Tag: Foreign Direct Investment

Debenture is a type of debt instrument that is unsecured by physical assets or collateral. Debentures are issued by companies to borrow money for a fixed term at a fixed interest rate. Debenture holders are not owners of the company but are creditors. The company promises to pay the debenture holder a fixed interest at predetermined intervals (typically annually or semi-annually) and return the principal on the maturity date.

Debentures can either be convertible or non-convertible, and they often have specific terms outlining the interest rate, payment schedule, and maturity date. If the company defaults on its payments, debenture holders may have legal recourse to recover their investment.

Types of Debentures:

1. Convertible Debentures:

These debentures can be converted into equity shares after a specified period or at the discretion of the debenture holder. This type allows investors to gain potential equity ownership in the company.

2. Non-Convertible Debentures (NCDs):

These debentures cannot be converted into equity shares. They remain purely a debt instrument throughout their tenure. NCDs typically offer higher interest rates since they don’t provide the opportunity to convert to equity.

3. Secured Debentures:

Although most debentures are unsecured, some may be secured by the company’s assets. In the event of default, secured debenture holders have a claim on specific company assets.

4. Unsecured Debentures:

These are not backed by any collateral, making them riskier for investors compared to secured debentures. Unsecured debentures rely entirely on the company’s creditworthiness.

5. Redeemable Debentures:

These are debentures that the company agrees to repay after a specific period. They can be redeemed at the maturity date, ensuring that investors get back their principal.

6. Irredeemable (Perpetual) Debentures:

These debentures do not have a fixed maturity date. The company is not obligated to repay the principal but must continue to pay interest to debenture holders indefinitely.

7. Registered Debentures:

These are debentures issued in the name of the holder, meaning that the company keeps a register of the debenture holders. They can only be transferred by signing a transfer deed.

8. Bearer Debentures:

These are not registered in the name of any specific holder and are transferable by mere delivery. The holder of the physical certificate is considered the owner of the debenture.

Advantages of Debentures:

• Fixed Interest Payments:

Debenture holders are entitled to a fixed rate of interest, providing a regular and predictable income stream. This makes debentures an attractive investment for individuals seeking consistent returns.

• Non-Dilutive Financing:

By issuing debentures, a company can raise capital without diluting the ownership structure. Shareholders do not lose any control over the company as they would with issuing additional equity shares.

• Priority in Payments:

In the event of liquidation, debenture holders have a higher claim on the company’s assets compared to equity shareholders. They are paid before shareholders in case of insolvency, reducing the risk of total loss.

• Tax Deductibility:

The interest paid on debentures is typically considered a business expense for the issuing company and is tax-deductible, reducing the company’s taxable income.

• Flexibility:

Companies can choose different types of debentures (secured, unsecured, convertible, etc.) depending on their financial needs and the preferences of investors. This flexibility allows companies to structure debentures in a way that aligns with their financial strategies.

• Cost-Effective:

Issuing debentures may be less expensive than issuing new equity shares or taking out a traditional bank loan. Interest rates on debentures may also be lower compared to the returns that would need to be offered to attract equity investors.

• Convertible Options:

Convertible debentures give investors the option to convert their debentures into equity shares, offering them the potential to benefit from share price appreciation in the future, in addition to regular interest payments.

Disadvantages of Debentures:

• Fixed Financial Obligation:

Debentures create a fixed financial liability for the company, as interest payments must be made regardless of the company’s profitability. If the company faces financial difficulties, it still has to meet these payment obligations, which can strain cash flow.

• Risk of Default:

If a company is unable to meet its interest payments or repay the principal amount upon maturity, it defaults on the debenture. This can damage the company’s reputation and lead to legal proceedings initiated by the debenture holders.

• Interest Rate Sensitivity:

Debenture holders receive a fixed interest rate, but market interest rates can fluctuate. If interest rates rise, debentures may become less attractive as other investment options offering higher returns become available.

• No Voting Rights:

Debenture holders do not have any voting rights in the company, unlike equity shareholders. They cannot influence the company’s management or participate in key decision-making processes.

