Month: May 2020

1. Payroll Accounting:

It is concerned with the maintenance of records for the amounts due to the employees like salaries, wages, allowances, contributions to provident fund and E.S.I, etc. and the deduction to be made from the employees’ earnings. Payroll accounting requires the information relating to employee’s attendance, leaves, rates of pay, amounts to be deducted etc.

2. Labour Cost Accounting:

It is concerned with identifying the amount of labour cost to be charged to individual jobs and overhead accounts. For this purpose, information relating to the time spent on each job or process or number of units produced is obtained from the job cards, piece work tickets etc. The idle time analysis is also necessary for labour cost accounting.

The main objective of it is to record the time spent by all workers on each activity on a separate job card or time sheet and then apply the appropriate hourly rate. The labour costs are then charged to each of these activities. The job cards, time sheets, idle time cards are the important documents for analyzing production labour costs to various jobs and overhead accounts.

3. Time Keeping:

Time keeping means to note the attendance of workers for wage payments. It is the marking of attendance of a worker when he comes and leaves the factory. This record is generally kept at the factory gate and the workers coming in and going out have to record their time in it. Based on their attendance in the factory, they receive the wages.

The prime objectives of time keeping are as follows:

(a) Preparation of Payroll:

The wage bills of the organization are prepared by the payroll department on the basis of information given by the time keeping department.

(b) Computation of Cost:

The Costing department will compute the labour cost of different jobs, departments, cost centres etc. basing on the data of time spent provided by the time keeping department.

The time record will give us an idea about the total time for which the workers were present in the factory and for which they are paid. There are various methods of time keeping – hand written record, disc or token system, punch card system etc.

With the advancement of technology, the computers are also being used for time recording and analysis. The person who looks after time keeping is called ‘time keeper’ and his place of work is called ‘time office’. The time records are the basic data used for calculation of salaries and wages, overtime premium etc.

4. Time Booking:

It is necessary to account for labour cost against each job, department, process, contract, cost centre etc. for which time booking records are kept to ascertain the labour time spent. Time booking means to know how much time is effectively spent by the worker on each job or in each department or on a process or on each contract etc. It is the recording of time spent within the working day upon different jobs.

It is the keeping of record of particulars of work done, or time spent on each job, process, operation etc. It is used to ascertain the labour time spent on each job, analysis of idle time, labour cost of various jobs and products. The time booking record is kept in the form of time cards for each worker, recording therein the actual time spent by him on the work.

The objectives of time booking are as follows:

(a) To ascertain the labour time spent on the job and the idle labour hours.

(b) To ascertain labour cost of various jobs and products.

(c) To calculate the amount of wages and bonus payable under the wage incentive scheme.

(d) To compute and determine overhead rates and absorption of overheads under the labour and machine hour methods.

(e) To evaluate the performance of labour by comparing actual time booked with standard time.

Bonus and Labour incentives

Incentive Scheme: Type # 1. Halsey Premium Plan:

This plan was introduced by F. A. Halsey, an American engineer, in 1891. It recognises individual efficiency and pays bonus on the basis of lime saved. Under the method a worker is given wages at the time rate for the time he actually worked and also paid a bonus if he can complete the work in less than the time allotted to do the work.

The bonus is paid at a fixed percentage of the time saved, usually 50%, (though the percentage varies from 30% to 70% of time saved). The remaining 50% of the time saved is shared by the employer.

Thus,

Total Earnings = T.T. × H.R. + 50% (T.S. × H.R.)

where, T.T. = Time Taken

H.R. = Hourly Rate

T.S. = Time Saved

The main advantages of the method are:

(i) The method is simple to operate and easy to understand.

(ii) The slow workers are not penalised, as time wage is guaranteed.

(iii) It provides incentives to more efficient workers.

(iv) Worker’s efficiency means reduction in cost per unit.

(v) The benefit of time saved is shared between employer and employee equally.

The main disadvantages of the method are:

(i) Many employees organisations do not like to share the benefit of time saved equally.

(ii) Attraction of bonus reduces the quality of work.

(iii) Reduction of quality means chances of more wastage, spoilage, defective and break down etc. and more supervision cost.

(iv) It is not so much attractive as in the case of piece rate payments.

(v) It offers less incentive to the workers as compared to other incentive plans.

