Year: 2020

The new regime of Companies Act 2013 has changed the requirement for appointment of the auditor in Companies. There has been a paradigm shift in the provisions relating to appointment of Statutory Auditor. This article broadly covers the provisional requirement for appointment of the auditor under Companies Act, 2013. The responsibility of evaluating the validity and reliability of financial statements is to the auditors.

It involves an intelligent scrutiny of the books of account of a Company with reference to documents, vouchers and other relevant records to ensure that the entries made therein giving a clean and clear picture of the business. Hence, the need to appoint Statutory Auditor arises.

Appointment of First Auditor of of Company Auditor under Companies Act, 2013

As per section 139(6) the first auditor of the company other than a government company shall be appointed by the Board within 30 days of Incorporation. In case of Board’s failure, an EGM shall be called within 90 days to appoint the first auditor. The law is silent regarding from when this time limit of 90 days be reckoned, it is better to take a stricter view and interpret that the 90 days limit starts from Incorporation rather than expiry of 30 days.

In case of Government Companies the first auditor shall be appointed by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India within sixty days from the date of registration of the company and in case the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India does not appoint such auditor within the said period, the Board of Directors of the company shall appoint such auditor within the next thirty days; and in the case of failure of the Board to appoint such auditor within the next thirty days, it shall inform the members of the company who shall appoint such auditor within the sixty days at an extraordinary general meeting

The first auditor shall hold office till the conclusion of 1st Annual General Meeting.

Appointment of Subsequent Auditor of Company Auditor under Companies Act, 2013

Every company shall, at the first annual general meeting, appoint an individual or a firm as an auditor who shall hold office from the conclusion of that meeting till the conclusion of its sixth annual general meeting and thereafter till the conclusion of every sixth meeting.

Tenure of Auditors appointed under Companies Act, 2013

The following class of Companies shall not appoint or reappoint:

(a) An individual as auditor for more than one term of five consecutive years; and

(b) An audit firm as auditor for more than two terms of five consecutive years:

The class of companies shall mean the following classes of companies excluding one person companies and small companies:

(a) All unlisted public companies having paid up share capital of rupees ten crore or more;

(b) All private limited companies having paid up share capital of rupees twenty crore or more;

(c) All companies having paid up share capital of below threshold limit mentioned in (a) and (b) above, but having public borrowings from financial institutions, banks or public deposits of rupees fifty crores or more.

Purpose for the appointment of the Auditor

The purpose of the auditors in the company is to protect the interests of the shareholders. The auditor is obligated by law to examine the accounts maintained by the directors and inform them of the true financial position of the company. Auditor gives his independent opinion to the owners or shareholders of the company to protect and keep the company in a safe financial condition.

Appointment Of Auditor Other Than Retiring Auditor By A Special Notice

Where a person other than the retiring auditor is proposed to be appointed as an auditor, or where it is proposed that the retiring auditor shall not be re-appointed, a special notice under Section 115 of the companies Act, 2013 has to be given proposing that such a resolution would be moved at the next annual general meeting.

In case where the retiring auditor has completed a consecutive tenure of five years or, as the case may be – ten years then such special notice can be avoided.

For the purpose of special notice the relevant points are as under:

If the auditor makes a representation in writing to the company and requests for a notification to the members, the company shall

• State the fact of representation in any notice regarding the resolution
• The copy of representation should be sent to those members by the company to whom notice of meeting is sent, whether before or after the receipt of representation.
• If the copy of representation is not so sent, copy thereof should be filed with the Registrar.

(ii) On receipt of the special notice for removing the auditor, the company should send a copy of the same to the retiring auditor.

(iii) Such representation should be of a reasonable length and not too long.

(iv) The special notice should not be received by the company too late for the purpose of circulation to members.

Auditor may require the company to read out the representation in the meeting if it is not so notified to members because it was too late or because of company’s default.

If the Tribunal is satisfied that the rights are being abused by the auditor based on an application either of the company or of any other aggrieved person, then:

• The copy of the representation may not be sent, and
• The representation need not be read out at the meeting.

