also applies to changes in financial assets (for example, assets that hedge liabilities arising from financing activities) if cash flows from those financial assets included in cash flows from financing activities.
• Disclosure requirement can be fulfilled by: Reconciliation between the opening and closing balances in the balance sheet for liabilities arising from financing activities.
• If an entity discloses the same with disclosures of changes in other assets and liabilities, it shall disclose financing activities separately.
Disclosures:
• Components of cash and cash equivalents and reconciliation with amount appearing in balance sheet
• Policy adopted in determining composition of cash and cash equivalents
• Significant cash and cash equivalent that are not available for use by the entity (with commentary by management).
Examples: balance in unpaid dividend account, bank balance subject to legal restrictions, earmarked balances, bank balance for share application money / pending allotment of shares.
• Additional information (optional but standard encouraged the following disclosure):
o amount of undrawn borrowing facilities (indicating any restrictions on use)
o cash flows representing increases in operating capacity separately from cash flows required to maintain operating capacity;
o cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities of each reportable segment (same is required by Ind AS 108).

Management Notes

Demat System, Features, Process, Advantages and Disadvantages

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Demat System (short for Dematerialization system) refers to the process of converting physical share certificates into electronic form, enabling investors to hold and trade shares digitally through a dematerialized account. Introduced in India in 1996, the dematerialization process revolutionized the stock market by eliminating the need for physical certificates, streamlining the trading process, and making securities transactions safer, faster, and more efficient. The demat system is managed by depositories such as the National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL) and Central Depository Services Limited (CDSL), which function under the regulation of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

Key Features of the Demat System

  • Electronic Form of Securities:

In the demat system, shares, bonds, debentures, and other securities are held in electronic form, eliminating the need for physical certificates. This offers ease of access and ensures that investors can quickly buy, sell, and transfer securities.

  • Demat Account:

Similar to a bank account for money, a demat account is an electronic account where securities are stored. Each investor must open a demat account with a Depository Participant (DP), such as a bank, brokerage firm, or financial institution. The DP acts as an intermediary between the investor and the depository (NSDL or CDSL).

  • Speed and Efficiency:

Dematerialization process allows for faster trading and settlement of securities. Before dematerialization, the physical transfer of shares took weeks or even months, involving paperwork and delays. Now, transactions are completed in a few days, with real-time updates.

  • Safety and Security:

Holding securities in dematerialized form reduces the risk of theft, loss, forgery, and damage associated with physical certificates. The electronic form ensures greater transparency, and investors can track their holdings online through their demat account.

  • No Stamp Duty:

No stamp duty is charged on the transfer of dematerialized securities, reducing transaction costs for investors.

  • Nomination Facility:

Investors can assign a nominee to their demat account, ensuring that in the event of the account holder’s death, the securities are smoothly transferred to the designated individual.

  • Multiple Securities in One Account:

In a demat account, an investor can hold various types of securities, such as shares, bonds, mutual funds, and government securities, in a single account, which offers greater convenience.

Process of Dematerialization:

Dematerialization is the process of converting physical share certificates into electronic form.

  1. Opening a Demat Account:

An investor must first open a demat account with a Depository Participant (DP) by filling out an account opening form and submitting the required Know Your Customer (KYC) documents such as proof of identity, proof of address, and a PAN card.

DP provides the investor with a unique Beneficiary Owner Identification (BO ID) number, which is used to identify the account holder in all transactions.

  1. Submission of Physical Certificates:

    • After opening a demat account, the investor submits the physical share certificates they wish to dematerialize to the DP along with a Dematerialization Request Form (DRF).
    • The DRF includes details such as the company’s name, the number of shares, and the certificate numbers.

  2. Verification and Approval:

    • The DP sends the physical certificates to the relevant company’s Registrar and Transfer Agent (RTA) for verification.
    • Once verified, the RTA approves the dematerialization request, and the physical certificates are canceled.

  3. Credit to the Demat Account:

    • After the RTA’s approval, the depository (NSDL or CDSL) credits the corresponding number of shares to the investor’s demat account.
    • The investor receives a notification confirming that the shares have been successfully dematerialized and credited to their account.

  4. Trading of Dematerialized Securities:

After dematerialization, the shares can be bought, sold, and transferred electronically through the stock exchanges. Investors can monitor their holdings and transactions online, with settlement occurring in a shorter time frame (T+2 days, where T is the trading day).

Advantages of the Demat System:

  • Elimination of Physical Risks:

In the physical form, share certificates were vulnerable to theft, forgery, loss, and damage. The demat system eliminates these risks by holding securities electronically, ensuring safety and security.

  • Reduction in Paperwork:

Demat system removes the need for paperwork related to the issuance, transfer, and maintenance of share certificates. This reduces administrative burdens and streamlines the entire process for companies and investors alike.

  • Faster Settlement of Trades:

In the pre-demat era, transferring shares involved a lengthy process of physical delivery, verification, and approval, taking several weeks. Now, trades are settled electronically within two days (T+2 settlement), ensuring faster and more efficient transactions.

  • Lower Transaction Costs:

By eliminating physical transfers, the demat system reduces costs associated with paperwork, stamp duties, courier charges, and handling fees. Investors benefit from lower transaction costs, making trading more cost-effective.

  • Enhanced Liquidity:

Dematerialization has enhanced liquidity in the stock market. Shares held in electronic form can be quickly and easily traded, increasing market efficiency and providing investors with greater flexibility.