(vi) If the time rate is not fixed properly, this may lead to a higher bonus.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 2. Halsey-Weir Premium Scheme:

The scheme was introduced by Weir Ltd. of Glasgow in about 1900. It is similar to Halsey Scheme except that under this scheme the employee gets 33⅓% (often 30%) of the time saved as bonus and the remaining 66⅔% goes to the employer.

Thus:

Total Earnings = T.T. × H.R. + 33⅓% (T.S. × H.R.)

where, T.T. = Time Taken

H.R. = Hourly Rate

T.S. = Time Saved

Incentive Scheme: Type # 3. Rowan Plan:

Grames Rowan first introduced this plan in Glasgow in 1898. Under this scheme also the worker gets his guaranteed time wages for the hours of his actual work, like Halsey Scheme. But here the premium is calculated by a different method.

If the worker can complete the job in less than the time allowed, his bonus becomes equal to his time wages for that proportion of the time taken as the time saved bears to the time allowed.

Thus, the bonus is calculated as:

and, Total Earnings = T.T × H.R. + (T.T. × H.R.) × T.S./T.A.

where, T.T. = Time Taken

H.R. = Hourly Rate

T.S. = Time Saved

T.A. = Time Allowed

The following are the main advantages of the scheme:

(i) It provides incentives to learners and slow workers.

(ii) Since the premium is proportionate to the time saved, the employers get protection if the rate is not fixed properly.

(iii) From the point of view of employer the Rowan Scheme is safer than the Halsey Scheme.

(iv) Up to 50% of the time saved, bonus under the scheme is higher than that under Halsey Scheme.

(v) As the bonus increases at a decreasing rate; the employees do not rush for rapid completion of job, hence lesser chances of wastage etc.

(vi) Due to higher output, fixed overhead per unit will be lower.

The main disadvantages are:

(i) Method is complicated.

(ii) At the level of higher production, incentive is low.

(iii) Employees are not willing to share their time savings with their employers.

Comparison between Halsey and Rowan Scheme:

(1) Up to 50% of time saved, the premium will be same under the two schemes.

(2) Under Rowan Scheme bonus rises faster than Halsey Scheme until the job performed in half than the standard time.

(3) But when the time taken to perform the work is less than half of the standard time, premium and total earnings under the Halsey Scheme are both greater than those under Rowan Scheme.

(4) On the other hand, when the time taken to perform the work is more than half of the standard time, bonus and total earning under the Rowan Scheme are both greater than those under the Halsey Scheme.

(5) The Halsey Scheme provides more incentive to speed up production but there is an automatic check under the Rowan Scheme after certain stage.

(6) Halsey Scheme proves to be costlier if more than half the time is saved, while Rowan Scheme is costlier if less than half the standard time is saved.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 4. Taylor’s Differential Piece Rate System:

This system was first introduced by F. W. Taylor, the Father of Scientific Management. This system provides no minimum guaranteed time wages.

But under the system two piece rates are fixed:

(a) A low piece rate for output below the standard is paid to the workers, and

(b) A higher rate is paid to the workers who produce equal or more than the standard. Thus, this system penalises the inefficient workers and rewards the efficient workers.

The efficiency of a worker may be determined as a percentage, either:

(i) Of the time allowed for a job to the actual time taken, or

(ii) Of actual output to the standard output, within a specified time.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 5. Merrick Differential Piece Rate Plan:

This is a slight modification of Taylor’s System and uses three rates instead of two. Under this system also day wages are not guaranteed.

The three piece rates are:

Efficiency – Piece rate applicable

Up to 83% – Normal rate

Up to 100% – 10% above normal rate

Above 100% – 20% above normal rate

The main feature of this system is that it does not penalise the workers who produce below the standard output up to 83% and the earnings increase with increased efficiency at two stages.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 6. Gantt Task and Bonus Plan:

The plan is a good combination of time-work and piecework. Under the scheme the day wages of the worker are guaranteed.

The main features of the bonus scheme are:

Output – Bonus

At 100% – 20% on the total output

Above 100% – 20% of the wages of the standard time, or High piece rate on the worker’s whole output.

This scheme protects and encourages the less efficient workers who cannot produce the standard output. It offers a good incentive to the efficient workers.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 7. Emerson’s Efficiency Plan:

This scheme is also a combination of time wage, piece rate wage and bonus plans. Under this method a standard time is set for each job, or task or volume of output is fixed as the standard. The standard efficiency is set at 66⅔ or 67%. For efficiency up to 67% the worker gets his day wage only.