Contingent liabilities are liabilities that may be incurred by an entity depending on the outcome of an uncertain future event such as the outcome of a pending lawsuit. These liabilities are not recorded in a company’s accounts and shown in the balance sheet when both probable and reasonably estimable as ‘contingency’ or ‘worst case’ financial outcome. A footnote to the balance sheet may describe the nature and extent of the contingent liabilities. The likelihood of loss is described as probable, reasonably possible, or remote. The ability to estimate a loss is described as known, reasonably estimable, or not reasonably estimable. It may or may not occur.

Before understanding contingent liabilities, one must learn about what is considered as a liability in the accounting and economic context. A liability is any financial event that poses as an obligation to a company, and the company needs to make a monetary settlement regarding it in the future. In other words, it refers to the financial obligations of a company.

These events need to be quantified into monetary terms to be recorded in the books of a company.

Majorly, liabilities are categorised into three subtypes i.e non-current liabilities, current liabilities, and contingent liabilities. A contingent liability is thus a type of financial event that might or might not evolve into an obligation in the future for the company. As per the definition provided by General Accepted Accounting Standards (GAAP), a contingent liability is any potential future expense that depends on a “triggering event” to convert it into an actual loss. A contingent liabilities example is a lawsuit.

As the concept of contingent liability borders on vagueness and considerations regarding which event is recognisable as a potential expense are unclear, there are two yardsticks to follow when dealing with a contingent liability:

• Whether an event is 50% or more likely to occur in the future.
• Whether it can be expressed in monetary figures.

If any contingency satisfies these two yardsticks, such an event can be posted in the books. A contingent liability is recorded first as an expense in the Profit & Loss Account and then on the liabilities side in the Balance sheet.

Types of Contingent Liabilities

Contingent liabilities are classified based on the scale of their probability, i.e. likeliness of an event occurring in the future. These types are mentioned below.

1. Probable contingency

Any financial obligation that has at least 50% chance of occurring in the future is considered a probable contingency, and the loss thus to be realised is considered as a probable contingent liability.

For instance, if a company faces a lawsuit where the plaintiff poses a strong case, then such an event can be considered as a probable contingency. A professional such as a legal counsel will assess the weight of a lawsuit, derive its probability, and if chances of a loss are 50% or higher then express the loss in monetary terms. Following that, it shall be recorded in the books of the company.

Here, it is essential to note why a contingency is recorded in the books even when there is only a 50% chance of a liability arising. It is because, in accountancy, law of conservatism is followed which states the principle that loss is always impending and thus, shall be recorded at a 50% or higher probability of occurrence; whereas profits are unlikely and hence, recording them in the books shall be withheld till profit realisation, or chances are more likely than a loss.

2. Possible contingency

A possible contingency is when a liability might or might not arise, but chances of its occurrence are less likely than that of a probable contingency, i.e. lower than 50%. Therefore, a possible contingency is usually not recorded in the books, but rather mentioned in the footnotes.

Another reason behind why a possible contingency is not recorded in the books is because it cannot be expressed in monetary terms due to its limited likeliness of occurrence. As mentioned earlier, any contingency that does not satisfy the two yardsticks shall not be recorded in the books of a company.

3. Remote contingency

As the name suggests, any liability that has minimal chances of occurring and is not possible under normal circumstances is known as a remote contingency. As chances of such contingencies translating to losses for the company are negligible, they are not recorded in the books or mentioned in footnotes.

How to Recognise a Contingent Liability?

Contingent liability has a broad definition, and it is challenging for companies to either rule out or include a contingent liability in their books.

Hence, it is always advisable that companies shall consult professionals who are reasonably adept in the subject matter. This way, companies abide by the rules of GAAP and also possess a substantial argument when being audited.

For instance, if a company faces litigation, it shall consult a lawyer and rely upon his/her discretion regarding inclusion or exclusion of a liability in the books.

Like, if as per precedent and the discretion of a lawyer, a case’s outcome is deemed as ambiguous, then such contingency shall only be mentioned in the footnotes. In this manner, companies shall navigate the vagaries of contingent liabilities.

How Does Contingent Liability Affect Investors?

When a company can recognise in time the possibility of a loss, it then has the opportunity to set up provisions against such losses, thus attempting to attenuate the impact of such future loss. However, that is not the motive behind the recording of a contingency as a liability in the books.

