Year: 2020

Management Notes

Resource Allocation: Strategy Implementation

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Resource allocation is a process and strategy involving a company deciding where scarce resources should be used in the production of goods or services. A resource can be considered any factor of production, which is something used to produce goods or services. Resources include such things as labor, real estate, machinery, tools and equipment, technology, and natural resources, as well as financial resources, such as money.

The 5 Best Methods of Successful Resource Allocation

  1. Make room for strategic reallocation

Your allocation responsibilities seldom end with the first installment as reallocation is an unavoidable outcome of ad hoc requirements. But reallocation does not necessarily mean overloading work onto the same set of resources. Strategic reallocation lets you look for replacements and a few extra hands that can take on the additional responsibility. Such smart reallocation invariably depends on the all-round visibility of your projects and resources. This is essential to keep your workforce occupied optimally.

  1. Diversify skill sets and responsibilities

It always pays to have resources who have been trained in a wide range of skills or at least those who are accustomed to being placed onto different tasks. It is essential that you recognize the secondary skill sets your employees may have and nurture them. When faced with reallocation requirements that are likely to exceed your capacity, this could easily solve your immediate problems.

For example, one of your engineers is a communication minor and an amateur blogger. He/she can be a great asset to your internal branding activities that require an understanding of your products along with having a flair for the language.  For employees, this can prove to be both motivating and fruitful to have been given a chance to diversify and grow. Stagnation is nobody’s dream and good managers not only understand that but also accommodate it in their allocation strategy.

  1. Subscribe to an easy, automated resource request process

One of the most obvious hindrances to your resource allocation process is often the convoluted process you need to stick to while having a resource placed onto your project or job.  Having to manually sift through your resource pool or take phone/email requests from individual managers makes it a very unyielding ride before you can find the project resource you are looking for.

An automated process in a dedicated channel, independent of spreadsheets, changes everything. Automated resource requesting lets managers specify the skill sets, the level of competency and years of experience they are looking for along with timelines of the project. This directly reaches your inbox or that of the resource manager in charge. Coupled with all round visibility, you can allocate and reallocate without batting an eyelid thereby saving precious hours. In addition, a set process lets you track your allocation record and end any process related confusions that may arise when you cannot trace resources.

  1. Make ‘optimal utilization’ the benchmark

Having optimal utilization as the default status that your reports achieve is the first sign that you have healthy allocation habits. When resource utilization levels are optimal across the pool, it means you are not over or under allocating onto your resources under any circumstances. As a result, the output that your resources deliver does not suffer as well. Optimal utilization must further be the overall outcome you get as opposed to a chanced upon the result of ad hoc measures. Every method you adopt to allocate must fulfill this criterion.

  1. Base timelines on booked vs. actual reports

To tie in all these steps realistically, it is best that you base your estimates on the booked vs. actual reports you draw. If you do not have a tool that lets you directly access these comparisons, you can do so manually by comparing them with earlier project reports that you might have.

The steps here are simple: analyze the previous bookings you have made and the time that their actual execution took. If the execution took longer, there must have been roadblocks that caused them. Understand the roadblocks. Evaluate whether or not they will repeat themselves. Now, you can draw timelines for tasks based on this execution period. With each repeat cycle, you are likely to get closer to making accurate bookings. Most importantly, you will not have under or over-utilized resources either.

Alternatively, switching to a resource planning tool that has been designed to help you asses booked vs. actuals with precise metrics is a great initiative you could take to improve your overall resource allocation strategy.

The best-kept secret of resource managers is the ‘trial and error’ system they have had to undergo before they could perfect efficient allocation of resources. Most success stories are likely to have precedent failures that are not spoken about. So go on, be unconventional, apply a combination of these practices and find out what your team is most receptive towards.

Successful strategic management involves ensuring that all company resources perform effectively. By learning how to manage competing priorities, successful business professionals enable employees to balance job tasks, schedule work efficiently and ensure that work flows smoothly from one process to the next. Today’s dynamic, global environment poses challenges for company executives and project managers. By establishing a comprehensive strategic plan for allocating workers and supplies, you avoid costly mistakes that lead to overruns and delays.