If he crosses the standard task, he becomes entitled to bonus and the rate of bonus increases with the increase in efficiency. At 100% level of efficiency, the bonus becomes 20%. Again, if the efficiency exceeds 100%, bonus increases by 1% for every 1% increase of efficiency above 100%.

Incentive Scheme: Type # 8. Group Bonus Plans:

The incentive schemes explained so far are applicable to individual workers only. But, sometimes it becomes necessary to introduce Group Bonus Scheme. Under the scheme bonus is paid to the group as a whole, depending upon the performance of the group and the amount of bonus is shared by themselves equally or at an agreed proportion.

The group bonus is suitable in the following circumstances:

(a) When it is very difficult to measure the performance of individual worker, but the production through collective efforts of a group of workers can be measured.

(b) The nature of the work requires collective effort.

(c) Where it is desirable to develop a team spirit.

(d) Where both the direct and indirect workers are to be rewarded.

(e) When bonus scheme cannot be operated successfully for individual workers.

However, before introducing a group bonus scheme, following points must be considered very carefully:

(i) Well combination among the group.

(ii) The size of the group should be economic.

(iii) The group should be homogeneous.

(iv) The production of the group should be within its control.

Thus, a group bonus scheme encourages team spirit, reduces wastage, assures cooperation, lessens supervisory work and reduces overall costs.

Illustration 1:

Time allowed for a job = 5 hrs

Time taken to complete the job = 4 hrs

Rate Per hour = Rs. 1

Calculate the total earnings of a worker under the Halsey Premium Scheme.

Solution:

Total Earnings = Hours worked × Rate per hour + 50/100 × (time saved × hourly rate)

= Rs. 4 × 1 + (50/100 × 1) × 1

= Rs. (4 + 1/2) = Rs. 4.50

Illustration 2:

Time allowed for a work = 10 hrs

Time taken to complete the job = 8 hrs

Rate per hour = Rs. 2

Calculate the total earnings of a worker under the Halsey Premium Scheme.

Solution:

Total Earnings = Time Taken × Hourly Rate + 33⅓ (T.S. × H.R.)

Where T.S. = Time Saved, H.R. = Hourly Rate

Total Earnings = 8 × Rs. 2 + 33⅓/100 × 2 × Rs. 2

= Rs. 16 + Rs. ⅓ × 4 = Rs. 16 + Rs. 1.33 = Rs. 17.33

Illustration 3:

Standard time is 20 hrs, Time taken is 16 hrs, Hourly Rate is Re. 0.50

Find out total earnings under Rowan Plan.

Solution:

Total Earnings = Time Taken × Hourly Rate + (Time Taken x Hourly Rate) × Time Saved/Time Taken

Time Saved = Time Allowed – Time Taken

= (20 – 16) hrs. = 4 hrs

.^.. Total Earnings = 16 × Re. 0.50 + (Re. 0.50 × 16) × 4 × Rs. 0.50/20

= Rs. 8 + Rs. 8 × 2/20 = Rs. (8 + 0.80)

= Rs. 8.80

A factory works 8 hours a day. The standard output is 10 units per hour and normal rate is Rs. 5 per hour. The factory has introduced the following differentials in the matter of wage payment:

80% of piece rate when below standard.

120% of piece rate when at or above standard.

Find out piece rate at below and above standard.

Solution:

Normal piece rate = Rs. 5/10 = 0.50

When below standard the piece rate will be = 0.50 × 80/100 = Re. 0.40

When above standard the piece rate will be = 120/100 × 0.5 = Re. 0.60

Standard Production:

80 units per week. No. of men working in the group = 10. Bonus for every 25% increase in production, a bonus of Rs. 10 will be shared prorata among the 10 members of the group.

Actual production during a week = 110 units.

Solution:

Increase in production over standard = (110 -80) units = 30 units

i.e. 30/80 × 100 or 37.5%

.^.. Bonus = Rs. 10 + 12.5/25 × Rs. 10

= Rs. 10 + 5 = Rs. 15

Each member of the group, therefore, receives = Rs. 15 ÷ 10 = Rs. 1.50

Worked-out Problems:

Problem 1:

Calculate by the Halsey Premium Plan and determine on this basis the total earnings of a worker by the given data:

Standard time for work – 20 hours

Actual time – 16 hours

Rate per hour – Rs. 2

Solution:

Total Earnings = Time taken × Rate per hour + 50% (Time saved x Rate per hour).