  • Access to a Broader Range of Securities:

Through a demat account, investors can hold a variety of securities, such as equity shares, bonds, debentures, government securities, mutual funds, and exchange-traded funds (ETFs), all in one place, offering convenience and diversification.

  • Transparency and Monitoring:

Investors can easily monitor their holdings, transactions, and portfolio through online access to their demat account. Real-time updates ensure transparency in the management of securities.

  • Simplified Pledging of Securities:

Securities held in a demat account can be pledged for loans, offering liquidity to investors. The dematerialized form makes it easier to pledge shares with financial institutions for credit or loan purposes.

Disadvantages of the Demat System:

  • Technological Dependency:

Demat system relies on technology, and any system failures or glitches can disrupt trading and access to accounts. Cybersecurity threats and hacking risks are also present in the digital environment.

  • Charges and Fees:

While the demat system reduces some costs, investors must pay account maintenance fees, transaction charges, and other service fees to the DP. These charges can add up over time, especially for small investors.

  • Loss of Paper Certificates:

Some investors may still prefer holding physical certificates for sentimental reasons or for tangible proof of ownership. The transition to a demat system eliminates the physical representation of ownership.

  • Fraud Risks:

Although the Demat system reduces physical fraud risks, it is not immune to other types of fraud, such as unauthorized access to demat accounts, hacking, or insider fraud.

Legal Framework for the Demat System in India

  • Depositories Act, 1996:

This act provides the legal framework for the establishment of depositories and facilitates the dematerialization of securities.

  • SEBI (Depositories and Participants) Regulations, 1996:

These regulations lay down the rules for the functioning of depositories and DPs.

  • SEBI (Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements) Regulations, 2015:

Companies listed on stock exchanges must ensure that their securities are available for trading in dematerialized form.

Management Notes

Composition of Board of Directors

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Understanding your roles and responsibilities should be your first task when appointed. The board of directors is appointed to act on behalf of the shareholders to run the day to day affairs of the business. The board are directly accountable to the shareholders and each year the company will hold an annual general meeting (AGM) at which the directors must provide a report to shareholders on the performance of the company, what its future plans and strategies are and also submit themselves for re-election to the board.

The objects of the company are defined in the Memorandum of Association and regulations are laid out in the Articles of Association.

The board of directors’ key purpose is to ensure the company’s prosperity by collectively directing the company’s affairs, whilst meeting the appropriate interests of its shareholders and stakeholders. In addition to business and financial issues, boards of directors must deal with challenges and issues relating to corporate governance, corporate social responsibility and corporate ethics.

It is important that board meetings are held periodically so that directors can discharge their responsibility to control the company’s overall situation, strategy and policy, and to monitor the exercise of any delegated authority, and so that individual directors can report on their particular areas of responsibility.

Every meeting must have a chair, whose duties are to ensure that the meeting is conducted in such a way that the business for which it was convened is properly attended to, and that all those entitled to may express their views and that the decisions taken by the meeting adequately reflect the views of the meeting as a whole. The chair will also very often decide upon the agenda and might sign off the minutes on his or her own authority.

Individual directors have only those powers which have been given to them by the board. Such authority need not be specific or in writing and may be inferred from past practice. However, the board as a whole remains responsible for actions carried out by its authority and it should therefore ensure that executive authority is only granted to appropriate persons and that adequate reporting systems enable it to maintain overall control.

The chairman of the board is often seen as the spokesperson for the board and the company.

Appointment of directors

The ultimate control as to the composition of the board of directors rests with the shareholders, who can always appoint, and more importantly, sometimes dismiss a director. The shareholders can also fix the minimum and maximum number of directors. However, the board can usually appoint (but not dismiss) a director to his office as well. A director may be dismissed from office by a majority vote of the shareholders, provided that a special procedure is followed. The procedure is complex, and legal advice will always be required.

Roles of the board of directors

The roles of the board of directors include:

Establish vision, mission and values

  • Determine the company’s vision and mission to guide and set the pace for its current operations and future development.
  • Determine the values to be promoted throughout the company.
  • Determine and review company goals.
  • Determine company policies

Set strategy and structure

  • Review and evaluate present and future opportunities, threats and risks in the external environment and current and future strengths, weaknesses and risks relating to the company.
  • Determine strategic options, select those to be pursued, and decide the means to implement and support them.
  • Determine the business strategies and plans that underpin the corporate strategy.
  • Ensure that the company’s organizational structure and capability are appropriate for implementing the chosen strategies.
  • PEST and SWOT analyses
  • Determining strategic options
  • Strategies and plans

Delegate to management

  • Delegate authority to management, and monitor and evaluate the implementation of policies, strategies and business plans.
  • Determine monitoring criteria to be used by the board.
  • Ensure that internal controls are effective.
  • Communicate with senior management.

Exercise accountability to shareholders and be responsible to relevant stakeholders

  • Ensure that communications both to and from shareholders and relevant stakeholders are effective.
  • Understand and take into account the interests of shareholders and relevant stakeholders.
  • Monitor relations with shareholders and relevant stakeholders by gathering and evaluation of appropriate information.
  • Promote the goodwill and support of shareholders and relevant stakeholders.

Responsibilities of directors

Directors look after the affairs of the company, and are in a position of trust. They might abuse their position in order to profit at the expense of their company, and, therefore, at the expense of the shareholders of the company.

Consequently, the law imposes a number of duties, burdens and responsibilities upon directors, to prevent abuse. Much of company law can be seen as a balance between allowing directors to manage the company’s business so as to make a profit, and preventing them from abusing this freedom.

Directors are responsible for ensuring that proper books of account are kept.