  1. Coordinate project and operational effectively by establishing a comprehensive program management strategy. Evaluate project proposals on a monthly or quarterly basis to decide which ones gets sponsorship. Consolidate multiple similar efforts under one program leader; this tends to enable the use of key resources more effectively and allow you to make critical deadlines.
  2. Employ software tools, such project management software such as Microsoft Project, dotProject.net or Basecamp, to identify project tasks, allocate resources effectively, avoid overallocation and prevent employee burnout. Approve budgets, finish dates and the amount of flexibility in the deadlines if you are a company executive to help project managers make decisions aligned with the company’s strategic goals.
  3. Delay tasks until staff have time available to work on them or split up tasks and hire additional workers to prevent staff from working more than 40 hours in a typical week and becoming burned out.
  4. Outsource routine tasks to companies that specialize in a particular function, such as payroll processing, customer service or technical support.
  5. Train employees so they have the required skills and job tasks get completed on time to ensure timely delivery of products and services. Train less experienced workers to complete job tasks if you experience unexpected demand or attrition. Obtain specialized training from authorized providers to ensure that your company runs a safe workplace that complies with local, state and federal regulations.
  6. Manage suppliers by analyzing work flow of resource materials from one process to the next. Gather input from experts before considering alternative solutions to backlogs. Take prompt action to rectify problems if a supplier provides poor quality materials or delivers them late. Require that the supplier improves the quality of raw materials and provides them on time.
Management Notes

Organizational Design and Change

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Organizational design and change are two interconnected concepts crucial to ensuring that a company remains effective, competitive, and adaptable in a dynamic business environment. As markets evolve, technologies advance, and customer expectations shift, organizations must continuously reassess and redesign their structures and processes. Effective organizational design provides the framework within which a business operates, while change enables the business to evolve that framework in response to internal and external pressures.

Concept of Organizational Design:

Organizational design refers to the deliberate process of configuring an organization’s structure, roles, processes, and systems to achieve strategic goals. It involves determining how work is divided, how departments are structured, how authority and responsibilities are allocated, and how coordination and communication occur. Good design enhances efficiency, encourages innovation, and enables the organization to adapt to new challenges.

Key elements of organizational design:

  • Division of Labor: Allocating tasks and responsibilities to individuals or departments.

  • Hierarchical Structure: Establishing levels of authority and decision-making.

  • Span of Control: Determining how many employees report to each manager.

  • Coordination Mechanisms: Creating systems for collaboration across functions and departments.

  • Formalization: The degree to which rules, policies, and procedures govern behavior.

The right design depends on the organization’s size, strategy, environment, culture, and goals. For instance, a startup may adopt a flat, flexible structure, while a multinational corporation may require a more hierarchical and formal design.

Importance of Organizational Design:

Organizational design is vital for:

  • Strategic Alignment: Ensuring the structure supports long-term goals.

  • Operational Efficiency: Streamlining processes to reduce waste and duplication.

  • Clarity in Roles: Defining responsibilities to reduce conflict and confusion.

  • Adaptability: Enabling quick responses to change or disruption.

  • Employee Satisfaction: Creating an environment that motivates and engages the workforce.

When organizational design is misaligned with strategy, it can lead to inefficiencies, communication breakdowns, and employee dissatisfaction.

Concept of Organizational Change:

Organizational change refers to any alteration in the organizational structure, processes, culture, technology, or goals. Change may be proactive—initiated to seize opportunities—or reactive—implemented in response to market pressures, competition, or crises.

Change can occur at different levels:

  • Strategic Change: Shifts in long-term direction, such as entering a new market.

  • Structural Change: Modifying hierarchies, reporting lines, or job roles.

  • Technological Change: Adopting new tools, software, or systems.

  • People-Oriented Change: Reskilling employees or modifying organizational culture.

Need for Organizational Change:

  • External Factors: Changes in technology, legislation, customer preferences, or economic conditions.

  • Internal Factors: Low productivity, high turnover, leadership transitions, or financial difficulties.

  • Innovation: To gain competitive advantage or improve products/services.

  • Globalization: Expanding into new markets or dealing with global competition.

Without timely change, an organization risks obsolescence, inefficiency, and decline.

Challenges in Organizational Change:

Implementing change is complex and often meets resistance. Common challenges:

  • Employee Resistance: Fear of the unknown, loss of job security, or attachment to old routines.

  • Communication Gaps: Lack of transparency or unclear messages from leadership.