Standard time = 20 hours

Time taken = 16 hours

.^.. Time Saved = Standard time – Time taken i.e. 20 hours – 16 hours = 4 hours.

.^.. Total Earnings = 16 × 2 + 50/100 (4 × 2) = 32 + 4 = Rs. 36

Total Earnings under Halsey Premium Plan = Rs. 36

Problem 2:

From the following particulars, calculate the cash required for wages in a company, during the month of January 2007:

Solution:

Problem 3:

From the following calculate the total monthly remuneration of each of three workers A, B and C:

(i) Standard production per month per worker = 1,000 units

(ii) Actual production during a month: A = 890 units, B = 720 units, C = 960 units.

(iii) Piece work rate per unit of actual production = 20 paise

(iv) Dearness wages Rs. 50 per month (fixed)

(v) House Rent allowance Rs. 20 per month (fixed)

(vi) Additional production bonus at the rate of Rs. 5 for each percentage of actual production exceeding 80% of the standard.

Solution:

Working Notes:

1. Calculation of Bonus:

(i) Worker A:

Actual Production = 890 units i.e. 890/1,000 × 100 = 89% efficiency

.^.. Bonus = (89 – 80) × Rs. 5 = Rs. 45

(ii) Worker B:

Actual Production = 720 units i.e. 720/1,000 × 100 = 72% efficiency

.^.. Bonus = Nil

(iii) Worker C:

Actual Production = 960 units i.e. 960/1,000 × 100 = 96% efficiency

.^.. Bonus = (96 – 80) × Rs. 5 = Rs. 80

Problem 5:

During a certain week in September 2006, a worker manufactured 240 articles. Working hours during a week are 48 hours, standard rate Rs. 5 per hour and standard time to manufacture an article is 15 minutes.

Calculate his gross wages for the week according to (a) Piece work with guaranteed weekly wages, (b) Rowan Premium Bonus Plan, (c) Halsey Premium Bonus Plan.

Solution:

(a) Under Piece work with guaranteed weekly wages:

Actual Wages = Time Taken × Rate per hour

= 48 hours × Rs. 5 = Rs. 240

Guaranteed weekly wages = Standard Time × Rate per hour

= 60 hours × Rs. 5 = Rs. 300

Therefore, actual wages is less than guaranteed wages. So the worker will receive guaranteed wages Rs. 300 for the week.

.^.. Rate per hour = Rs. 300/48 hrs. = Rs. 6.25

Working Notes:

(i) Standard time for 240 articles = 240 × 15 minutes

= 3,600 minutes or 60 hours.

Problem 6:

From the following data ascertain the total earnings of each worker separable under (i) Halsey Scheme (50%), (ii) Rowan Scheme. Also calculate the effective hourly rate of wages of the workers under both the schemes:

Solution:

Problem 7:

From the following particulars you are required to calculate under ‘Average Wage Rate’ the labour cost chargeable to Job No. ‘A’ which was completed in 1990:

Basic Wage Rate is Rs. 2 per hour and overtime rates are:

Before or after working hours 150% of basic wage rate.

Sundays and holidays – 200% of basic wage rate.

During the year 1990 the following hours were worked:

Solution:

.^.. Average Wage Rate = 5,70,000/2,50,000 = Rs. 2.28

Now, computation of labour cost under ‘Average Wage Rate’

Items – Job No. ‘A’

Hours Spent – 3,500

Average Wage Rate – Rs. 2.28

.^.. Labour Cost Chargeable = 3,500 hours × Rs. 2.28 = Rs. 7,980

Primary distribution involves apportionment or allocation of overhead to all departments in a factory on logical and rational basis. This process of apportionment is also known as departmentalisation of overhead. It is to be carefully noted that at the time of making primary distribution, the distinction between production and service departments is ignored.

Following points should be considered for primary distribution of items of overheads:

(i) Basis for distribution should be equitable and practicable;

(ii) Method adopted for distribution should not be time-consuming;

(iii) Overhead expenses should be distributed among different departments on the basis of benefits received by departments;

For the purpose of primary distribution, a departmental distribution summary is prepared in the following way:

Basis of Apportionment of Factory Overhead:

Expenses:

1. Lighting, heating, rent, rates and taxes, depreciation on building, repair cost of building, caretaking etc.
2. Insurance on Plant and Machinery, Building; Depreciation on Plant and Machinery; Maintenance of Plant and Machinery.
3. Insurance on tools and fixtures, power, repairs and maintenance cost etc.
4. Canteen subsidy or expenses, pension, medical expenses, personnel department expenses, cost of recreational facilities. Expenses of wage department
5. Cost of supervision.