In some circumstances, a director can be required to help pay the debts of his company, even though it is a separate legal person. For example, directors of a company who try to ‘trade out of difficulty’ and fail may be found guilty of ‘wrongful trading’ and can be made personally liable. Directors are particularly vulnerable if they have acted in a way which benefits themselves.

  • The directors must always exercise their powers for a ‘proper purpose’ – that is, in furtherance of the reason for which they were given those powers by the shareholders.
  • Directors must act in good faith in what they honestly believe to be the best interests of the company, and not for any collateral purpose. This means that, particularly in the event of a conflict of interest between the company’s interests and their own, the directors must always favour the company.
  • Directors must act with due skill and care.
  • Directors must consider the interests of employees of the company.

Calling a directors’ meeting

A director, or the secretary at the request of a director, may call a directors’ meeting. A secretary may not call a meeting unless requested to do so by a director or the directors. Each director must be given reasonable notice of the meeting, stating its date, time and place. Commonly, seven days is given but what is ‘reasonable’ depends in the last resort on the circumstances

Non-executive directors

Legally speaking, there is no distinction between an executive and non-executive director. Yet there is inescapably a sense that the non-executive’s role can be seen as balancing that of the executive director, so as to ensure the board as a whole functions effectively. Where the executive director has an intimate knowledge of the company, the non-executive director may be expected to have a wider perspective of the world at large.

The chairman of the board

The articles usually provide for the election of a chairman of the board. They empower the directors to appoint one of their own number as chairman and to determine the period for which he is to hold office. If no chairman is elected, or the elected chairman is not present within five minutes of the time fixed for the meeting or is unwilling to preside, those directors in attendance may usually elect one of their number as chairman of the meeting.

The chairman will usually have a second or casting vote in the case of equality of votes. Unless the articles confer such a vote upon him, however, a chairman has no casting vote merely by virtue of his office.

Since the chairman’s position is of great importance, it is vital that his election is clearly in accordance with any special procedure laid down by the articles and that it is unambiguously minuted; this is especially important to avoid disputes as to his period in office. Usually there is no special procedure for resignation. As for removal, articles usually empower the board to remove the chairman from office at any time. Proper and clear minutes are important in order to avoid disputes.

Role of the chairman

The chairman’s role includes managing the board’s business and acting as its facilitator and guide. This can include:

  • Determining board composition and organisation;
  • Clarifying board and management responsibilities;
  • Planning and managing board and board committee meetings;
  • Developing the effectiveness of the board.

Find out more about director development and training.

Shadow directors

In many circumstances, the law applies not only to a director, but to a ‘shadow director’. A shadow director is a person in accordance with whose directions or instructions the directors of a company are accustomed to act. Under this definition, it is possible that a director, or the whole board, of a holding company, and the holding company itself, could be treated as a shadow director of a subsidiary.

Professional advisers giving advice in their professional capacity are specifically excluded from the definition of a shadow director in the companies legislation.

Management Notes

Rules regarding Payment of Dividends

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Dividends are a portion of a company’s profits distributed to its shareholders as a reward for their investment in the company. The decision to declare dividends is made by the board of directors, but the process is governed by several legal and regulatory frameworks to ensure fairness, transparency, and adherence to corporate governance norms. In India, the declaration and distribution of dividends are primarily regulated by the Companies Act, 2013, along with rules set forth by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) for listed companies.

Meaning and Types of Dividends:

Dividend is a return on investment for shareholders, paid from the profits of the company. It can be issued in several forms:

  1. Interim Dividend:

Declared by the board of directors during the financial year before the finalization of accounts. This is typically paid out of the profits earned during the current financial year.

  1. Final Dividend:

Declared at the company’s Annual General Meeting (AGM) after the financial year has ended and the accounts are finalized. It is recommended by the board but requires shareholder approval.

  1. Special Dividend:

Paid in extraordinary circumstances when the company has a significant surplus of profits or cash. This dividend is not a regular payout.

  1. Stock Dividend (Bonus Shares):

Instead of cash, the company issues additional shares to its shareholders in proportion to their existing holdings.

  1. Scrip Dividend:

The company issues a promissory note to the shareholders, promising to pay the dividend at a later date, which can be considered a form of deferred payment.

Legal Provisions for Declaration of Dividends Under the Companies Act, 2013

The provisions governing the declaration and distribution of dividends are laid down under Section 123 of the Companies Act, 2013, along with the Companies (Declaration and Payment of Dividend) Rules, 2014.

  1. Declaration of Dividend

Profit Requirement:

Dividends can only be declared out of the following:

    • Current year profits after providing for depreciation and any necessary reserves.
    • Previous year profits that have not been transferred to reserves or used for dividends earlier.
    • Government Grant: If a company has received government assistance in certain situations, this may be considered in specific circumstances.

Free Reserves:

If the company’s profits are insufficient, it can declare a dividend out of its accumulated profits or free reserves, provided that:

    • The rate of dividend does not exceed the average rate of dividends declared in the preceding three financial years.

    • The amount withdrawn from the reserves is not more than 10% of the paid-up share capital and free reserves of the company.

Interim Dividend:

The board may declare an interim dividend out of profits available after providing for depreciation. However, if the company suffers a loss up to the quarter immediately preceding the interim dividend declaration, the interim dividend cannot be declared at a rate higher than the average dividend declared during the preceding three financial years.