  • Lack of Leadership Commitment: Inconsistent support from top management.

  • Insufficient Resources: Financial, human, or technological limitations.

  • Poor Planning: Lack of a clear roadmap or strategy for managing change.

To overcome these challenges, organizations must adopt structured change management practices.

Change Management Process:

Effective change management involves several stages:

  1. Recognize the Need for Change: Identify the driving forces behind change.

  2. Define the Change Vision: Articulate the desired future state and its benefits.

  3. Engage Stakeholders: Involve employees, customers, and partners in the change process.

  4. Develop a Change Plan: Create a timeline, assign responsibilities, and allocate resources.

  5. Communicate Effectively: Ensure open, honest, and continuous communication throughout the process.

  6. Implement the Change: Execute the plan while monitoring progress and addressing issues.

  7. Reinforce and Sustain Change: Provide training, incentives, and feedback mechanisms to embed the change in the organization.

Frameworks like Lewin’s Change Model (Unfreeze–Change–Refreeze) or Kotter’s 8-Step Model offer structured approaches to guiding organizational change.

Relationship Between Organizational Design and Change:

Organizational design and change are deeply interdependent. Every strategic change often requires a redesign of the structure to support new goals, roles, or capabilities. Conversely, an outdated or inefficient design may trigger the need for change. As organizations grow or diversify, they must adapt their design to remain aligned with their objectives. Thus, successful transformation requires both sound design and effective change management.

Management Notes

Corporate Culture, Characteristics, Components, Challenges

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Corporate Culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that characterize the members of an organization and define its nature. It is an invisible yet powerful force that influences how work gets done, how employees interact, and how the organization presents itself to the outside world. Corporate culture is cultivated through leadership styles, policies, company missions, and daily interactions among employees. It can profoundly impact job satisfaction, productivity, employee retention, and overall business performance. A strong, positive corporate culture aligns the organization towards achieving its goals with a consistent ethos. It can also attract talent and build loyalty among employees by fostering a workplace where individuals feel valued and motivated.

Characteristics of Corporate Culture:

  • Values and Beliefs:

The core values and beliefs are foundational to a corporate culture. They represent the guiding principles and moral direction of the organization. These are often articulated in mission statements or value declarations and influence decision-making and business practices.

  • Norms and Behaviors:

Norms are the unwritten rules that dictate how individuals in an organization interact with each other and handle external business transactions. Behaviors are the actions that employees take daily, which collectively contribute to the company’s environment.

  • Communication Styles:

How information is shared within an organization is a critical aspect of corporate culture. This can range from open and collaborative to hierarchical and formal. Communication style affects how ideas flow, how decisions are made, and how engaged employees feel.

  • Leadership Style:

The way leaders manage, make decisions, and interact with employees sets a tone for the corporate culture. Leadership can either foster a culture of innovation, support, and empowerment or create a restrictive and controlled environment.

  • Work Environment and Practices:

This includes the physical environment of the workplace as well as the operational practices. Whether the setting is collaborative with an open office space or more segmented; whether the work practices encourage teamwork or individual work; these aspects deeply influence the culture.

  • Commitment to Employee Development:

Cultures that value ongoing learning and career growth offer training programs, mentorship, and promotion paths. This characteristic shows a commitment to investing in the personal and professional growth of its employees, enhancing loyalty and satisfaction.

  • Rituals and Symbols:

Corporate rituals, ceremonies, and symbols (like logos, company events, and awards) are manifestations of culture that reinforce the values and unity of the organization. They can play a significant role in building a sense of belonging and community among employees.

Components of Corporate Culture:

  • Values:

Core values are the essential and enduring tenets of an organization. They serve as guiding principles that dictate behavior and action. Values help employees determine what is right from wrong, shaping the decisions and processes within the company.

  • Norms:

Norms are the unwritten rules and expectations that govern behavior within the organization. They provide a framework for how employees should act in various situations, influencing everything from how meetings are conducted to how decisions are made.

  • Symbols:

Symbols can be tangible objects, logos, designs, or rituals that convey the corporate culture to the employees and the outside world. They serve as identifiable markers of the organization and reinforce the values and norms of the company.

  • Language and Jargon:

Every organization develops its own language, which includes jargon, slogans, or catchphrases that are unique to the company. This specialized language helps to create a sense of belonging among employees and can reinforce the culture.