Rather, when a contingent liability is recorded in the books of a company, that information becomes available to the shareholders and auditors as well. Hence, it can be construed that registering a contingent liability is to safeguard shareholders against probable losses.

Even though cases such as lawsuits can be closely followed by shareholders of a company, information regarding warranty, which is also a form of a contingent liability, is not easily accessible by shareholders.

Therefore, to safeguard investors’ interests, probable contingent liabilities (chances of occurrence of at least 50%) of all kinds shall be recorded in a company’s books. It allows individuals to make sound investment decisions.

Debtors or ‘receivables’ are customers who owe funds to the company. They have purchased goods on credit and, payments are yet to be made by them. Sundry debtors, also known as ‘sundry receivables’ refer to a company’s customers who rarely make purchases on credit and the amounts they purchase are not significant. These are usually small scale customers.

Usually, the company maintains separate ledger accounts to record business transactions for each customer. This is justifiable if the customer purchases in larger volumes at frequent intervals. This may not be justifiable for smaller customers, thus it is more convenient to maintain a single ledger account named ‘sundry debtors’ to record such small scale infrequent transactions.

Any person who supplies the goods or services or consumable items to a business firm on credit basis, will be called as sundry creditor by the firm who avails this facility. The suppliers of various items relating to expenses on credit basis, are also called sundry creditors.

Sundry creditors are the liabilities of the firm because the firm is supposed to pay the outstanding amount in future as per terms and conditioned agreed upon by both the parties.  They are called as trade creditors also. But at the time of preparing the final accounts, the amount payable to the creditor is shown as sundry creditors.

Accounts payable means the amount to be paid against goods or services. These are called sundry creditors or sundry supplier also.

This is very important duty of the finance department to arrange money for suppliers in time because if they are not able to pay them in time then the supplies of goods be affected and it will be very difficult to meet the demand of customers also. So, one should be very careful to deal with the payment of suppliers.

Points to be remembered in respect of the payment to suppliers: Following points must be kept in mind while dealing with the suppliers:

• The payment of dues must be made in time as far as possible to maintain the goodwill of the firm.
• Purchase department must make sure that the goods are not purchased in more than required quantity.
• There should proper co-ordination between purchase department and finance department.

Sundry Debtors vs Sundry Creditors

The difference between sundry debtors and sundry creditors is dependent on whether the company is the seller or the purchaser. If the company is the seller, then this results in sundry debtors and if the company is the buyer, this results in sundry creditors. It should also be noted that only infrequent small scale debtors and creditors should be recorded under sundry category; significant credit customers and suppliers should always be treated as trade debtors and trade receivables and should be accounted for separately.

Sundry Creditors is which Type of Account?

Sundry creditors are considered a liability account in accounting. They represent the amounts owed by a business to various suppliers or vendors for goods or services that have been purchased on credit. Sundry creditors are part of the broader category of accounts payable.

In the context of financial accounting, liabilities are obligations that a company owes to external parties, and accounts payable, including sundry creditors, fall under this category. The balance in the sundry creditors account reflects the total amount the company owes to its various creditors.

The term “sundry” is often used in accounting to refer to various small or miscellaneous items that don’t individually warrant a separate ledger account. Sundry creditors, therefore, capture the amounts owed to numerous miscellaneous creditors. As payments are made to these creditors, the corresponding amounts are debited from the sundry creditors account, reducing the liability.

How to Record Sundry Creditors?

Recording sundry creditors involves capturing the amounts owed to various suppliers or vendors for goods or services purchased on credit. This process is typically part of the broader accounting cycle and involves the use of journal entries. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to record sundry creditors:

1. Invoice Received:

When a company receives an invoice from a supplier for goods or services purchased on credit, the first step is to record the transaction. The journal entry is as follows:

• Debit: Relevant Expense Account or Asset Account
• Credit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable)

This entry increases the expense or asset account associated with the purchase and creates a liability in the form of accounts payable.

2. Payment to Sundry Creditors:

When the company makes a payment to the sundry creditors, the following journal entry is made:

• Debit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable)
• Credit: Bank or Cash

This entry reflects the reduction in the liability (sundry creditors) as the payment is made. The bank or cash account is credited to show the outflow of funds.