  1. Depreciation
  • The company must provide for depreciation in accordance with Schedule II of the Companies Act, 2013 before declaring dividends.
  • Any dividend declared without taking into account depreciation can be considered illegal and can attract penalties for the company and its directors.
  1. Transfer to Reserves

Before declaring dividends, companies are required to transfer a certain percentage of their profits to reserves, as per the discretion of the board of directors. However, the Companies Act no longer mandates a specific minimum percentage to be transferred.

  1. Dividend on Preference Shares

Preference shareholders are entitled to dividends at a fixed rate before any dividends are declared for equity shareholders. The dividend for preference shares must be paid first, and any arrears of preference dividends must be cleared if applicable.

  1. Payment in Cash

Dividends must be paid in cash, cheque, or electronic means. A company cannot declare dividends in kind (i.e., through assets). However, stock dividends (bonus shares) are permissible.

  1. Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT)

Finance Act, 2020, abolished the Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT). Earlier, companies were required to pay tax on the dividends distributed. Now, shareholders are liable to pay tax on the dividends they receive based on their individual income tax slabs.

  1. Timeframe for Payment

Once a dividend is declared at the AGM, the company must pay the dividend to the shareholders within 30 days from the date of declaration. If the company fails to do so, it attracts penalties and interest charges.

  1. Unpaid or Unclaimed Dividend

  • If a dividend remains unpaid or unclaimed for 30 days from the date of declaration, it must be transferred to a special Unpaid Dividend Account within 7 days of the expiration of the 30-day period.
  • If the dividend remains unclaimed for seven years, it must be transferred to the Investor Education and Protection Fund (IEPF).

Process for Dividend Distribution:

  1. Board Meeting:

The process begins with a board meeting where the directors review the financial performance of the company. Based on profitability and liquidity, the board decides whether to recommend a dividend to the shareholders.

  1. Declaration at AGM:

In the case of a final dividend, the declaration is made at the Annual General Meeting (AGM) of the company. The shareholders must approve the dividend recommended by the board. Without this approval, the company cannot distribute the dividend.

  1. Record Date:

Company must set a record date, which is the cut-off date for determining the shareholders who are entitled to receive the dividend. Only those shareholders whose names appear in the company’s register on this date are eligible for the dividend.

  1. Payment of Dividend:

Dividend can be paid via cheque, demand draft, or electronic transfer. The payment must be completed within 30 days of the declaration, failing which the company is subject to penalties.

Penalties for Non-Compliance:

Failure to comply with the rules regarding dividend declaration and distribution can result in penalties for both the company and its officers.

  • Imprisonment and Fines:

Under Section 127 of the Companies Act, if the company fails to pay the dividend within 30 days of its declaration, every director who is knowingly a party to this default may be punished with imprisonment for up to 2 years and a fine of ₹1,000 for each day the default continues.

  • Interest:

In case of a delayed payment, the company is liable to pay interest on the unpaid dividend at the rate of 18% per annum until the payment is made.

Management Notes

Interest on Debentures

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Interest on debentures refers to the fixed amount of money that a company agrees to pay periodically to its debenture holders for the funds borrowed. It is usually paid semi-annually or annually and is calculated as a percentage of the face value of the debentures. The rate of interest is pre-fixed at the time of issuing the debentures and is stated in the debenture certificate. The interest paid is a financial charge and must be paid even if the company is incurring losses.

Features of Interest on Debentures:

  1. Fixed Rate: The interest is paid at a fixed rate mentioned in the terms of the debenture issue.

  2. Charge on Profit: Interest on debentures is a charge against profits and must be paid regardless of the company’s profitability.

  3. Tax Deductible: Interest paid on debentures is allowed as a tax-deductible expense under the Income Tax Act.

  4. Priority over Dividends: Interest is paid before any dividends are declared to shareholders.

  5. Creditor Relationship: Debenture holders are creditors, not owners, so they only receive interest, not a share of profits.

  6. Obligation: Failure to pay interest can lead to legal action or impact the company’s creditworthiness.

Types of Interest Payments:

  1. Gross Interest: This is the total amount of interest before deducting tax (TDS).

  2. Net Interest: This is the amount paid to debenture holders after deducting tax at source.

TDS (Tax Deducted at Source) on Debenture Interest:

As per the Income Tax Act, companies are required to deduct tax at source (TDS) before paying interest on debentures if the interest amount exceeds a specified limit (₹5,000 for listed companies and ₹2,500 for others). The TDS rate is generally 10%, but it may vary as per applicable tax laws.

Interest on Debentures Issued at Discount or Premium:

When debentures are issued at discount, the interest is calculated on the face value, not on the amount received.

Example:

  • Debentures of ₹10,00,000 issued at 95% (₹9,50,000 received)

  • Interest @10% is calculated on ₹10,00,000 = ₹1,00,000

Accrued Interest on Debentures

If debentures are purchased between interest dates, the buyer compensates the seller for the accrued interest from the last interest date till the date of purchase. This accrued interest is a capital cost for the buyer and is not treated as income in the hands of the seller.

Importance of Interest on Debentures:

  1. Predictable Expense: It allows companies to plan their cash flows effectively.

  2. Investor Confidence: Regular interest payments increase investor confidence and goodwill.

  3. Tax Shield: Being a tax-deductible expense, it helps reduce the company’s taxable income.

  4. Obligation Fulfillment: It reflects a company’s credibility and financial discipline in the market.

Accounting Treatment of Interest on Debentures:

Transaction Debit (Dr) Credit (Cr) Explanation

Interest Due (Accrued Interest)

 Interest on Debentures A/c (Expense) Debenture Interest Payable A/c (Liability)

Interest expense is recognized as it accrues, even if not yet paid.