  • Beliefs and Assumptions:

These are the deeply embedded perceptions or thought patterns that employees share about how the world works. Beliefs and assumptions guide behavior and help members of the organization make sense of various situations and decisions.

  • Rituals and Ceremonies:

Rituals and ceremonies are activities and events that are important to the organization and are often repeated regularly. These can include annual company meetings, award ceremonies, or even daily or weekly meetings. They reinforce a shared experience and unity among employees.

  • Stories and Myths:

Stories about key events in the history of the company, tales of founders, pivotal moments, or iconic successes and failures, help to embody the spirit of the corporate culture. These stories serve as teaching tools and align current practices with past experiences.

  • Leadership Style:

The way leaders behave, communicate, and interact with employees sets a tone for the corporate culture. Leadership style can influence all aspects of culture, from communication and group dynamics to decision-making and conflict resolution.

  • Work Environment:

This includes the physical workspace as well as the psychological climate provided for workers. A supportive, open, and inclusive work environment fosters a positive culture, enhancing productivity and employee satisfaction.

  • Policies and Practices:

The formal policies and practices of an organization also shape its culture. These can include HR policies, operational procedures, and ethical guidelines, all of which dictate how the organization operates on a day-to-day basis.

Challenges of Corporate Culture:

  • Resistance to Change:

Cultures that are deeply entrenched can lead to resistance among employees when changes are necessary. This can become a barrier to innovation and adaptation, particularly in rapidly evolving industries.

  • Alignment of Values:

Ensuring that the personal values of employees align with those of the organization can be challenging. Misalignment can lead to conflicts, decreased job satisfaction, and high turnover rates.

  • Diversity and Inclusion:

Creating a culture that values and fosters diversity and inclusion is critical in today’s global business environment. However, overcoming unconscious biases and integrating diverse perspectives into a cohesive culture can be challenging.

  • Scalability:

As organizations grow, maintaining a consistent culture across multiple locations, with new employees, and during mergers or acquisitions can be difficult. Scaling the culture without diluting its core values requires careful planning and implementation.

  • Communication Barriers:

Effective communication is crucial for a healthy corporate culture. However, in large or geographically dispersed organizations, ensuring clear and consistent communication can be a major challenge.

  • Subcultures:

In larger organizations, different departments or groups may develop their own subcultures. While diversity within a culture can be beneficial, conflicting subcultures can create disharmony and inefficiency.

  • Measuring Impact:

Unlike financial results, measuring the direct impact of corporate culture on organizational performance can be elusive. This makes it difficult to quantify the benefits of cultural initiatives and justify investments in cultural development.

  • Adaptability to External Changes:

External factors such as economic downturns, technological advancements, and social changes can pressure organizations to adapt quickly. A corporate culture that is too rigid might hinder an organization’s ability to respond effectively to these changes.

  • Leadership Influence:

Leaders play a crucial role in shaping and sustaining the corporate culture. However, if leadership styles are inconsistent or if leaders do not embody the organizational values, it can undermine the culture’s integrity.

Management Notes

Strategic Evaluation and Control

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Strategic Evaluation & control is as important as strategy formulation. It sheds light on the efficiency and effectiveness of the comprehensive plans in achieving the desired results.

Role of organizational systems in strategic evaluation & control: Strategic evaluation operates in the context of various organizational systems. An organization develops various systems which help in integrating various parts of the organization. The major organizational systems are: informa­tion system, planning system, motivation system, appraisal system and development system. All these organizational systems play their role in strategic evaluation and control. Some of these systems are closely and directly related and some are indirectly related to evaluation and control. In connection with the role of organizational systems in strategic evaluation & control, the following systems may be important.

  1. Information System

Evaluation and control action is guided by adequate informa­tion from the beginning to the end. Management information and management control systems are closely interrelated which the information system is designed on the basis of control system. Every manager in the organization must have adequate information about his performance, standards and how he is contributing to the achievement of organizational objectives. There must be a system of information tailored to the specific management needs at every level, both in terms of adequacy and timeliness.

  1. Planning System

Planning is the basis for control in the sense that it provides the entire spectrum on which control function is based. In fact, these two terms are often used together in the designation of the department which carries production planning, scheduling and routing. It emphasizes that there is a plan which directs the behavior and activities in the organization. Control measures these behavior and activities and suggests measures to remove deviation. Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between planning and control.