Base:

1. Floor area occupied by each department. Light points for lighting.
2. Capital values of Assets.
3. Direct Labour hours or Machinery hours.
4. Number of employees or workers.
5. Time devoted.

Apportionment of Overhead

Secondary Distribution:

In a factory a product does not pass through Service department (S), but service department renders service to production departments for carrying on production function. It is, therefore, logical that the product cost should bear the equitable share of cost of service department. Under this backdrop, the second step is to distribute the total cost of service departments among the production departments.

The process of redistributing the cost of service departments among production departments is known as secondary distribution. Here, the cost of service department means the apportioned overheads plus direct materials plus direct labour and direct expenses of concerned service department.

Bases for Secondary Distribution:

Service Department Costs:

(i) Employment department

(ii) Maintenance department

(iii) Purchase department

(iv) Store keeping

(v) Canteen, welfare and recreation

Basis of Redistribution:

(i) Rate of labour-turnover or number of employees.

(ii) Hours worked for each department.

(iii) No. of purchase orders or value of materials purchased.

(iv) No. of requisitions.

(v) No. of employees of each department.

(i) Direct Redistribution Method:

Under this method, service department’s costs are apportioned to production depart­ments only ignoring service rendered by one service department to another. When this method is followed, the number of secondary distribution will be equal to number of secondary department.

(ii) Step Method:

This method of redistribution gives cognizance to the service rendered by one service department to another service department. The cost of service department which renders service to the largest number of other departments is distributed first.

After this is done, the cost of service department serving the next largest number of department is apportioned. This process continues till the cost of last service department is apportioned. The cost of last service department is apportioned among production departments only.

(iii) Reciprocal Distribution Method:

There may be two or more service departments in a factory and they may render service to each other. In that situation it is logical to give weight to inter-departmental services while distributing the expenses of service departments.

There are three methods for dealing with the distribution of inter-departmental services:

(A) Trial and Error Method

(B) Repeated Distribution Method

(C) Simultaneous Equation Method.

A cost sheet is a statement prepared at periodical intervals of time, which accumulates all the elements of the costs associated with a product or production job. It is used to compile the margin earned on a product or job and forms the basis for the setting of prices on similar products in the future.

Objects of Cost Sheet

1. For determining the selling price

A cost sheet helps in determination of selling price of a product or of a service. Cost sheet ascertains cost at each stage of the product and also the total cost of the product, where a margin of profit is added and thus the selling price is ascertained.

2. Facilitating in managerial decision making

Preparation of cost sheet helps managers at various levels in their decision-making process such as

• To produce or buy a component,
• What price of goods to quote in the tender,
• Whether to retain or replace an existing machine,
• How to reduce costsand maximize profit.
• Identify and make decisions whether they need to continue with the product or not.

3. Preparation of budgets

Organizations can prepare a budget with the help of a cost sheet. We can prepare the budget by using the current or previous year’s data.

Elements of Cost

Prime Cost: It comprises of direct material, direct wages, and direct expenses. Alternatively, the Prime cost is the cost of material consumed, productive wages, and direct expenses.

Factory Cost: Factory cost or works cost or manufacturing cost or production cost includes in addition to the prime cost the cost in indirect material, indirect labor, and indirect expenses. It also includes amount or units of WIP or incomplete units at the end of the period.

Cost of Production: When Office and administration cost at the end of the period are added to the Factory cost, we arrive at the cost of production or cost of goods sold. Here, we make an adjustment for opening and Closing finished goods.

Total Cost: Total cost or alternatively cost of sales is the cost of production plus selling and distribution overheads.

• A Cost Sheet depicts the following facts:
• Total cost and cost per unit for a product.
• The various elements of cost such as prime cost, factory cost, production cost, cost of goods sold, total cost, etc.
• Percentage of every expenditure to the total cost.
• Compare the cost of any two periods and ascertain the inefficiencies if any.
• Information to management for cost control
• Calculate and summarize the total cost of the product.