Payment of Interest

 Debenture Interest Payable A/c (Liability) Bank/Cash A/c (Asset)

Actual payment of the accrued interest reduces liability and cash.

Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) (if applicable)

 Debenture Interest Payable A/c TDS Payable A/c (Liability)

TDS is deducted and withheld for tax authorities.

Transfer to P&L (Year-End)

 Profit & Loss A/c (Expense) Interest on Debentures A/c

Interest expense is closed to P&L to determine net profit.
Management Notes

Underwriting of Shares Meaning

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes5

‘Underwriting’ refers to the functions of an under-writer. An under-writer may be an individual, firm or a joint stock company, performing the under-writing function. Under-writing may be defined as a contract entered into by the company with persons or institutions, called under-writers, who undertake to take up the whole or a portion of such of the offered shares or debentures as may not be subscribed for by the public. Such agreements are called ‘Under-writing agreement’.

Underwriting services are provided by some large financial institutions, such as banks, insurance companies and investment houses, whereby they guarantee payment in case of damage or financial loss and accept the financial risk for liability arising from such guarantee. An underwriting arrangement may be created in a number of situations including insurance, issues of security in a public offering, and bank lending, among others. The person or institution that agrees to sell a minimum number of securities of the company for commission is called the Underwriter.

A newly formed company enters into an agreement with an under-writer to the effect that he will take up shares or Debentures offered by it to the public but not subscribed for in fully by the public. Such an agreement may become necessary when a company issues shares or debentures for the first time to the public, or subsequently when it is in need of working capital.

When the company does not receive 90 per cent of issued amount from public subscription, within 120 days from the date of opening the issue, the company cannot proceed with allotment. In such a case, the company must refund the amount of subscription. In the case of a new company, it cannot obtain a certificate to commence function.

A company is not sure whether the shares or debentures offered for subscription may be taken up by the public. There arises a risk to ensure the success of issue. Therefore, companies resort to underwriting in order to ensure that sufficient number of shares or debentures would subscribed for. Thus, risk-bearing or uncertainty bearing is an important function of an underwriter.

Thus, an underwriter is a person who undertakes to take up the whole or a portion of the shares or debentures offered by a company to the public for subscription as may not be subscribed for by the public, prior to making such an offer. The company has to pay a commission to such an underwriter. It is known as underwriting commission. It is, of course, a type of insurance against under-subscription.

Need for underwriting

Investigate your credit history. Underwriters look at your credit score and pull your credit report. They look at your overall credit score and search for things like late payments, bankruptcies, overuse of credit and more.

Order an appraisal. Your underwriter will order an appraisal to make sure that the amount that the lender offers for the home matches up with the home’s actual value.

Verify your income and employment. Your underwriter will ask you to prove your income and employment situation.

Look at your debt-to-income ratio (DTI). Your DTI is a percentage that tells lenders how much money you spend versus how much income you bring in. An underwriter examines your debts and compares them to your income to ensure you have more than enough cash flow to cover your monthly mortgage payments, taxes and insurance.

Verify your down payment and savings. The underwriter also looks at your savings accounts to make sure you have enough savings to supplement your income or to use as a down payment at closing.

Functions of a Broker in Underwriting:

Broker is a person who helps in subscribing the shares. A broker is one who finds buyers for the shares or debentures of the company and gets the brokerage on the number of shares or debentures subscribed by the public through him. Underwriter is different from a broker. An underwriter is a person who agrees to take a specified number of shares or debentures, in case, not subscribed by the public.

That is, an underwriter is liable to take up shares in case the public fails to subscribe whereas a broker is not liable. Underwriter gets underwriting commission and a broker gets brokerage. Underwriter gives a guarantee whereas a broker does the service of placing the shares.

Thus, the function of an underwriter is of great economic significance since he himself assumes the risk of uncertainty on behalf of the company making public issue of shares or debentures. A broker, on the other hand, does not assume any such risk. Underwriting acts as a sort of insurance or guarantee against the danger of not receiving minimum subscription.

Sub Underwriting:

An underwriter may himself enter into a sub-agreement with other persons, called sub- underwriters, whereby he transfers a part of his underwriting risk. Just like re-insurance, sub- underwriting helps in spreading the risk. An underwriter may appoint several underwriters to work under him. However, the sub-underwriters have no privacy of contract with the company. They get their commission from the underwriter and are also responsible to him.

Importance of Underwriting:

  1. Underwriting acts as a sort of insurance or guarantee against the danger of not receiving minimum subscription, in the absence of underwriting agreement, there is always uncertainty regarding subscription of shares of debentures by the public. The guarantee of the underwriters removes the uncertainty.
  2. When shares or debentures are sold through underwriters, there arise more confidence amongst the public. This is because underwriters undertake shares or debentures of only those companies which are sound concerns and whose future is bright.
  3. Underwriting creates an impression regarding sound status of a company. It increases the goodwill of the company.
Management Notes

Auditors, Meaning, Types, Appointment, Powers, Duties & Responsibilities, Qualities

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes2

Auditor is an independent professional appointed to examine and verify the financial statements and records of a company, ensuring their accuracy, legality, and compliance with applicable accounting standards and laws. Under Section 2(7) of the Companies Act, 2013, an auditor is a person appointed to audit the financial records of a company and express an opinion on the fairness of its financial position.

The main role of an auditor is to conduct an audit, which is a systematic examination of financial books, vouchers, and documents. The purpose is to provide a true and fair view of the company’s financial health, detect fraud or errors, and ensure compliance with the provisions of the Companies Act and accounting standards prescribed by ICAI (Institute of Chartered Accountants of India).