3. Discounts or Adjustments:

If there are any early payment discounts or adjustments to the invoice amount, these should be recorded accordingly. For example, if a prompt payment discount is offered and taken, the entry would be:

• Debit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable)
• Credit: Discounts Received or Cash

4. Accrual Adjustments:

At the end of an accounting period, accrual adjustments may be necessary to account for expenses that have been incurred but not yet recorded. For sundry creditors, this may involve estimating the amount of outstanding invoices. The entry could be:

• Debit: Relevant Expense Account
• Credit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable)

Example:

Let’s consider a specific example:

Suppose a company receives an invoice from a supplier for $1,000 worth of goods. The entry would be:

• Debit: Inventory or Expense Account (e.g., Purchases) – $1,000
• Credit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable) – $1,000

When the company pays $800 to the supplier, the entry would be:

• Debit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable) – $800
• Credit: Bank or Cash – $800

Remember that the specific accounts used may vary based on the nature of the transaction and the company’s chart of accounts.

Important Considerations:

• Consistency in Accounts:

Ensure consistency in the accounts used for recording sundry creditors across all transactions. This consistency is crucial for accurate financial reporting.

• Timely Recording:

Record transactions promptly to maintain up-to-date and accurate financial records.

• Accurate Information:

Verify the accuracy of the information on invoices and payment details to avoid errors in recording.

• Compliance with Accounting Standards:

Ensure that recording practices comply with relevant accounting standards and guidelines.

• Use of Accounting Software:

Many businesses use accounting software that automates the recording process, ensuring efficiency and accuracy.

Always consult with an accountant or financial professional to tailor the recording process to the specific needs and requirements of your business.

Sundry Creditors in Balance Sheet

Debit: Inventory or Expense Account

• This depends on the nature of the purchase. If it’s the purchase of inventory, debit the inventory account. If it’s an expense, debit the relevant expense account.

Debit: Inventory (or relevant expense account) – $1,000

Credit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable)

• This reflects the liability created by the purchase on credit. The amount is credited to the sundry creditors account.

Credit: Sundry Creditors (Accounts Payable) – $1,000

A liability is a financial obligation of a company that results in the company’s future sacrifices of economic benefits to other entities or businesses. A liability can be an alternative to equity as a source of a company’s financing. Moreover, some liabilities, such as accounts payable or income taxes payable, are essential parts of day-to-day business operations.

Liabilities can help companies organize successful business operations and accelerate value creation. However, poor management of liabilities may result in significant negative consequences, such as a decline in financial performance or, worse, bankruptcy.

Current Liabilities vs. Long-term Liabilities

The primary classification of liabilities is according to their due date. The classification is critical to the company’s management of its financial obligations.

Current liabilities are those that are due within a year. These primarily occur as part of regular business operations. Due to the short-term nature of these financial obligations, they should be managed with consideration of the company’s liquidity. Liquidity is frequently determined as a ratio between current assets and current liabilities. The most common current liabilities are:

• Accounts payable: These are the unpaid bills to the company’s vendors. Generally, accounts payable are the largest current liability for most businesses.
• Interest payable: Interest expenses that have already occurred but have not been paid. Interest payable should not be confused with the interest expenses. Unlike interest payable, interest expenses are expenses that have already been incurred and paid. Therefore, interest expenses are reported on the income statement, while interest payable is recorded on the balance sheet.
• Income taxes payable: The income tax amount owed by a company to the government. The tax amount owed must be payable within one year. Otherwise, the tax owed must be classified as a long-term liability.
• Bank account overdrafts: A type of short-term loan provided by a bank when the payment is processed with insufficient funds available in the bank account.
• Accrued expenses: Expenses that have incurred but no supporting documentation (e.g., invoice) has been received or issued.
• Short-term loans: Loans with a maturity of one year or less.

Bill Payable

A bill payable is a document which shows the amount owed for goods or services received on credit (meaning not paid at the time that the goods or services were received). The provider of the goods or services is referred to as the supplier or vendor. Hence, a bill payable is also known as an unpaid vendor invoice.

Examples of Bills Payable

Examples of a bill payable include a monthly telephone bill, the monthly bill for the electricity used, a bill for repairs that were completed, the bill for merchandise purchased by a retailer on credit, etc.