  1. Motivation System

Motivation system is not only related to evaluation and control system but to the entire organizational processes. Lack of motivation on the part of managers is a significant barrier in the process of evaluation and control. Since the basic objective of evaluation and control is to ensure that organizational objectives are achieved. Motivation plays a central role in this process. It energizes managers and other employees in the organization to perform better which is the key for organizational success.

  1. Appraisal System

Appraisal or performance appraisal system involves systematic evaluation of the individual with regard to his performance on the job and his potential for development. While evaluating an individual, not only his performance is taken into consideration but also his abilities and potential for better performance. Thus, appraisal system provides feedback for control system about how individuals are performing.

  1. Development System

Development system is concerned with developing personnel to perform better in their present positions and likely future positions that they are expected to occupy. Thus, development system aims at increasing organizational capability through people to achieve better results. These results become the basic for evaluation and control. Role of organizational systems in strategic evaluation should not be undermined.

Techniques of strategic evaluation & control

Strategy evaluation and control is the sixth step in the strategic management process. As we have read that well executed strategy definitely ensures successful achievement of organizational goals and objectives. But changes internal and external environment of an organization may not allow the firm to achieve desired goals and objective. The environment changes may takes place at any stage of strategy implementation. Strategy evaluation and control done after measuring results shall not help in taking corrective action. It should be done in the early stage of strategy execution, to see whether the strategy is successfully implemented or not and to carryout mid-course corrections whenever necessary. Therefore strategists should systematically review, evaluate, and control the process of strategy implementation.

Management Notes

Criteria of Strategic Evaluation and Control

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Strategic Evaluation and Control refer to the systematic process of assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of a strategy after its implementation to determine if it meets the set objectives and contributes to the overall goals of an organization. This involves continuous monitoring and analyzing the actual performance against planned targets, identifying deviations, and implementing corrective actions as needed. The control aspect ensures that any strategic initiative remains aligned with the organization’s goals, adapts to changes in the external environment, and efficiently uses resources. This dual process helps organizations to continuously refine and adjust their strategies to optimize outcomes and ensure long-term success.

Strategic evaluation and control involve assessing the implementation of strategic plans and their outcomes, and ensuring that performance aligns with organizational goals.

Criteria for Strategic Evaluation

  1. Relevance:

The strategies should remain relevant to the internal and external environment. This includes checking if the strategic goals still align with the market dynamics and organizational mission.

  1. Effectiveness:

Measures the degree to which the strategic objectives have been achieved. This involves comparing actual results against intended outcomes.

  1. Efficiency:

Assesses how resources are utilized and whether the outcomes are worth the input. It looks at cost-effectiveness and resource allocation.

  1. Adaptability:

Evaluates how flexible and adaptable the strategies are in response to changing conditions in the environment.

  1. Sustainability:

Checks if the strategy can sustain organizational growth and performance over the long term, considering environmental, social, and economic factors.

  1. Consistency:

Ensures that strategies are consistent with each other and with the overall business objectives, avoiding any conflict between various strategic initiatives.

Criteria for Strategic Control

  1. Alignment:

Ensures that the strategic actions are aligned with the set strategic goals. This involves continuous monitoring and alignment of operations with strategic objectives.

  1. Timeliness:

Focuses on the timely execution of strategic initiatives and the speed of response to any deviations from the plan.

  1. Accuracy:

Involves collecting and utilizing accurate data for making informed decisions. This ensures that the controls in place are based on reliable and valid information.

  1. Comprehensiveness:

Encompasses all aspects of the organization and its environment. It checks that all relevant factors are considered in the control process.

  1. Flexibility:

Looks at how easily the organization can adjust its strategies and operations in response to feedback and environmental changes.

  1. Cost-effectiveness:

Evaluates whether the benefits of a control mechanism justify the costs involved. This is crucial for maintaining financial health and optimizing resource usage.

Management Notes

Techniques of Strategic Evaluation and Control

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Strategic Evaluation and Control refer to the systematic process of assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of a strategy after its implementation to determine if it meets the set objectives and contributes to the overall goals of an organization. This involves continuous monitoring and analyzing the actual performance against planned targets, identifying deviations, and implementing corrective actions as needed.