• Inflation Risk:

Debentures provide fixed returns, which may be eroded by inflation over time. If inflation rises, the purchasing power of the fixed interest payments may decrease, making debentures less appealing to investors.

• Callable Debentures:

Some debentures may be callable, meaning the company has the right to repay the debentures before their maturity date. This can be disadvantageous for investors if the debenture is called during a period of falling interest rates, as they may have to reinvest their funds at a lower rate.

• Creditworthiness Risk:

The security of debentures depends largely on the issuing company’s financial health. If the company’s credit rating is downgraded or it experiences financial difficulties, the value of the debentures can decrease, making them riskier for investors.

Section 2(62) of Companies Act defines a one-person company as a company that has only one person as to its member. Furthermore, members of a company are nothing but subscribers to its memorandum of association, or its shareholders. So, an OPC is effectively a company that has only one shareholder as its member.

Such companies are generally created when there is only one founder/promoter for the business. Entrepreneurs whose businesses lie in early stages prefer to create OPCs instead of sole proprietorship business because of the several advantages that OPCs offer.

The Companies Act, 2013 completely revolutionized corporate laws in India by introducing several new concepts that did not exist previously. On such game-changer was the introduction of One Person Company concept. This led to the recognition of a completely new way of starting businesses that accorded flexibility which a company form of entity can offer, while also providing the protection of limited liability that sole proprietorship or partnerships lacked.

Several other countries had already recognized the ability of individuals forming a company before the enactment of the new Companies Act in 2013. These included the likes of China, Singapore, UK, Australia, and the USA.

Features of a One Person Company

• Private company: Section 3(1)(c) of the Companies Act says that a single person can form a company for any lawful purpose. It further describes OPCs as private companies.
• Single-member: OPCs can have only one member or shareholder, unlike other private companies.
• Nominee: A unique feature of OPCs that separates it from other kinds of companies is that the sole member of the company has to mention a nominee while registering the company.
• Company may be a One Person Company (OPC) which requires only one person as a subscriber to form a company and such a company will be treated under the Act as a private company.
• A person, who registers one-person company, is not eligible to incorporate more than one one-person company
• The memorandum of OPC must indicate the name of a person (other than the subscriber), with his prior written consent in the prescribed form, who will become a member of the OPC when the subscriber dies or is incapacitated to contract.
• The nominee to the memorandum of one person company shall not be eligible to become a nominee for more than one such company.
• No perpetual succession: Since there is only one member in an OPC, his death will result in the nominee choosing or rejecting to become its sole member. This does not happen in other companies as they follow the concept of perpetual succession.
• Minimum one director: OPCs need to have minimum one person (the member) as director. They can have a maximum of 15 directors.
• No minimum paid-up share capital: Companies Act, 2013 has not prescribed any amount as minimum paid-up capital for OPCs.
• Special privileges: OPCs enjoy several privileges and exemptions under the Companies Act that other kinds of companies do not possess.

Privileges of One Person Companies

• They do not have to hold annual general meetings.
• A company secretary is not required to sign annual returns; directors can also do so.
• Provisions relating to independent directors do not apply to them.
• Their financial statements need not include cash flow statements.
• Their articles can provide for additional grounds for vacation of a director’s office.
• Several provisions relating to meetings and quorum do not apply to them.
• They can pay more remuneration to directors than compared to other companies.

Membership in One Person Companies

Only natural persons who are Indian citizens and residents are eligible to form a one-person company in India. The same condition applies to nominees of OPCs. Further, such a natural person cannot be a member or nominee of more than one OPC at any point in time.

It is important to note that only natural persons can become members of OPCs. This does not happen in the case of companies wherein companies themselves can own shares and be members. Further, the law prohibits minors from being members or nominees of OPCs.

Formation of One Person Companies

A single person can form an OPC by subscribing his name to the memorandum of association and fulfilling other requirements prescribed by the Companies Act, 2013. Such memorandum must state details of a nominee who shall become the company’s sole member in case the original member dies or becomes incapable of entering into contractual relations.

This memorandum and the nominee’s consent to his nomination should be filed to the Registrar of Companies along with an application of registration. Such nominee can withdraw his name at any point in time by submission of requisite applications to the Registrar. His nomination can also later be canceled by the member.