In the context of personal finance and small business accounting, bills payable are liabilities such as utility bills. They are recorded as accounts payable and listed as current liabilities on a balance sheet.

The term “bills payable” is often used interchangeably with the term “accounts payable.” As such, a company will treat bills payable in the same manner as it treats accounts payable obligations that will become due within one year. The account for bills payable includes purchases a company makes on credit and money a company borrows that must be repaid within one year.

Significance

The bills payable account appears on a company’s balance sheet, which indicates the financial position of the business at a specific point in time. Bills payable reduces the amount of equity owners have invested in the business because owners’ equity equals the remaining portion after liabilities are subtracted from assets. Increased liabilities means the company has less equity. A credit in the bills payable account increases the amount of the obligation the company must pay, while a debit to bills payable reduces the amount of the liability.

Interest

If a company takes out a loan, it may be classified as a bill payable if the loan must be repaid within one year. Typically, a loan due in over one year is classified under notes payable, while short-term loans are classified as accounts or bills payable. The company makes interest payments as a result of the short-term borrowing, and the interest due is classified as interest payable until the company makes a cash payment for the amount of interest due. Interest payable is another short-term liability that indicates the company has an obligation to make an interest payment.

Goodwill is an intangible asset that is associated with the purchase of one company by another. Specifically, goodwill is the portion of the purchase price that is higher than the sum of the net fair value of all of the assets purchased in the acquisition and the liabilities assumed in the process. The value of a company’s brand name, solid customer base, good customer relations, good employee relations, and proprietary technology represent some reasons why goodwill exists.

Goodwill in accounting is an intangible asset that arises when a buyer acquires an existing business. Goodwill represents assets that are not separately identifiable. Goodwill does not include identifiable assets that are capable of being separated or divided from the entity and sold, transferred, licensed, rented, or exchanged, either individually or together with a related contract, identifiable asset, or liability regardless of whether the entity intends to do so. Goodwill also does not include contractual or other legal rights regardless of whether those are transferable or separable from the entity or other rights and obligations. Goodwill is also only acquired through an acquisition; it cannot be self-created. Examples of identifiable assets that are goodwill include a company’s brand name, customer relationships, artistic intangible assets, and any patents or proprietary technology. The goodwill amounts to the excess of the “purchase consideration” (the money paid to purchase the asset or business) over the net value of the assets minus liabilities. It is classified as an intangible asset on the balance sheet, since it can neither be seen nor touched. Under US GAAP and IFRS, goodwill is never amortized, because it is considered to have an indefinite useful life. Instead, management is responsible for valuing goodwill every year and to determine if an impairment is required. If the fair market value goes below historical cost (what goodwill was purchased for), an impairment must be recorded to bring it down to its fair market value. However, an increase in the fair market value would not be accounted for in the financial statements. Private companies in the United States, however, may elect to amortize goodwill over a period of ten years or less under an accounting alternative from the Private Company Council of the FASB.

The process for calculating goodwill is fairly straightforward in principle but can be quite complex in practice. To determine goodwill in a simplistic formula, take the purchase price of a company and subtract the net fair market value of identifiable assets and liabilities.

Goodwill = P-(A-L)

where: P = Purchase price of the target company, A = Fair market value of assets, L = Fair market value of liabilities.

What Goodwill Tells You?

The value of goodwill typically arises in an acquisition—when an acquirer purchases a target company. The amount the acquiring company pays for the target company over the target’s net assets at fair value usually accounts for the value of the target’s goodwill If the acquiring company pays less than the target’s book value, it gains negative goodwill, meaning that it purchased the company at a bargain in a distress sale.

Goodwill is recorded as an intangible asset on the acquiring company’s balance sheet under the long-term assets account. Under generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), companies are required to evaluate the value of goodwill on their financial statements at least once a year and record any impairments. Goodwill is considered an intangible (or non-current) asset because it is not a physical asset like buildings or equipment.