Strategic evaluation and control are essential for ensuring that an organization’s strategies are effectively guiding it towards its goals. Various techniques are used in this process, each serving different purposes but collectively helping an organization stay on track.

  • Benchmarking:

Comparing the organization’s processes and performance metrics to industry bests or best practices from other industries.

  • Balanced Scorecard:

Incorporates financial and non-financial measures across four dimensions: Financial Performance, Customer Knowledge, Internal Business Processes, and Learning and Growth.

  • Key Performance Indicators (KPIs):

Specific metrics defined to measure the effectiveness of current strategies in achieving organizational objectives.

  • SWOT Analysis:

Evaluates strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to understand both internal and external environments affecting the organization.

  • Management by Objectives (MBO):

Involves setting specific measurable objectives aligned with organizational goals, which are agreed upon by management and employees.

  • Financial Ratio Analysis:

Uses ratios like return on investment (ROI), return on assets (ROA), and profit margins to analyze organizational financial health and performance.

  • Value Chain Analysis:

Examines activities within the organization and identifies where value can be added to products and services, including identifying cost advantages or disadvantages.

  • Scenario Planning:

Involves developing detailed, hypothetical scenarios to anticipate possible future conditions and how the organization might respond to them.

  • Strategy Maps:

Visual representations of an organization’s overall objectives related to each other and the strategy itself, facilitating alignment and understanding across the organization.

  • Performance Dashboards:

Provide real-time data on key performance indicators and critical success factors, allowing for quick adjustments to strategies and operations.

  • Strategy Reviews:

Regular meetings to review the progress and efficacy of the strategic plan and make necessary adjustments.

  • Environmental Scanning:

Constantly collecting information on external events and trends to identify potential threats or opportunities.

  • Risk Management:

Identifying, analyzing, and responding to risks that could potentially impact the organization’s ability to achieve its objectives.

Management Notes

Computer Programming: Algorithm Development

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Computer programming is the process of designing and building an executable computer program to accomplish a specific computing result. Programming involves tasks such as: analysis, generating algorithms, profiling algorithms’ accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen programming language (commonly referred to as coding). The source code of a program is written in one or more languages that are intelligible to programmers, rather than machine code, which is directly executed by the central processing unit. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task (which can be as complex as an operating system) on a computer, often for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal logic.

Tasks accompanying and related to programming include: testing, debugging, source code maintenance, implementation of build systems, and management of derived artifacts, such as the machine code of computer programs. These might be considered part of the programming process, but often the term software development is used for this larger process with the term programming, implementation, or coding reserved for the actual writing of code. Software engineering combines engineering techniques with software development practices. Reverse engineering is the opposite process. A hacker is any skilled computer expert that uses their technical knowledge to overcome a problem, but it can also mean a security hacker in common language.

How to Select Programming Language?

Choosing the right programming language is an essential decision for any software development project. Here are some steps to help you choose a programming language:

  1. Understand Your Project Requirements: Start by understanding the specific requirements of your project. Consider the nature of the application you want to build, the target platform (web, mobile, desktop), expected software system response time, number of simultaneous users, security needs, maintenance requirements, and compatibility with various devices.
  2. Consider Your Familiarity and Team Skills: Assess your own skills and the expertise of your development team. If you have experience with a particular language or your team is proficient in a specific language, it might be more efficient to choose that language for the project.
  3. Evaluate Language Features: Each programming language has its unique syntax and features. Research and compare different languages to find one that best aligns with your project requirements. Consider factors like ease of learning, code readability, performance, libraries, and community support.
  4. Check for Library and Framework Support: Consider the availability of libraries and frameworks in the language. These can significantly speed up development and simplify complex tasks, saving time and effort.
  5. Analyze Long-Term Support: Look for a language with good long-term support and a strong community. Regular updates and active community forums ensure that your chosen language remains relevant and well-maintained.
  6. Scalability and Performance: For large-scale applications or performance-critical projects, consider languages known for their scalability and high-performance capabilities.
  7. Check Industry Standards: Consider industry standards and best practices when choosing a language. Using widely accepted languages can make it easier to find developers, resources, and tools.
  8. Budget and Time Constraints: Assess the budget and time constraints of your project. Some languages may require more development time, while others may have licensing costs associated with them.
  9. Future Proofing: Try to choose a language that is versatile and can adapt to future requirements and advancements in technology.

