Month: February 2020

Social structure denotes the network of social relationship. The social relationship is created among the individuals when they interact with each other according to their statuses in accordance with the patterns of society. In a social structure, individuals having common object organize themselves into associations.

Social structure is an abstract phenomenon. It denotes external aspects of society. Each society has a pattern of organization, which has structures that result from association of individuals with one another. It may be a group, institution, an association, community, or an organization all of which are parts of social structure through which it functions.

Features of Indian Social System

The following are the important features of social structure of Indian society:

1. Complex Society

Indian society is characterized as a pluralistic society because it possesses complex social order. It suffers from multitude of ethnic, linguistic, religious and caste divisions.

2. Rural Society

About 70% of the Indian people live in villages. Indian villages continue to be underdeveloped. Even rural areas suffer from lack of infrastructural facilities. The gains of industrialization and technological breakthrough which once enjoyed by urban areas not yet reached the rural areas. Only now our Government has started giving due importance to the objective of rural development.

3. Economically Backward Country

India has made considerable progress in the fields of agriculture and industrialization. But still it continues to be an economically backward country. Even now it remains 64th poorest nation in the world. Major part of our population continues to live below the poverty line.

4. illiteracy

Illiteracy and ignorance among the people of India is another important feature of the social system in India. About 60% of the population continues to be illiterate in India. Illiteracy creates many social problems. Concerted Governmental action and strong social support are needed in removing the rate of illiteracy.

5. Diversified Languages

Diversity in languages is another feature of the social environment in India. The Constitution of India recognizes 22 languages as the major languages, which are spoken by 87% of the population. Of them Hindi is spoken by 31% of the population. Linguistic diversity and love and affection of people towards their regional languages have made the Government to reorganize Indian states on the basis of languages. Hence, language has emerged as a key factor of social and political climate in India.

6. Racial Diversity

As already stated, people belong to different races such as Aryan, Dravidian, and Mongolian. inhabit India. People in the Eastern States, have affinity with Mongolian race. Hence the racial Inter-mixing has taken place to a limited extent in India.

Even though the principle of unity in diversity is accepted diversities are many times allowed to dominate the objective of unity. The Constitution provides for secularism. But racial factor plays major role in real operation of socio-political processes in India.

7. Caste

Caste has been the predominant feature of Indian social system. The Constitution, has taken a great step towards the dilution of caste and casteism. Caste and Casteism have been playing important factor in Social, Economic, Cultural and Political life in India. As caste system has deep historical roots, it cannot be abolished.

8. Existence of Communalism

The existence of communalism in the society is another feature of Indian social system. It constitutes a big danger to the unity and integrity of the nation.

9. Regionalism

People belonging to a particular region consider those who belong to other regions as outsiders. Diversities in Caste, religion, language and culture have contributed to forces of regionalism. Channelizing “Regionalism” and make it to contribute to nationalism is one of the difficult tasks before the Indian socio-political system.

10. Tradition

In India, both tradition and modernity exist side by side. Tradition is clearly affected by modern trends and pressures.

11. Lack of Free Movement

There is increased gap between the elites and the masses. There is no free movement among different linguistic groups, castes etc. This problem is clearly reflected between high and low castes, literates and illiterates, urbanites and ruralites etc.

Thus the social structure of Indian society is characterized by religious, regional, linguistic, communal and caste diversities. All these factors determine the environment of Indian social structure, social system and political system. All institutions are in a position to continuously adjusting themselves to a changing society, though there still exists many conflicts between them. The Socio-political system is maintained stable despite these constraints.

The influence of various social institutions forms informal regulations in the business enabling environment. A society assigns acceptable roles and activities for individuals based on a combination of norms regarding their gender, race or ethnicity, religion and class. These assigned roles or activities greatly affect how individuals participate in a market system.

Gender

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Frequently gender-based social rules create or reinforce differences in power that get played out in markets, value chains and economic activities, restricting women’s access, options and bargaining power.