Goodwill Calculation Controversies

There are competing approaches among accountants as to how to calculate goodwill. One reason for this is that goodwill represents a sort of workaround for accountants. This tends to be necessary because acquisitions typically factor in estimates of future cash flows and other considerations that are not known at the time of the acquisition. While this is perhaps not a significant issue, it becomes one when accountants look for ways of comparing reported assets or net income between different companies; some that have previously acquired other firms and some that have not.

Goodwill Impairments

Impairment of an asset occurs when the market value of the asset drops below historical cost. This can occur as the result of an adverse event such as declining cash flows, increased competitive environment, or economic depression, among many others. Companies assess whether an impairment is needed by performing an impairment test on the intangible asset.

The two commonly used methods for testing impairments are the income approach and the market approach. Using the income approach, estimated future cash flows are discounted to the present value. With the market approach, the assets and liabilities of similar companies operating in the same industry are analyzed.

If a company’s acquired net assets fall below the book value or if the company overstated the amount of goodwill, then it must impair or do a write-down on the value of the asset on the balance sheet after it has assessed that the goodwill is impaired. The impairment expense is calculated as the difference between the current market value and the purchase price of the intangible asset.

The impairment results in a decrease in the goodwill account on the balance sheet. The expense is also recognized as a loss on the income statement, which directly reduces net income for the year. In turn, earnings per share (EPS) and the company’s stock price are also negatively affected.

The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), which sets standards for GAAP rules, is considering a change to how goodwill impairment is calculated.1 Because of the subjectivity of goodwill impairment and the cost of testing impairment, FASB is considering reverting to an older method called “goodwill amortization” in which the value of goodwill is slowly reduced annually over a number of years.

Goodwill vs. Other Intangibles

Goodwill is not the same as other intangible assets. Goodwill is a premium paid over fair value during a transaction and cannot be bought or sold independently. Meanwhile, other intangible assets include the likes of licenses and can be bought or sold independently. Goodwill has an indefinite life, while other intangibles have a definite useful life.

Limitations of Using Goodwill

Goodwill is difficult to price, and negative goodwill can occur when an acquirer purchases a company for less than its fair market value. This usually occurs when the target company cannot or will not negotiate a fair price for its acquisition. Negative goodwill is usually seen in distressed sales and is recorded as income on the acquirer’s income statement.

There is also the risk that a previously successful company could face insolvency. When this happens, investors deduct goodwill from their determinations of residual equity. The reason for this is that, at the point of insolvency, the goodwill the company previously enjoyed has no resale value.

Example of Goodwill

If the fair value of Company ABC’s assets minus liabilities is $12 billion, and a company purchases Company ABC for $15 billion, the premium value following the acquisition is $3 billion. This $3 billion will be included on the acquirer’s balance sheet as goodwill.

As a real-life example, consider the T-Mobile and Sprint merger announced in early 2018. The deal was valued at $35.85 billion as of March 31, 2018, per an S-4 filing. The fair value of the assets was $78.34 billion and the fair value of the liabilities was $45.56 billion. The difference between the assets and liabilities is $32.78 billion. Thus, goodwill for the deal would be recognized as $3.07 billion ($35.85 – $32.78), the amount over the difference between the fair value of the assets and liabilities.

Fixed assets of are a permanent nature with which the business is carried on and which are held for earning income and not for re-sale in the ordinary course of the business. It is a long-term tangible property that a firm owns and uses in its operations to generate income. Fixed assets are not converted into cash or consumed within a year. They are also called as Capital Assets. Example: land and buildings, plant and machinery, furniture etc. These assets are to be valued at cost price less total depreciation in their value by constant use. Additions by way of purchase and deletions by way of sales should be taken into account. The mode of valuation of different types of assets differs depending upon the nature of the business and the purpose for which the assets are held.

1. Land and Buildings

Land means a long -term asset that refers to the cost of real property exclusive of the cost of any constructed assets on the property. The value of land has an appreciated value and is not subject to depreciation. A building is a noncurrent or long-term asset which shows the cost of a building (excluding the cost of the land) Buildings will be depreciated over their useful life of the asset.

Classified into two types

Land and Buildings can further be classified as:

• Freehold property
• Leasehold property

(i)  Freehold Property

A property which is free from hold (Possession/Rights) is called as freehold property. This means that the property is free from the hold of anybody besides the owner who enjoys complete ownership.