The Companies Act mandates that every company, except certain small and one person companies, must appoint an auditor in its first Annual General Meeting (AGM), who will hold office for five years, subject to ratification by shareholders. The appointment, qualifications, powers, and duties of auditors are governed by Sections 139 to 148 of the Companies Act, 2013.

Auditors play a critical role in corporate governance by safeguarding stakeholder interests, building investor confidence, and promoting transparency and accountability in financial reporting.

Types of Auditors:

Auditors are appointed to ensure financial accuracy, legal compliance, and corporate transparency. Depending on their scope of work and legal status, auditors are categorized into various types. Each plays a unique role in maintaining the integrity of financial reporting and ensuring that companies comply with statutory requirements.

1. Statutory Auditor

Statutory Auditor is appointed under the Companies Act, 2013, to audit the financial statements of a company annually. The appointment is compulsory for most companies except certain small or one person companies. Their audit report is presented in the Annual General Meeting (AGM). They ensure compliance with legal, tax, and accounting regulations, and are typically Chartered Accountants. The report provided by them holds legal importance and is submitted to the Registrar of Companies (ROC).

2. Internal Auditor

Internal Auditor is appointed by the management to evaluate the effectiveness of internal controls, risk management, and governance processes. Their role is not mandatory for all companies but is required for specified classes under Section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013. They function as part of the internal management team and report findings to the Board. Internal auditors are instrumental in improving operational efficiency and preventing fraud within the organization.

3. Cost Auditor

Cost Auditor examines the cost accounting records of a company to ensure that cost control, pricing, and efficiency measures are being properly documented. As per Section 148 of the Companies Act, 2013, companies engaged in manufacturing or production may be required to appoint cost auditors. They ensure that the company adheres to the Cost Accounting Standards issued by the Institute of Cost Accountants of India and submit a cost audit report to the Board and government.

4. Tax Auditor

Tax Auditor conducts audits as mandated under the Income Tax Act, 1961, specifically under Section 44AB. Their main function is to verify that the company complies with applicable tax laws and properly maintains tax-related financial records. Tax auditors prepare the Tax Audit Report (Form 3CA/3CB & 3CD) and help detect misreporting or tax evasion. They ensure proper deductions, declarations, and filings, and are usually Chartered Accountants in practice.

5. Secretarial Auditor

Secretarial Auditor is appointed under Section 204 of the Companies Act, 2013, and is mandatory for listed companies and certain other prescribed companies. They must be a Practicing Company Secretary (PCS). Their role is to examine whether the company complies with legal and procedural aspects of laws like SEBI regulations, the Companies Act, FEMA, and other corporate laws. They issue a Secretarial Audit Report, which forms part of the annual board report.

6. Government Auditor

Government Auditors are appointed by government agencies like the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India to audit public sector undertakings (PSUs) and government organizations. Their role is to ensure that public funds are used efficiently and in accordance with applicable financial rules. They detect misuse, non-compliance, or inefficiency in public expenditure. Their audits help Parliament and state legislatures hold government entities accountable.

7. Forensic Auditor

Forensic Auditor specializes in identifying fraud, embezzlement, and financial misconduct within an organization. They investigate suspicious transactions, misstatements, or internal manipulation of accounts. Their reports may be used as legal evidence in courts or regulatory inquiries. Forensic audits are conducted in response to specific concerns rather than as part of regular financial reviews, and these auditors are trained in investigative and analytical skills.

8. Concurrent Auditor

Concurrent Auditor conducts audits on a real-time or near real-time basis, especially in banks and financial institutions. Unlike statutory audits which are annual, concurrent audits are ongoing and help detect irregularities as they occur. They review transactions like loans, deposits, and investments to ensure adherence to internal guidelines, RBI norms, and KYC requirements. Concurrent audits strengthen the internal check system and reduce operational risks.

Appointment of Auditors:

The appointment of auditors is a statutory requirement under the Companies Act, 2013, primarily governed by Sections 139 to 148. The auditor plays a vital role in verifying financial accuracy, ensuring compliance, and maintaining transparency. The Act outlines different procedures for the appointment of first auditors, subsequent auditors, and auditors in government companies.

1. Appointment of First Auditor (Section 139(6))

  • In the case of a company (other than a government company), the Board of Directors must appoint the first auditor within 30 days of incorporation.
  • If the Board fails to do so, the company’s members must appoint the auditor within 90 days at an Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM).
  • The first auditor holds office until the conclusion of the first Annual General Meeting (AGM).
  • For government companies, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India appoints the auditor within 60 days from incorporation. If CAG fails, the Board or shareholders will appoint.

2. Appointment of Subsequent Auditors (Section 139(1))

At the first AGM, shareholders must appoint an auditor who will hold office for five years (subject to ratification, if required, at each AGM).

This applies to all companies except:

  • One Person Companies (OPCs)
  • Small companies

The appointment must be confirmed by passing an ordinary resolution in the AGM.

The company must also file Form ADT-1 with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 15 days of the appointment.

3. Appointment in Government Companies (Section 139(5))

  • In the case of a government company, or a company with at least 51% paid-up share capital held by the government, the CAG of India appoints the auditor.
  • This appointment must be made within 180 days from the beginning of the financial year.
  • The appointed auditor will hold office until the conclusion of the AGM.