Gender as a social construct within different societies will have different effects on women and men operating in various value chains. The nature of the product, the season (surplus or scarcity), distance to reach consumer markets, and the size of the market are all factors affecting who does what and when. Susan Johnson’s study on the role of social regulation includes many examples from published literature of the role of gender relations in regulating labor markets, grain markets, credit markets and others (e.g., coir) as well as access to and control over land. Typically, these gender norms are expressed through informal (and formal) rules that lead to discriminatory property and inheritance laws, for example, different access to resources, and to restrictions on the tasks or places of work that women may occupy.

Access to Land

In Cameroon, women have restricted access to agricultural land because of customary laws derived from ethnic traditions which only give women rights to access the land through their husband or father’s lineage. Women are forbidden to plant permanent trees on both kinship and rented land which excludes them from marketing cash crops like coffee, cocoa, rubber and oil palm. Women who do trade in these crops are forced to pay bribes and face gender violence as a result of collusion between transport drivers, government officers and armed police at the numerous tax check points on main roads. Similarly, in the rice market in Guinea the activities which involve high levels of technology—such as husking and transport—are usually controlled by men because they have the money to purchase the equipment, and using equipment is considered to be a ‘man’s job.’ These activities are also remunerated with higher wages. The gender construct therefore contributes to the impoverishment of women who cannot access technology to participate in higher-value markets.

Mobility

Women are often concentrated in small-scale trading and petty retail operations with products that require a rapid turnover. In West Africa, women occupy particular markets that sell highly perishable vegetables and fruit, staple foods and cooked foods that can be prepared in the home. Women are confined to petty trading instead of moving into wholesaling because of their lack of mobility which restricts their ability to gather information about the market, make the required contacts and earn sufficient income to guarantee loans for further financing.

In many places, informal rules assign women responsibility for ensuring basic survival of household: for example, through the production of staple food crops and economic activities that generate small, reliable flows of income to ensure the day-to-day household needs are met. These (socially entrenched) responsibilities affect women’s mobility, limit their bargaining positions, and may make it impractical to attend to commercial activities as fully as they wish. In many agricultural societies there are norms regarding control of land by men or women, and in some places norms regarding women’s obligation to work for their husbands. These norms limit women’s incentives to do something different since such changes carry significant risk. More insidiously, in some cultures gender-based social norms are revealed in (self-enforcing) ideologies of subordination which discourage women from believing in their own capabilities or having ambitions as entrepreneurs.

Upgrading

Women in rural households can be instrumental in value chain upgrading. However, gendered patterns in generating, allocating, controlling, and spending household income makes it difficult for women to accumulate lump sums required for upgrading. Gendered patterns in money management also limit the benefits that accrue to women, and thus their incentives to upgrade. This in turn affects their access to and use of new technologies. Social norms further determine how women are able to build the social and commercial networks and relationships necessary to adapt to changing market conditions and/or new markets.

Race and Ethnicity

Ethnicity is a social construct that refers to the inclusion in a sub-cultural group on the basis of origin, language, religion, race or cultural traditions different from the dominant society. Ethnic group customs and traditions govern relationships in social networks and have a key influence on socio-economic life. In most labor markets, social networks—including those based on ethnicity—play a key role. Details about employers, employees and jobs usually flow through the social networks that people have for non-economic reasons. Prospective employers and employees can learn about opportunities through their personal contacts which they trust along ethnic lines. Using social contacts and networks already in place reduces the costs that can incur from searching for the right job or the right person for the job. Ethnicity provides a strong network advantage through connections that are familial and ancestral.

Distinct ethnic groups are found producing specific goods or involved in a specific trade or product. This then influences hiring practices along ethnic lines which maintains the traditional occupations. For example, in Indonesia close family and friendship networks are frequently used by MSEs to access additional labor. In some cases, MSE operators not only hire friends when there is more work than the MSE operator can handle, but even when there is not enough work, they feel obliged to hire their friends although this reduces their profits considerably. Social position and reputation are more important than profitability. In other situations, MSE operators only hire from their villages far away because they trust their kin rather than “outsiders” who are readily available and may have more experience and skills. When ethnicity excludes “others” from outside the ethnic group, despite their availability and higher skill levels, this can have a tremendously negative impact on competitiveness and employment, particularly urban employment in densely populated areas.