Auditor’s Duty

• Where Freehold property has been purchased, the auditor should examine the title deeds e.g., purchase deed, certificate of registration, the broker’s note and auctioneer’s account etc., to verify the correct position.
• When the property has been mortgaged, the auditor should obtain a certificate from the mortgagee regarding the possession of title deed and outstanding amount of loan.
• When the property has been acquired in the current year, then the cost may be verified with the help of the bank passbook. He should vouch all the payments made in this connection.
• He should see that the property account should be shown in the Balance Sheet at cost price including the legal and registration charges less depreciation up-to-date.
• He should also see that a separate account for building and land on which it is constructed is maintained. It is necessary because depreciation is provided for building and not for the land.

(ii)  Leasehold Property

Leasehold is an accounting term for an asset being leased. The asset is typically property such as a building or space in a building.

• The property which is on lease (rent).
• The property (plot/flat/villa/mall/ factories) which is leased by the landlord for a certain period of time to the lessee (tenant /leaseholder/renter/ occupant/dweller).
• The (tenants) have been given the right to use during that specified time by the landlord.
• The ownership of the property returns to the landlord when the lease comes to an end.

Auditor’s Duty

• The auditor should verify this by inspecting the lease agreement or contract to find out value and duration. He should see that the terms and conditions of lease are properly complied with.
• In case property has been mortgaged, the auditor should obtain a certificate from the mortgagee regarding the possession of title deed.
• Where the leasehold property has been sub-let, the counter part of the tenant’s agreement should also be examined.
• The auditor should physically inspect the properties.
• The auditor should also note that proper provision has been made for depreciation of lease problem and for any possible claims arising there under.

2. Plant and Machinery

A plant is an asset with a useful life of more than one year that is used in producing revenues in a business’s operations. Plant is recorded at cost and depreciation is reported during their useful life.

Auditor’s Duty

• When the machines are purchased in the current accounting period, the invoices and the agreement with the vendors should be verified.
• The auditor should ` examine the plant register in which particulars about the cost, records about sales, provision for depreciation, etc., are available.
• He should prepare a list of each machine from the plant register and should get the list certified by the works manager as he is not a technical person and therefore he has to depend upon the advice of the works manager regarding their valuation, etc.
• He should see that plant and machinery account is shown in the Balance Sheet at cost less depreciation after making proper adjustment for purchases and sales during the year under audit.
• In case any plant and machinery has been scrapped, destroyed or sold, he should ascertain that the profit or loss arising thereon has been correctly determined.

Valuation of Fixed Assets

1. Valuation of Land: Land which does not have depreciated value, is valued at cost price.
2. Valuation of Other Fixed Assets: Other fixed assets like Buildings, Plant, machinery, office equipment, furniture and fixtures should be valued at going concern value.
3. Depreciation: Auditor should ensure that adequate amount of depreciation has been provided, taking into account the working life and usage of the asset.
4. Disclosure in Balance Sheet: He should verify that furniture, fittings and fixtures are disclosed in Balance Sheet at cost less depreciation.

Concept and Meaning of Verification

Verification means proving the correctness. One of the main work’s of auditor is verification of assets and liabilities. Verification is the act of assuring the correctness of value of assets and liabilities, title and their existence in the organization. An auditor should be satisfied himself about the actual existence of assets and liabilities appearing in the balance sheet is correct. If balance sheet incorporates the incorrect assets, both profit and loss account and balance sheet do not present true and fair views.

Thus, verification means to confirm the truth or accuracy and to substantiate. It is a process by which the auditor satisfies himself not only about the actual existence, possession, ownership and the basis of valuation but also ensures that the assets are free from any charge. While verifying the assets, an auditor should consider the following points:

• Ensuring the existence of assets.
• Acquiring the assets for business.
• Ensuring the proper valuation of assets.
• Ensuring that the assets are free from any charge.

Objective of Verification

The objectives of verification are as follows:

• To show the correct value of assets and liabilities.
• To know whether the Balance Sheet exhibits a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the business.
• To find out the ownership, possession and title of the assets appearing in the Balance Sheet.
• To find out whether assets are in existence.
• To detect frauds and errors, if any while recording assets in the books of the concern.
• To find out whether there is an adequate internal control regarding acquisition, utilization and disposal of assets.
• To verify the arithmetic accuracy of the accounts.
• To ensure that the assets have been properly recorded.