4. Rotation of Auditors (Section 139(2))

Certain companies (listed and prescribed unlisted public companies) must rotate auditors after a specified term:

  • An individual can be appointed as auditor for one term of 5 years.
  • An audit firm can serve two consecutive terms of 5 years each.
  • After completing the term, a cooling-off period of 5 years is mandatory before reappointment.
  • This provision aims to avoid long-term associations that may compromise auditor independence.

5. Consent and Certificate from Auditor (Section 139(1))

Before appointment, the proposed auditor must:

  • Provide written consent to act as an auditor.
  • Furnish a certificate of eligibility stating that the appointment, if made, will be within the limits prescribed under Section 141 of the Act.

The company must ensure that the auditor satisfies all conditions relating to disqualifications and independence.

6. Filing with ROC – Form ADT–1

  • Once the auditor is appointed, the company is required to file Form ADT-1 with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 15 days.
  • This form must be digitally signed and submitted online with the required fee.
  • Non-filing may attract penalties and non-compliance notices.

7. Reappointment of Auditor

A retiring auditor is eligible for reappointment at the AGM, unless:

  • They are disqualified.
  • They have expressed unwillingness.
  • A resolution has been passed for appointment of someone else.

If no auditor is appointed or reappointed at the AGM, the existing auditor continues to hold office until a new one is appointed.

8. Casual Vacancy in Office of Auditor (Section 139(8))

  • If a casual vacancy arises (due to resignation, death, disqualification), it must be filled by the Board of Directors within 30 days.

  • However, if the vacancy is due to resignation, it must be approved by the company at a general meeting within 3 months.

  • In the case of government companies, CAG fills the vacancy.

Powers of Auditors:

Auditors play a vital role in maintaining the financial integrity and transparency of companies. To perform their duties effectively, they are vested with various statutory powers under the Companies Act, 2013. These powers allow auditors to access information, seek clarifications, and report objectively to stakeholders.

The major powers of an auditor are primarily covered under Section 143 of the Companies Act, 2013.

1. Right to Access Books of Account (Section 143(1))

Auditors have the power to access all books of account, financial records, and vouchers of the company at all times, whether kept at the registered office or elsewhere. This includes:

  • Subsidiary company records (if auditing the holding company).
  • Records maintained electronically or physically.

Example: An auditor can demand access to ledger entries and bank reconciliations during an audit to verify cash flow.

2. Right to Obtain Information and Explanations (Section 143(1))

The auditor is entitled to seek any information or explanation from company officers that is necessary for performing the audit. It is the duty of the management to provide such information truthfully and promptly.

Example: If a transaction seems suspicious, the auditor can ask the finance officer for contract details or board approvals.

3. Right to Visit Branches (Section 143(8))

If a company has branches in India or abroad, the company’s main auditor can visit those branches to inspect records or may rely on branch auditors. However, they may also request the working papers or clarifications from the branch.

Example: For a retail chain with multiple branches, the auditor may check inventory and cash records at selected outlets.

4. Right to Audit Subsidiaries

If appointed as the auditor of a holding company, the auditor has the right to access financial records of its subsidiaries to form a consolidated audit opinion.

Example: While auditing a parent IT company, the auditor can examine the financials of its overseas subsidiary to ensure accuracy in group reporting.

5. Right to Sign Audit Reports and Report to Shareholders

The auditor has the sole authority to sign the audit report and express an opinion on the financial statements. This report is addressed to the company’s shareholders and becomes part of the Annual Report.

Example: The auditor may issue a qualified opinion if the company has not complied with accounting standards.

6. Right to Attend General Meetings (Section 146)

Auditors have the right to:

  • Receive notices of general meetings (especially AGMs).

  • Attend such meetings.

  • Speak on matters concerning the audit report, financial statements, or any related issues.

Example: An auditor may be asked to clarify certain points in the audit report by shareholders at an AGM.

7. Right to Report Fraud (Section 143(12))

If during the audit, the auditor believes that an offense involving fraud has been committed by company officers or employees, they must report the matter to the Central Government (if above a certain threshold), or the Board/Audit Committee.

Example: If the auditor detects manipulation in inventory records resulting in overstatement of assets, they must report it.

8. Power to Report on Internal Financial Controls (Section 143(3)(i))

For certain companies, the auditor must report whether the company has adequate internal financial controls (IFC) in place and if those controls are operating effectively. This is mandatory for listed companies and other prescribed classes.

Example: If a company lacks segregation of duties in handling cash and approval processes, the auditor must mention it.

9. Right to Examine and Investigate

Auditors have the power to conduct independent examination beyond routine checks if they suspect irregularities. Although this does not give investigative powers like a government authority, it empowers them to dig deeper when red flags arise.

Example: If fixed asset records are inconsistent, the auditor may physically verify assets or seek third-party confirmations.

10. Right to Receive Remuneration

Once appointed, an auditor has the right to receive remuneration as fixed by the company, either by the Board or shareholders depending on the type of company and the nature of appointment.

Duties and Responsibilities of Auditors:

(Under Companies Act, 2013 – Sections 143 to 148)

Auditors play a vital role in safeguarding the financial integrity of a company. Their core duty is to provide an independent and objective view of the financial statements, ensuring accuracy, fairness, and compliance with legal and accounting standards. The Companies Act, 2013, lays down specific statutory duties and responsibilities to ensure accountability and protect the interests of shareholders and the public.

1. Duty to Report on Financial Statements (Section 143(2))

Auditors are required to examine financial statements and provide an audit report that states whether they give a true and fair view of the company’s financial position. They must report whether:

  • Proper books of account have been maintained.
  • Accounting standards have been complied with.
  • Any material misstatements exist.