In Afghanistan, the grape/raisin value chain operates through personal, familial, ethnic and historical relationships. Businesses must negotiate a maze of bribes, taxes and government requirements that increase transaction costs. However, businesses with the right connections due to their ethnicity and family ties are able to sidestep many of these costs and risks and gain access to land and capital. Small businesses and potential new investors without such ethnic and political influence face significant and sometimes insurmountable barriers to entry. These informal regulations that are established through the social norms and codes of conduct restrict competition and participation in the development of value chains, and ultimately, consolidate the market benefits in the hands of the already wealthy and powerful.

Religion and Caste

Religion underpins and provides the belief rationale for many informal regulations. Interpretation of religious beliefs in fatalistic terms can indicate a tendency to limit social mobility, individualism and entrepreneurialism. Although highly context-specific, fate-based beliefs tend to devalue efforts to influence outcomes through investments in technology or changes to production and marketing practices. In Liberia, ACDI/VOCA’s ACE project learned that beneficiaries who were quick to adopt new practices and who began to accumulate wealth were accused of witchcraft. Community members appeared to feel threatened by the pace of change. In response, the project initiated activities to show that incremental practices were required to increase on-farm productivity. By increasing the flow of information concerning the physical cause and effect and by helping community members to take a stepwise approach to upgrading, ACE sought to lessen the negative reaction to individuals’ success.

Barbara Harriss-White’s studies in India found that religion can supply a collective identity which in turn provides indispensable conditions for capital accumulation. “In India, religious affiliation can govern the creation and protection of rent, the acquisition of skills and contacts, the rationing of finance, the establishment and defense of collective reputation, the circulation of information, the norms that regulate the inheritance and management of property and those that prescribe the subordination of women”. In addition, Harriss-White found that religious groups provided insurance and last-resort social security. Jains, for example, were often wealthy local merchants, moneylenders and pawnbrokers who had indirect power over the local rural economy through webs of credit. The Muslim traders of Pallavaram on the other hand were limited in their economic growth because of lack of access to finance. Outside of a religious grouping, money was lent but not borrowed (other than from commercial banks). Transactions between religious groupings were been observed to be more exploitive than within religious groupings.

The caste system describes a stratification in which social classes or subclasses of traditional Hindu society are separated by distinctions of hereditary rank, profession or wealth. Caste is the class stratification of religious groups. Different castes engage in different productive activities according to their historical connections. Skills are passed on through apprenticeships which are gained through social networks based on kin, caste and locality. Caste is least flexible where social disadvantage is most entrenched and poverty is more profound. It makes for compartmentalized labor markets with non-competing groups whose options are severely constrained. Lower levels of technology are relegated to lower castes—for instance the dalits have to carry heavy loads on their heads—wheelbarrows are not available to them. Workers themselves may enforce caste stratification to protect their place in the labor market.

Caste is an evolving institution that can change if economic opportunity is available. For example, in West Bengal the poorer the worker, the less choice he will have in participating in the labor market. Yet the social ranking can shift if the household acquires more land and does not have to hire out, since hiring out labor is considered demeaning and associated with lower social ranking.

Low social status (especially when encoded in ‘caste’ relationships) can be a major obstacle to dialogue. In an example from Sri Lanka, traditional producers of cane and bamboo products were cut off from access to a critical material from natural rain forests—a softwood called Enipeththa. The producers were victims of well-intentioned but unnecessarily draconian blanket ban on extracting forest produce. Because they belong to a low-status caste, the producers were unable to get forest authorities to listen to their arguments for a more pragmatic sustainably-managed approach, which would have conservation advantages by reducing damaging illicit harvesting. Practical Action assisted producers to overcome this constraint by organizing collective efforts by producers, forest authorities, police and other stakeholders such as the national Craft Council to analyse the issue, negotiate and devise a solution.

India is one of the most populated countries in the world, officially referred to as the Republic of India. It is located in Southeast Asia, and by area is actually the seventh largest country, occupied by well over 1 billion people. On one side is the Indian Ocean, and on the others are the Arabian Sea with the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. It is bordered by many different countries included Burma, Nepal, and China, and shares the maritime border with Indonesia and Thailand. Within this country is a very unique and vast culture, one that extends thousands of years in the past. This was the original home of what is called the Indus Valley civilization, a culture that is thought to have originated 30,000 years ago

The culture of India refers collectively to the thousands of distinct and unique cultures of all religions and communities present in India. India’s languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from place to place within the country. Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old. Many elements of India’s diverse cultures, such as Indian religions, philosophy, cuisine, languages, dance, music and movies have a profound impact across the Indosphere, Greater India and the world.