Proforma of a Cost Sheet

	PARTICULARS	AMOUNT	AMOUNT
			TOTAL
	DIRECT MATERIAL-PURCHASED
ADD	OP STOCK OF RAW MATERIAL
LESS	CL STOCK OF RAW MATERIAL
	MATERIAL CONSUMED
ADD	DIRECT WAGES
ADD	DIRECT EXPENSES
	PRIME COST
ADD	WORKS OR FACTORY OVERHEADS
	Factory Overheads
ADD	OP STOCK OF WIP
LESS	CL STOCK OF WIP
	WORK COST
ADD	ADMINISTRATION OR OFFICE OVERHEADS
	COST OF PRODUCTION
ADD	SELLING AND DISTRIBUTION OVERHEADS
ADD	OP STOCK OF FG
LESS	CL STOCK OF FG
	COST OF SALES
ADD	PROFIT MARGIN
	SELLING PRICE

Method of Preparation of Cost Sheet

Step I	Prime Cost =  Direct Material Consumed + Direct Labour + Direct Expenses Direct Material= Material Purchased + Opening stock of raw material-Closing stock of raw material.
Step II	Works Cost = Prime Cost + Factory Overheads (Indirect Material + Indirect Labour + Indirect Expenses)+opening Work in progress-Closing Work in progress
Step III	Cost of Production = Works Cost + Office and Administration overheads + Opening finished goods-Closing finished goods
Step IV	Total Cost = Cost of Production + Selling and Distribution Overheads
Profit	Sales – Total Cost

Inter-firm comparison is a natural outcome of uniform costing system. Uniform costing is the foundation stone over which the structure of IFC is developed and adopted in a large scale. Inter-firm comparison can be defined as the technique of evaluating the relative performance, efficiency, costs and profits of firms in a given industry’. The meaning of IFC can be easily explained by considering the main object of the system.

In other words IFC consists of following procedure:

(a) Data are collected from participating organization or firm by their trade organization or centre of inter-firm comparison.

(b) The management of an organisation is provided with information which will allow them to determine the efficiency being achieved, measured by comparing the performances of other business.

(c) An attempt is made to show why results vary from one business to another, i.e., any weakness is highlighted.

(d) Extensive use is made of financial and cost ratios.

Objects of Inter Firm Comparison:

The main purpose of IFC is improvement of efficiency by showing the management of participating firm its present achievements and possible weaknesses. These firms have to contribute their data to the central body which acts as a neutral body. This central body ensures confidence and it gives report regarding comparisons only to participants.

Following are important objectives of inter-firm comparison:

(a) IFC analyses costs of different firms with a view to spot out relative efficiency.

(b) IFC provides aid to management in enforcing and reviewing budgetary control and standard costing. These techniques enforced in one firm are compared with those in other firms making more efficient use of the same. Inadequacies of standard costing and budgetary control are located by making inter-firm comparisons and remedial measures are introduced.

(c) IFC helps to prepare a comprehensive and detailed plan for firms or units to obtain optimum use of human and material resources.

The main objection of IFC is the improvement of efficiency and identification of weak points. IFC is a scheme consisting of exchange of information with regard to cost, profit, productivity and efficiency between the participating firms through a central organisation. IFC focuses the remedial measure of a number of problems related to profit, sales and production.

In inter-firm comparison coordinated and monitored through an apex body or central organisation, attention is usually concentrated on the following major important are:

(i) Is profit adequate?

(ii) How efficient is selling?

(iii) How efficient is production?

Organisation of IFC:

The organisational set up for inter firm comparison may be in the form of either a trade association or a Government department or centre for inter-firm comparison. There may be a trade association of participating firms. Firms submit their required information to the association. Trade association analyses the information collected from firm and presents report to each member firm.

The job of coordinating and analyzing of data provided by firms of an industry may be entrusted to a Government Department. The main objective of such organisation structure of IFC is to exercise price control and regulation of firms.

In UK, the British Institute of Management had set up centre for Inter-firm comparison in association with British Productivity council. The centre was established just to meet the demands of trade and industry for an expert body for inter-firm comparison. Such a type of organisation has to prepare schemes for inter firm comparison. In India also there is need of such centre. Thus there should be a central body to coordinate and monitor inter-firm comparison.

Method or Approach for Inter-Firm Comparison:

Firms wishing to obtain the benefits of inter-firm comparison have to approach the central body or apex body constituted for IFC. A fee may be charged for carrying out comparisons. The method of approach adopted by the central body will be governed by the type of industry or trade and the problems and circumstances present.