  10. Test and Prototype: If possible, create small prototypes or test projects in different languages to get a hands-on experience of each language’s strengths and weaknesses.

An algorithm is a well-defined procedure that allows a computer to solve a problem. Another way to describe an algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions. The use of the term ‘unambiguous’ indicates that there is no room for subjective interpretation. Every time you ask your computer to carry out the same algorithm, it will do it in exactly the same manner with the exact same result.

Consider the earlier examples again. Spell checking uses algorithms. Financial calculations use algorithms. A search engine uses algorithms. In fact, it is difficult to think of a task performed by your computer that does not use algorithms.

How Do Algorithms Work?

A very simple example of an algorithm would be to find the largest number in an unsorted list of numbers. If you were given a list of five different numbers, you would have this figured out in no time, no computer needed. Now, how about five million different numbers? Clearly, you are going to need a computer to do this, and a computer needs an algorithm.

Below is what the algorithm could look like. Let’s say the input consists of a list of numbers, and this list is called L. The number L1 would be the first number in the list, L2 the second number, etc. And we know the list is not sorted – otherwise, the answer would be really easy. So, the input to the algorithm is a list of numbers, and the output should be the largest number in the list.

The algorithm would look something like this:

Step 1: Let Largest = L1

This means you start by assuming that the first number is the largest number.

Step 2: For each item in the list

This means you will go through the list of numbers one by one.

Step 3: If the item > Largest

If you find a new largest number, move to step four. If not, go back to step two, which means you move on to the next number in the list.

Step 4: Then Largest = the item

This replaces the old largest number with the new largest number you just found. Once this is completed, return to step two until there are no more numbers left in the list.

Step 5: Return Largest

This produces the desired result.

Notice that the algorithm is described as a series of logical steps in a language that is easily understood. For a computer to actually use these instructions, they need to be written in a language that a computer can understand, known as a programming language.

Management Notes

Steps in Programme Development

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A programmer has to go through the following stages to develop a computer program:

  1. Defining and Analyzing the Problem

In this step, a programmer studies the problem. He decides the best way to solve these problems. Studying a problem is also necessary because it helps a programmer to decide about the following things:

  • The facts and figures which are necessary for developing the program.
  • The way in which the program will be designed
  • Also, the language in which the program will be most suitable.
  • What is the desired output and in which form it is needed, etc
  1. Designing the Algorithm

An algorithm is a sequence of steps that must be carried out before a programmer starts preparing his program. The programmer designs an algorithm to help visual possible alternatives in a program also.

  1. Coding or Writing the Program

The next step after designing the algorithm is to write the program in a high-level language. This process is known as coding.

  1. Test Execution

The process of executing the program to find out errors or bugs is called test execution. It helps a programmer to check the logic of the program. It also ensures that the program is error-free and workable.

  1. Debugging

Debugging is a process of detecting, locating and correcting the bugs in a program. It is performed by running the program again and again.

  1. Final Documentation

When the program is finalized, its documentation is prepared. Final documentation is provided to the user. It guides the user how to use the program in the most efficient way.

Furthermore, another purpose of documentation is to allow other programmers to modify the code if necessary. Documentation should also be done in each step during the development of the program.

Management Notes

Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) Outputs

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Garbage in, garbage out–or GIGO–has been with us since the early days of computing in the 1960s. In the field of computer science or information and communications technology, says Wikipedia, GIGO “refers to the fact that computers, since they operate by logical processes, will unquestioningly process unintended, even nonsensical, input data (“garbage in”) and produce undesired, often nonsensical, output (“garbage out”).”

theintactone goes on to explore an expansion of the term to Garbage In, Gospel Out, “a sardonic comment on the tendency to put excessive trust in ‘computerized’ data, and on the propensity for individuals to blindly accept what the computer says. Since the data entered into the computer is then processed by the computer, people who do not understand the processes in question tend to believe the data they see.”

Needless to say, this is most unfortunate. The computer is often blamed for the failings of what is really a people-and-process problem. This is particularly true when decision-support systems are concerned and the input to computer programs derives from individuals or teams rather than from streams of accounting or other data.

GIGO is also used as a pejorative by persons who seek to undermine or deride use of advanced analytical and decision-support systems. I challenge this stand; GIGO can occur regardless of the system used–Excel documents are particularly prone to GIGO, either by accident or malicious forethought. The same can be said for any input. It is not a device problem. It is a people problem; frequently a company cultural problem.