Advantages

• Compliance Burden:

The One-person Company includes in the definition of “Private Limited Company” given under section 2(68) of the Companies Act, 2013. Thus, an OPC will be required to comply with provisions applicable to private companies. However, OPCs have been provided with a number of exemptions and therefore have lesser compliance related burden.

• Organized Sector of Proprietorship Company:

OPC will bring the unorganized sector of proprietorship into the organized version of a private limited company. Various small and medium enterprises, doing business as sole proprietors, might enter into the corporate domain. The organized version of OPC will open the avenues for more favorable banking facilities. Proprietors always have unlimited liability. If such a proprietor does business through an OPC, then liability of the member is limited.

Minimum Requirements:

• Minimum 1 Shareholder
• Minimum 1 Director
• The director and shareholder can be same person
• Minimum 1 Nominee
• No Need of any Minimum Share Capital
• Letters ‘OPC’ to be suffixed with the name of OPCs to distinguish it from other companies

Limited Liability Protection to Directors and Shareholder:

• The most significant reason for shareholders to incorporate the ‘single-person company’ is certainly the desire for the limited liability.
• All unfortunate events in business are not always under an entrepreneur’s control; hence it is important to secure the personal assets of the owner, if the business lands up in crises
• While doing business as a proprietorship firm, the personal assets of the proprietor can be at risk in the event of failure, but this is not the case for a One Person Private Limited Company, as the shareholder liability is limited to his shareholding. This means any loss or debts which is purely of business nature will not impact, personal savings or wealth of an entrepreneur.
• If the business is unable to pay its liabilities, the individual has to pay such liabilities off in the case of sole proprietorship; and the individual is not responsible for such liabilities in the case of a one-person company.
• An OPC gives the advantage of limited liability to entrepreneurs whereby the liability of the member will be limited to the unpaid subscription money. This benefit is not available in case of a sole proprietorship.

Legal Status and Social Recognition For Your Business

One Person Company is a Private Limited Structure; this is the most popular business structure in the world. Gives suppliers and customers a sense of confidence in business. Large organizations prefer to deal with private limited companies instead of proprietorship firms. Pvt. Ltd. business structure enjoys corporate status in society which helps the entrepreneur to attract quality workforce and helps to retain them by giving corporate designations, like directorship. These designations cannot be used by proprietorship firms.

Adequate Safeguards:

In case of death/disability of the sole person should be provided through appointment of another individual as nominee director. On the demise of the original director, the nominee director will manage the affairs of the company till the date of transmission of shares to legal heirs of the demised member.

Easy to Get Loan from Banks

Banking and financial institutions prefer to lend money to the company rather than proprietary firms. In most of the situations Banks insist the entrepreneurs to convert their firm into a Private Limited company before sanctioning funds. So, it is better to register your startup as a One Person private limited rather than proprietary firm.

Perpetual Succession:

An OPC being an incorporated entity will also have the feature of perpetual succession and will make it easier for entrepreneurs to raise capital for business. The OPC is an artificial entity distinct from its owner. Creditors should therefore be warned that their claims against the business cannot be pressed against the owner.

Tax Flexibility and Savings

In an OPC, it is possible for a company to make a valid contract with its shareholder or directors. This means as a director you can receive remuneration, as a lessor you can receive rent, as a creditor you can lend money to your own company and earn interest. Directors’ remuneration, rent and interest are deductible expenses which reduces the profitability of the Company and ultimately brings down taxable income of your business.

Ownership limitations:

As per Rule 2.1 (1) of the Draft Rules under Companies Act, 2013 only a natural person who is an Indian citizen and resident in India shall be eligible to incorporate a One Person Company.

Thus, the person incorporating the OPC must be a natural person implying that it cannot be formed by a juristic person or an artificial person e.g. any type of company incorporated under Companies Act 2013.  This restricts the ownership of only individuals and not corporations.