The possible procedure may be as below:

1. Firms which are to participate in an inter-firm comparison have to submit their data to the central body. These figures are compiled on the basis of uniform definitions of terms, procedures, methods and accounting periods.
2. After all necessary steps have been taken to ensure that the participating firms can benefit from the comparison, a number of ratios are compiled. These ratios are shown in a summary form distinguishing.

(a) Ratios for the group of firm participating in the inter-firm comparison.

(b) Ratios for a single firm.

Each firm is given a report compiled along these lines.

3. The ratios for the group and the ratios for the single firm are compared one by one.
4. Once any significant deviation from the norm (average return on capital employed) is established, the possible reasons for this deviation may be located by examining other ratios.

Ratios of Inter-Firm Comparison:

Ratios used in the inter-firm comparison are of four types:

(i) Primary Ratios

(ii) Supporting Ratios

(iii) General Explanatory Ratios

(iv) Specific Explanatory Ratios

All the ratios can be taken together to form a pyramid as given below:

In addition to above ratios, some other ratios may be used for the purpose of systematic analysis of operational results. These cover all aspects of business activities and are meant for measurement of effectiveness of the resources.

These additional ratios are briefly explained below:

(A) Ratios of Performance Measurement:

1. Value of Direct Material/Value of Production
2. Cost of Materials/Quantity Produced
3. Cost of Scrap / Cost of Raw Material
4. Quantity of Scrap / Quantity of Raw Material
5. Cost of Rejection / Cost of Production
6. Total Output / No. of Workers
7. Cost of Production/Machine Hours or Labour Hours
8. P.V. Ratio i.e., Contribution x 100/Sales
9. Contribution / Labour Hours
10. Wages/No. of Workers
11. Total Fringe Benefits/No. of Workers
12. Idle Time / Total Time
13. Overtime Hours / Total Labour Hours
14. Standard Hours for Actual Production / Actual Hours
15. Actual Hours / Budgeted Hours
16. Power Cost / Machine Hours
17. Repair and Maintenance Cost / Cost of Production
18. Advertising Cost / Selling Cost

(B) Ratios to Judge Profitability:

These ratios show how profitable are company’s operations.

1. Gross Profit Ratio i.e., (GP/Sales) ×100
2. Net Profit Ratio i.e., (NP / Sales) × 100

GP ratio indicates manufacturing or trading efficiency while NP ratio shows overall profitability

3. Return on capital employed i.e., Profit / Capital employed

ROLE indicates overall performance from the stand point of profitability. It is primary ratio in the pyramid of ratios

(C) Ratios related to Turnover:

Turnover Ratio show how efficiently company is managing current assets.

1. Stock turnover ratio i.e., cost of sales/Average stock

This ratio shows the efficiency of inventory management. Average stock is average of opening and closing stock

2. Debtors Turnover Ratio i.e., Debtors * Days or Months in a year / Annual Credit Sales

Debtor’s turnover measures the efficiency in collection of debts

3. Creditors Turnover Ratio i.e., (Creditors x No. of days of months in a year)/Annual Credit Purchases.

This ratio measures the efficiency of purchase department in realizing credit facilities

(D) Liquidity Ratios:

These ratios show the liquidity position of the company to meet its day to day needs of working capital

1. Current Ratio i.e., Current Assets/Current Liabilities

Current Ratio shows the ability of the company to meet its maturing current liabilities. An ideal ratio is 2:1 but it may differ due to nature of business.

2. Quick Ratio or Acid Test Ratio i.e., Quick Assets i.e., Current Assets excluding inventory/ Current Liabilities

Quick Ratio indicates ability of the company to meet its immediate current liabilities out of readily realizable current assets.

Reporting:

The central body collects and analysis the data supplied by participating firm, calculates relevant ratios and prepares report to be sent to individual member firm. Normally code numbers are used in place of names of the firms so that information may remain confidential. The results and interpretations are presented in the report in such a way that individual firm data could not be identified.

On receipt of the comparative data and report of inter-firm comparison, it is the job of the management of the firm to compare operating and other results and the corresponding ratios with ratio furnished by the central body of IFC.