Indian-origin religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all of which are based on the concept of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, a philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi who through civil disobedience brought India together against the British Raj and this philosophy further inspired Martin Luther King, Jr. during the American civil rights movement. Foreign-origin religion, including Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present in India, as well as Zoroastrianism and Bahá’í Faith both escaping persecution by Islam have also found shelter in India over the centuries.

India has 29 states with different culture and the second most populated country in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions. They have been credited with shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music. Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains. Over the centuries, there has been significant fusion of cultures between Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Sikhs and various tribal populations in India.

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. They are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

India is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it has a large Muslim population. Except for Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram and Lakshadweep, Hindus form the predominant population in all 28 states and 9 union territories. Muslims are present throughout India, with large populations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Kerala, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam; while only Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep have majority Muslim populations. Sikhs and Christians are other significant minorities of India.

According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practice Hinduism. Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%) and Jainism (0.4%) are the other major religions followed by the people of India. Many tribal religions, such as Sarnaism, are found in India, though these have been affected by major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and the Bahá’í Faith are also influential but their numbers are smaller. Atheism and agnostics also have visible influence in India, along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other faiths. According to a study conducted by the Pew Research Centre, India will have world’s largest populations of Hindus and Muslims by 2050. India is expected to have about 311 million Muslims making up around 19–20% of the population and yet about 1.3 billion Hindus are projected to live in India comprising around 76% of the population.

Atheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement. The Cārvāka school originated in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the earliest form of materialistic and atheistic movement in ancient India. Sramana, Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika and some schools of Hinduism consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of creator deity, ritualism and superstitions. India has produced some notable atheist politicians and social reformers. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.

Where It All Began

According to historians, this culture began many millennia ago, evidenced by Mesolithic rock art that has been found. Neolithic settlements appeared in western Pakistan and other locations, but the interesting period of time was when it transitioned into the Iron Age. It was during this time, just prior to 500 BCE, that the Vedas were actually written. This is written documentation about the Indian history and culture depicting a civilization made up of warriors, traders, and priests. There may have been political organizations at that time as well, and traces of irrigation tanks used for agriculture. It is also during this time that an individual by the name of Siddhartha Gautama began to spread the message of what would later be known as Buddhism.

Medieval Culture in India

It was over 1000 years later that culturally diverse city in India began to transition into the creation of temples ruled by kings. Although there were many rulers, there was no one particular empire that was in full control of the entire region. It was also then that the caste system began to be more prominent, and also diversify. It was based on the religion of Hinduism, and was a way of ranking people not only in life, but in regard to what position they had achieved in life through the process of reincarnation. It is from all of this that modern India began to develop, creating traditions based upon philosophy, family, and marriage.

Indian Philosophy and Family Concepts

There are many traditions that still remain in India, although they were founded centuries ago. Traditions involving what are called Yoga, Vedanta and many others, along with different religious practices which include Buddhism. The structure of family and marriage usually required family members to spend most of their lives together. The oldest male would be the head of the household, and make all of the important decisions and rules, ideas that still persist today. Arranged marriages are still a very prominent part of Indian culture, although it is outdated in modern times. There is a very low rate of divorce in comparison to places like the United States, with most of the divorces in India being initiated by women. There are many wedding rituals which include dance, music, and extensive decorations which may include costumes that people wear. It is taken very seriously, and may continue to do so into the future despite Western cultures influence on their society.

Indian Cuisine and Clothing

Another part of Indian history and culture that continues to remain, despite originating centuries ago, is the use of particular types of food which are almost always spicy, usually consisting of rice, bread, and milk based desserts. Clothing in India, especially for women, has remained very consistent. There is a definite discouragement of women wearing clothing that show very much skin. The clothing that they wear is very unique, decorated with jewelry and bangles, something that is identifiable with this culture in particular.