This provision also discourages foreign direct investment by disallowing foreign companies and multinational companies to incorporate their subsidiaries in India as a One Person Company. Hence, an OPC will have to change their legal status to a private limited company to bring in investors. Foreigners and NRIs are allowed to invest in a Private Limited Company under the Automatic Approval route where 100% FDI is available in most sectors.

Restrictions on conversion

An OPC cannot be incorporated under Section 8 (Formation of companies with charitable objects etc) of Companies Act 2013. An OPC is also not allowed to carry out Non-Banking Financial Investment activities. This includes investing in securities of any body corporate.

An OPC can only convert into either a private or public company once the following conditions are met:

1. The OPC must have been in existence for a minimum of two years; or
2. It must have a paid up share capital which has increased beyond Rs. 50,00,000/- (rupees fifty lakh); or
3. Its average turnover must have exceeded Rs. 2,00,00,000/- (rupees two crore).

Such restrictions stifle an entrepreneur’s desire for diversity and expansion.

ESOPs

Since an OPC can have only one shareholder, there can be no sweat equity shares or ESOPs to incentivize employees. ESOPs can only be implemented if OPC converts into a private or public limited company. A private or public limited company can easily expand by an increase of authorized capital and further allotment of shares to even third parties.

Hence, a private company is a preferable option for start-ups who want to encourage their employees by way of stock options.

One of the major issues that gained attention after the 2007 and 2009 financial crisis due to Wall Street movement was the unduly high compensation being paid to executives of financial institutions even when the corporations were in a state of collapse. This movement against the executive remuneration gained momentum throughout the world. In U.S and many other countries there was a lot of hue and cry about excessive compensation being paid to top executives. Even though in India the situation regarding excessive executive remuneration has not reached alarming levels yet this issue needs to be taken seriously at this stage itself. If not given proper attention then it is not long enough when this problem would be quite glaring in India too.

Many recent corporate frauds such as Satyam fraud, Kingfisher’s fraud and many others have brought into light the dark side of Indian corporate governance practices. In almost all these frauds the executives were drawing a huge salary from the company at the expense of other stakeholders of the company be it shareholders or creditors etc.They used tricks to defraud the investors as well as creditors. Thus, this issue needs adequate attention else it would lead to more such frauds.

Various studies on remuneration schemes of executives in Indian Companies have reflected majorly 3 issues:

1. The remuneration is not strictly based on performance. The highest paid executives are usually not from the best performing companies and many a times even when the value of shares is declining constantly there is no major effect on the remuneration of top executives.
2. There is a huge gap in the compensation level of executives and median employees. The supports for high remuneration state that this is due to the dearth of talent at the top level but even then such a glaring difference in the basic pay as well as in the % increase in pay as compared to median employees is not justified.
3. Also, the studies have found that the promoter CEOs are paid much more in comparison to Non promoter CEOs.

In this paper I would basically study the reasons behind the above findings and would majorly focus on efficiency of current regime in curbing the same and also the role of other interested entities which can serve as a control mechanism on executive remuneration.

For this purpose firstly, analyze the context of executive remuneration and the issues associated with it wherein will focus on agency problem and also the role of ownership structure in enhancing the problem. Then would annalyse the efficacy of checks provided by the current regime on Executive remuneration i.e. Shareholders say on pay, Remuneration committee and linking Remuneration to performance. Lastly, examine the role of Institutional investors as a control mechanism against executive remuneration.

Meaning of Remuneration

Remuneration has been described in section 2(78) of the Companies Act 2013.As per this definition any payment in the form of money or its equivalent would be counted as remuneration. Perquisites would also be included in determining total remuneration. Perquisites in this case are those as defined under the Income tax Act, 1961.

Remuneration can be paid in various forms like cash, medical benefits, retirement benefits, share options, shares, sitting fee and perks and allowances like contribution to provident fund, rent free accommodation, travelling expenses, car etc. It is usually a combination of various forms. Certain perquisites and compensations are explicitly exempted from being counted as a part of remuneration

Role of Executive Remuneration

The role of executive remuneration is to attract and retain top talent at executive position and incentivize them in the way that they work for the benefit of the company while furthering the objective of the company and increasing the value of the firm.