People make decisions. Analytics help people make decisions; hopefully good ones. The difference is often the decision process; specifically how to bring people together to improve the quality of their decision making.

The six principles of Decision Quality (DQ) offer a great starting point for minimizing garbage in. By training everyone who has input to the decision process in the six principles and by developing transparency around the decision process, politics can be minimized, objectivity maintained and garbage circumvented.

Garbage in, garbage out–or GIGO–has been with us since the early days of computing in the 1960s. In the field of computer science or information and communications technology, says Wikipedia, GIGO “refers to the fact that computers, since they operate by logical processes, will unquestioningly process unintended, even nonsensical, input data (“garbage in”) and produce undesired, often nonsensical, output (“garbage out”).”

Wikipedia goes on to explore an expansion of the term to Garbage In, Gospel Out, “a sardonic comment on the tendency to put excessive trust in ‘computerized’ data, and on the propensity for individuals to blindly accept what the computer says. Since the data entered into the computer is then processed by the computer, people who do not understand the processes in question tend to believe the data they see.”

Needless to say, this is most unfortunate. The computer is often blamed for the failings of what is really a people-and-process problem. This is particularly true when decision-support systems are concerned and the input to computer programs derives from individuals or teams rather than from streams of accounting or other data.

GIGO is also used as a pejorative by persons who seek to undermine or deride use of advanced analytical and decision-support systems. I challenge this stand; GIGO can occur regardless of the system used–Excel documents are particularly prone to GIGO, either by accident or malicious forethought. The same can be said for any input. It is not a device problem. It is a people problem; frequently a company cultural problem.

People make decisions. Analytics help people make decisions; hopefully good ones. The difference is often the decision process; specifically how to bring people together to improve the quality of their decision making.

The six principles of Decision Quality (DQ) offer a great starting point for minimizing garbage in. By training everyone who has input to the decision process in the six principles and by developing transparency around the decision process, politics can be minimized, objectivity maintained and garbage circumvented.

Management Notes

Pseudocode

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Pseudocode is an informal high-level description of the operating principle of a computer program or other algorithm. It uses the structural conventions of a normal programming language, but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading. Pseudocode typically omits details that are essential for machine understanding of the algorithm, such as variable declarations, system-specific code and some subroutines. The programming language is augmented with natural language description details, where convenient, or with compact mathematical notation. The purpose of using pseudocode is that it is easier for people to understand than conventional programming language code, and that it is an efficient and environment-independent description of the key principles of an algorithm. It is commonly used in textbooks and scientific publications that are documenting various algorithms, and also in planning of computer program development, for sketching out the structure of the program before the actual coding takes place.

No standard for pseudocode syntax exists, as a program in pseudocode is not an executable program. Pseudocode resembles skeleton programs which can be compiled without errors. Flowcharts, drakon-charts and Unified Modeling Language (UML) charts can be thought of as a graphical alternative to pseudocode, but are more spacious on paper. Languages such as HAGGIS bridge the gap between pseudocode and code written in programming languages.

Pseudocode is not an actual programming language. So it cannot be compiled into an executable program. It uses short terms or simple English language syntaxes to write code for programs before it is actually converted into a specific programming language. This is done to identify top level flow errors, and understand the programming data flows that the final program is going to use. This definitely helps save time during actual programming as conceptual errors have been already corrected.

Firstly, program description and functionality is gathered and then pseudocode is used to create statements to achieve the required results for a program. Detailed pseudocode is inspected and verified by the designer’s team or programmers to match design specifications. Catching errors or wrong program flow at the pseudocode stage is beneficial for development as it is less costly than catching them later. Once the pseudocode is accepted by the team, it is rewritten using the vocabulary and syntax of a programming language. The purpose of using pseudocode is an efficient key principle of an algorithm. It is used in planning an algorithm with sketching out the structure of the program before the actual coding takes place.

Advantages of pseudocode:

  • Pseudocode is understood by the programmers of all types.
  • It enables the programmer to concentrate only on the algorithm part of the code development.
  • It cannot be compiled into an executable program. Example, Java code : if (i < 10) { i++; } pseudocode :if i is less than 10, increment i by 1.
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