Advantages of Inter-Firm Comparison:

1. Under IFC the weakness of participating firms are revealed and the management will be guided to remedial actions.
2. The firm will come to know the trend of sales, profit and cost of an industry or trade as shown by different ratios. If all firms are suffering from falling sales, it will be indicated by sales to capital or asset employed ratio. When an individual firm compares its own ratio with the ratio of the group, it will see that there are general reduction sales.
3. Management of participating firm are provided with most significant facts on the basis of ratios carefully selected by the central body. The firm will have to do only the study of the ratios and the necessary action.
4. Whether firm is doing better or worse than other firms is made known through the ratios. The firm can take positive steps to improve efficiency.
5. The experience of the central body is at the disposal of participating firms. This knowledge can be very valuable in the analysis of performance and profitability of the firm.
6. Participating firm provide information willingly knowing that this remains confidential.
7. IFC develops cost consciousness among participating firm.
8. IFC leads to avoidance of unfair competition. It guides in the direction of proper and positive efforts towards improvement of performances.
9. Inter-firm comparisons and related data help in representing the problem of the industry to regulating authorities and the Government in an effective and convincing matter. Information regarding entire industry can be presented before the Government and not the isolated problem of individual firm.
10. Collective information provided under IFC can help the industry in its negotiations with trade unions.

Limitations of IFC:

It is obvious that inter-firm comparison is useful in improving productivity, efficiency and profitability. But benefits are obtained only when ratios are properly calculated and impartially used. The limitations of ratio analysis should be taken into consideration. It should be noted that a single ratio is of a limited value and their trend is most important. Moreover the limitation of uniform costing should also be taken into consideration because uniform costing provides the very basis of inter-firm comparison

It should also not be ignored that certain extraneous factors such as prolonged strike, power shortage may also adversely affect the performance of the industry in a particular period. Limitations and short comings of annual returns and data may also affect the reliability of conclusions.

It can also be pointed out that there are practical limitation in the formation and maintenance of an independent central agency for inter-firm comparisons. The cost of introducing uniform costing may make the management of firm reluctant to participate in a scheme of inter-firm comparison.

Target costing can be viewed as a proactive cost management tool used to reduce the total cost of the product, over its complete lifecycle, through production, engineering, research and design. It helps the firm in managing the business in reaping profits in the extremely competitive market.

Simply put, target costing is a process of ascertaining and attaining full stream cost, at which the intended product with specific requirements, must be produced so as to realise the desired profits, at an anticipated selling price over a specified period. It involves the discernment of maximum cost to be incurred on a new product, followed by the development of sample that can be profitably created for that target cost figure.

Target Costing and Product Development Phase

In this technique, the costs are planned and managed out of the product or process early in the introduction phase like development or designing, instead of performing it in the latter phase of product development.

Target Costing applies to new products and succeeding generations of a product. It begins with understanding the market thoroughly and an intention to satisfy customer needs, concerning product quality, features, timeliness and price.

Target Cost

Target Cost = Anticipated selling price – Desired profit

Target Cost refers to an estimate of product cost reached by deducting a desired profit margin from the competitive market price.

Target Costing Process

Establishment Phase of Target Cost

1. Determine selling price for the new product and estimated output from market analysis and target profit.
2. Ascertainment of the target cost by deducting the profit from the selling price.
3. Functional cost analysis for specific components and processes
4. Decide the estimated product cost.
5. Make comparison between estimated cost and target cost.
6. If the estimated cost is greater than the targeted one, then repeat cost analysis, to reduce the estimated cost.
7. Final decision to be taken, on the introduction of the product, once the estimated cost is on target.
8. Cost management while production is performed.

Attainment Phase of Target Cost

In target costing process, the cost which is directly influenced by it is given priority, which includes material and purchase parts, tooling cost, conversion cost, development expenses and depreciation. Nevertheless, it is a comprehensive cost management technique, so all those cost and assets which are influenced by initial product planning decision are taken into account.

Target Costing Principles

• Price-led costing
• Cross functional teams
• Customer focus
• Focus on product design and process
• Lifecycle cost reduction
• Value Chain involvement

Target Costing is all about planning or projecting the cost of a product prior to its introduction, to make sure that products with low margin are not introduced, as they are not able to reap sufficient returns. It is also used for controlling the design specification and production techniques, and encouraging a focus on the customer.

Advantages of Target Costing:

• It shows management’s commitment to process improvements and product innovation to gain competitive advantages.
• The product is created from the expectation of the customer and hence cost is also based on similar lines. Thus, the customer feels more value is delivered.
• With the passage of time, the company’s operations improve drastically, creating economies of scale.
• The company’s approach to designing and manufacturing products becomes market-driven.
• New market opportunities can be converted into real savings to achieve the best value for money rather than to simply realize the lowest cost.