Interplay Between Fixed and Variable Component

The role of fixed component is to fulfill the immediate needs of the employees. All types of companies are open to certain sector specific risks and fixed component reduces the effect of this risk by assuring certain determined amount of income.

On the other hand, variable component can be used to align the interest of executives to the interest of company. For example, if the executives are provided with certain number of shares as a part of remuneration then better performance would lead to increase in the share value of the company and would also increase executive’s compensation.

If the executives receive just fixed remuneration with no variable component then instead of working as incentive, it would actually dilute its effect and if the compensation would include only variable component then this would also frustrate the employee.

Thus, there must be combination of fixed as well as variable component wherein the fixed component work as an incentive to work and the variable component makes sure that the work is done in the interest of the company. Also, it is necessary that there must be interaction between various forms of compensation and the remuneration scheme must be arranged in a way that it is incentive based.

The income from capital gains is not an income which accrues or arises from day-to-day during a specific period but it arises at fixed point of time, namely, on the date of the transfer of a capital asset. Specifically, the income from capital gains is the amount by which the sale price of a capital asset, net of any expense incurred in connection with the sale of the asset, exceeds the acquisition cost of the capital asset. The taxation of capital gains is justified by the taxation policy and law on the premise that capital gains increases the ‘ability to pay’ capacity of the person receiving such a gain.

The provisions related to taxation of capital gains were first introduced in 1947 and then in 1956 and then said section 12B in Income tax Act, 1922 was retained as such in the relevant provisions in Income tax Act, 1961.

Charging sections – Sections 45, 46 and 46A

The charging section explains the subject matter of taxation. Thus, there is one charging section for each head of income for salaries, income from house property, business income and income from other sources. However, for capital gains, there are three independent and separate charging sections:

(i) Section 45: Capital gains

(ii) Section 46: Capital gains on distribution of assets by companies in liquidation

(iii) Section 46A: Capital gains on purchase by company of its own shares or other securities

Section 45 is the general provision while sections 46 and 46A are special provisions.

Incomes to be taxed under the head, ‘Capital Gains’

Thus, the following incomes are taxable as ‘capital gains’:

The situs/location of capital asset matters only for non-resident assessees and not to others. In the cases of Non-resident assessees, if capital asset located outside India is transferred outside India and sale proceeds are received outside India, no taxability to capital gains arises in view of section 5 of the Act. Such assessees will be liable to be taxed under section 9(1) (i) in respect of capital gains accruing or arising “through the transfer of any capital asset situate in India”.

Important Definitions in capital gains

Meaning of Transfer [Section 2(47)]

“Transfer”, in relation to a capital asset, includes:

(i) Sale, exchange or relinquishment of the asset;

(ii) Extinguishment of any rights in relation to a capital asset;

(iii) Compulsory acquisition of an asset;

(iv) Conversion of capital asset into stock-in-trade;

(v) Maturity or redemption of a zero coupon bond;

(vi) Allowing possession of immovable properties to the buyer in part performance of the contract;

(vii) Any transaction which has the effect of transferring an (or enabling the enjoyment of) immovable property; or

(viii) Disposing of or parting with an asset or any interest therein or creating any interest in any asset in any manner whatsoever.

Transactions which are not regarded as transfer [Section 47]

Following transactions shall not be regarded as transfer (subject to certain condition). Hence, following transaction shall not be charged to capital gains:

Full Value of Consideration

Full value of consideration is the consideration received or receivable by the transferor in lieu of assets, which he has transferred. Such consideration may be received in cash or in kind. If it is received in kind, then fair market value (‘FMV’) of such assets shall be taken as full value of consideration.

However, in the following cases “full value of the consideration” shall be determined on notional basis as per the relevant provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961:

Cost of Acquisition

Cost of acquisition of an asset is the amount for which it was originally acquired by the assessee. It includes expenses of capital nature incurred in connection with such purchase or for completing the title of the property.

However, in cases given below, cost of acquisition shall be computed on notional basis:

* Terminal Depreciation/Balancing Charge:

1. a) Balancing Charge = Sales Consideration – WDV of the depreciable asset
2. b) Terminal Depreciation = WDV – Sales Consideration