2. Duty to Inquire (Section 143(1))

The auditor must make specific inquiries into:

  • Whether loans and advances are properly secured.
  • Whether transactions are prejudicial to the interest of the company.
  • Whether personal expenses are charged to revenue.
    These inquiries ensure there is no misuse of company resources or manipulation of accounts.

3. Duty to Report on Internal Financial Controls (Section 143(3)(i))

For listed companies and prescribed others, the auditor must comment on the adequacy and effectiveness of internal financial controls over financial reporting. This includes checking:

  • Risk control mechanisms,
  • Documentation,
  • Authorization systems.

It strengthens corporate governance.

4. Duty to Report Fraud (Section 143(12))

If the auditor believes an offense involving fraud is being or has been committed, they must report it:

  • To the Board/Audit Committee (if below threshold),
  • To the Central Government (if above threshold).
    This duty promotes transparency and accountability.

5. Duty to Comply with Auditing Standards (Section 143(9))

Auditors must follow the auditing standards notified by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI). This includes:

  • Documentation,
  • Audit planning,
  • Evidence collection,
  • Ethical conduct.

Failure to comply may lead to disciplinary action.

6. Duty to Express Independent Opinion

Auditors must maintain independence and objectivity throughout the audit process. They must not be influenced by company management or personal relationships. Their audit opinion must be based only on facts and evidence.

7. Duty to Attend General Meetings (Section 146)

Auditors have the duty (and right) to:

  • Attend the Annual General Meeting (AGM),
  • Respond to shareholder queries on financial matters,
  • Clarify points related to the audit report.

This strengthens auditor accountability to shareholders.

8. Duty to Preserve Confidentiality

While auditors must access and examine confidential company records, they are duty-bound to maintain confidentiality. They must not disclose sensitive company information to outsiders unless legally required.

9. Responsibility Towards Subsidiaries

When auditing a holding company, the auditor must verify and report on the financial information of subsidiaries as well. They are responsible for ensuring consolidated financial statements are accurate and reflect group performance.

10. Responsibility in Case of Resignation

If the auditor resigns, they are required to:

  • File a statement with the company and Registrar (Form ADT-3),
  • Indicate the reasons for resignation,
  • Ensure there’s no attempt to avoid responsibility.

11. Responsibility for Reporting Non–Compliance

Auditors must report if the company has failed to:

  • Repay deposits,
  • Pay dividends,
  • Comply with accounting standards,
  • Meet disclosure requirements.

Qualities of a Good Auditor:

An auditor holds a critical role in examining a company’s financial records to ensure accuracy, fairness, and legal compliance. To carry out this responsibility effectively, an auditor must possess several personal and professional qualities. These qualities help maintain integrity, independence, objectivity, and professional excellence in auditing work.

  • Integrity and Honesty

An auditor must be trustworthy and honest in all professional dealings. Integrity ensures that the auditor presents the financial status of the company truthfully, without being influenced by management or shareholders. Honesty builds confidence among stakeholders that the audit report can be relied upon for decision-making. Any compromise in integrity can lead to misleading financial statements and legal repercussions.

  • Independence and Objectivity

An essential quality for any auditor is independence — both in fact and appearance. The auditor must not have any financial or personal relationship with the company that could influence judgment. Objectivity ensures the auditor’s opinions are based on evidence, not bias or pressure. Independence enhances credibility and helps avoid conflicts of interest in audit conclusions.

  • Professional Competence and Expertise

An auditor must have thorough knowledge of accounting principles, auditing standards, taxation laws, and relevant legal provisions like the Companies Act, 2013. Regular updating of skills is also necessary. This competence allows the auditor to detect discrepancies, suggest improvements, and render an informed opinion on the financial position of the company.

  • Keen Observation and Analytical Ability

A good auditor should have a sharp eye for detail. They must be able to identify inconsistencies in records, spot unusual trends, and detect red flags that indicate possible fraud or misstatements. Analytical ability helps in comparing financial data, ratios, and interpreting them to understand the true financial health of the organization.

  • Confidentiality

Auditors come across sensitive and confidential information while performing their duties. It is essential for them to maintain strict confidentiality and not disclose any information to unauthorized persons unless required by law. This builds trust with the client and ensures that proprietary business information remains protected.

  • Good Communication Skills

An auditor must be able to communicate findings clearly and effectively through oral discussions and written reports. They must interact with clients, staff, and stakeholders to gather information and explain audit results. A well-written audit report must be easy to understand and free of ambiguity, ensuring proper decision-making.

  • Professional Skepticism

A good auditor should not accept evidence at face value. They must apply professional skepticism — a questioning mind and a critical assessment of audit evidence. This quality helps in detecting fraud, misrepresentation, or manipulation in financial statements and ensures the audit is thorough and objective.

  • Patience and Perseverance

Audit work involves examining a vast number of documents, records, and transactions. It may take several rounds of verification and cross-checking. An auditor must have the patience to go through all details meticulously and the perseverance to complete the audit even when facing resistance or delays from the auditee.

  • Time Management

Auditors often work under tight deadlines and must plan their audits in a structured and time-bound manner. Good time management ensures that the audit is completed efficiently without compromising quality. It also helps in prioritizing tasks and allocating time effectively across various stages of the audit process.

  • Impartiality and Fair Judgment

An auditor must be impartial in forming an opinion about the financial statements. They must evaluate evidence and results based on merit and facts, not influenced by personal feelings, relationships, or pressure. Fair judgment ensures the audit report reflects the true and fair view of the company’s financial position.

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