Auditor’s Duty Regarding Verification

The auditor of a business is required to report in concrete terms that the Balance Sheet exhibits a true and fair view of the state of its affairs. In other words, he has to examine and ascertain the correctness of the money value of assets and liabilities appearing in the Balance Sheet and this examination is known as verification of assets and liabilities. Therefore, an auditor has to keep in mind the following points while verifying the assets:

• Ensuring the existence of assets.
• Acquiring the assets for business.
• Legal ownership and possession of the assets.
• Ensuring the proper valuation of assets.
• Ensuring that the assets are free from any charge.

Concept and Meaning of Valuation

Valuation is the act of determining the value of assets and critical examination of these values on the basis of normally accepted accounting standard. Valuation of assets is to be made by the authorized officer and the duty of auditor is to see whether they have been properly valued or not. For ensuring the proper valuation, auditor should obtain the certificates of professionals, approved values and other competent persons. Auditor can rely upon the valuation of concerned officer but it must be clearly stated in the report because an auditor is not a technical person.

An auditor should consider the following points regarding the assets while making valuation off assets:

• Original cost
• Expected working life
• Wear and tear
• Scrap value

Objectives of Valuation

• To assess the correct financial position of the concern.
• To enquire about the mode of investment of the capital of the concern.
• To assess the goodwill of the concern.
• To evaluate the differences in the value of the asset as on the date of purchase and on the date of Balance Sheet.

Methods of Valuation

Valuation of various assets can be made by using different methods of valuation of fixed assets. Some of the major methods are as follows:

1. Cost Price Method

In this method, valuation of assets is made on the basis of purchase price of the assets. This price refers to the price at which an asset is acquired plus expenses incurred in connection with the acquisition of an asset. It is a very simple method of valuing assets.

2. Market Value Method

Valuation of assets can be made on the basis of market price of such assets. But if same nature of assets is not available in the market, it is very difficult to determine the value of such assets. So, there are two methods related to it. They are:

• Replacement Value Method: It represents the value at which a given asset can be replaced. This method of valuation of assets can be done only in the case of replacement of the same asset.
• Net Realizable Value: It refers to the price in which such asset can be sold in the market. But expenditure incurred at the sale of such asset should be deducted.

3. Standard Cost Method

Some of the business organizations fix the standard cost on the basis of their past experience. On the basis of standard cost, they make valuation of assets and present in the Balance Sheet.

4. Book Value

This is the value at which an asset appears in the books of accounts. It is usually the cost less depreciation written off so far.

5. Going concern or Historical Value or Conventional Value or Token Value

It is equivalent to the cost less a reasonable amount of depreciation written off. No notice is taken of any fluctuation in the price of the assets. Reason for this is that these assets are acquired for use in the business and not for resale.

6. Scrap Value

This method shows the value realized from sale of an asset as scrap. In other words, it refers to the value, which may be obtained from the assets if it is sold as scrap.

Auditor’s Duty as Regards Valuation

In a legal case against Kingston Cotton Mills Co: It was held that “although it is no part of an Auditor’s’ duty to value the assets and liabilities, yet he must exercise reasonable skill and care in scrutinizing the basis of valuation. He should test the accuracy of the values put by the officers of the business. In any case, the auditor cannot guarantee the accuracy of the valuation”.

It is not an auditor’s duty to determine the values of various assets. It has been judicially held that he is not a valuer or a technical man to estimate the value of an asset. But he is definitely concerned with values set against the assets. He has to certify that the profit and loss account shows true profit or loss for the year and Balance Sheet shows a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the company at the close of the year. Therefore he should exercise reasonable care and skill, analyse all the figures critically, inquire into the basis of valuation from the technical experts and satisfy himself that the different classes of assets have been valued in accordance with the generally accepted assumptions and accounting principles. If the market value of the assets are available i.e., in the case of share investment then he should verify the market value with the stock exchange quotations. If there is any change in the mode of the valuation of an asset, he should seek proper explanation for it. If he is satisfied with the method of valuation of the assets he is free from his liability.