Much of the Indian history and culture of the past has been recorded on parchment that was written in the Sanskrit language. Despite the difference in characters, and the way that it is written, it shares many similarities in structure to classical languages in Europe, specifically in regard to vocabulary and grammar. It is a culture that continues to grow, one that is populated by diverse and unique individuals. It is a waste where the origins of mankind can be traced back, and is continuing to evolve in part due to the influence of Western culture. Those that study Indian culture and history find it to be one of the most unique and colorful of all ancient civilizations that are studied. It continues to be of great interest from traditions passed down through generations, to the writings of the Vedas, and will also continue to write what will soon become history through the accomplishments of this unique people.

India has a long history and its cultural tradition is quite old and extremely complex. India’s cultural division is not only one of the most ancient, but also it is one of the most widespread and varied. Traditional features of India are very strong. French, British and other cultures are seen in India, but Indian value systems still remain. It is second most populated country in the world. It has its own geographic, ethnic, religious, and linguistic background. 

1. Geographical Factor

• The natural boundaries provide India a geographical unity.
• It is a country in South Asia that lies entirely on Indian Plate in the northern portion of Indo Australian Plate.
• The area of Indian society was so vast. The land area is 33 million square kilometer. India is the 7th largest country in the world.
• It lies north Equator.

2. Unity and Diversity

• India is the second most populous and seventh largest country of the world.
• It has 2.4 per cent of world’s land area and about 16 percent of world’s population.
• It has a history spanning over 5000 years of human habitation, 3000 years before Christ and 2000 years after Christ.
• It has a cultural heritage handed down by the immigrant Aryans from across the Himalayas, the natives – the pre-Aryan settlers called Dasyus or Dasas by the Aryans and invading civilizations.
• Its social, economic and cultural diversities are also reflected in habital conditions in rural, urban and semi-urban areas.
• Despite these diversities, what is observed about India is that there is unity in diversity.
• This unity in diversity has become a part of India’s self identity.

3. Religious Factor

• India, being a democratic, socialistic and secular republic, has no state religion.
• India is the birth place of many world religions and almost all major world religions are practiced by their respective followers.
• India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony is seen in the celebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all the religions and cultures of India.
• The major religions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá’í Faith.

4. Language

• The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages (a branch of Indo-European) spoken by 74% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 24% of Indians.
• Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.
• The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language.
• The constitution of India states that “The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script”.
• Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred; the 1961 census recognized 1,652.
• According to Census of India of 2001, 30 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000.
• Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia.
• Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.

5. Races and Ethnicity

Indian population is polygenetic and is a mixture of various races.

There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India.

The 6 main ethnic groups are as follows:

(i) Negrito

• The Negritos were the earliest people to come to India.
• They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples.
• Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India.

(ii) Proto – Australoids or Austrics

• These were the next ethnic group to arrive in India after the Negroids.
• They were people with wavy hair distributed all over their brown bodies, long faces with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, thick jaws, noses with low and broad roots, large teeth and palates and small chins.

(iii) Mongoloids

• The Mongoiloids are found mainly in the North eastern parts of India in the states like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura.
• They are also found in parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh.
• They are people with highly yellowish complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, thin hair and of a medium height.

(iv) Mediterranean or Dravidian

• These are the people of South India.
• They have been believed to come before the Aryans.
• They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean.
• They appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and pre- Hellenic Aegean’s of Greece.
• They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the Indus valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjo- daro and Harappa and other Indus cities.

(v) Western Brachycephals

• These include the Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids.
• The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category.
• They are the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

(vi) Nordic Aryans or Indo-Aryans

• This group were the last one to immigrate to India.
• They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C.
• They are now mainly found in the northern and central part of India.

6. Caste System

A social structure used to designate any social class of extreme rigidity. It is composed of four varna or classes, and from this, a rank-order of different subcastes or jati was formed.

Note: This fig. is for Knowledge purpose only, www.theintactone.com doesn’t endourse any Caste System

(i) Brahmins: The first and the highest class; intellectuals of the nations such as landowners, scholars, and priests.

(ii) Kshatriyas: A class directly follows Brahmins; mostly rulers and warriors. They manage the land, military service, and administration.

(iii) Vaisyas: The third class composed of traders, shopkeepers, moneylenders, farmers, and artisans; Trading and banking.

(iv) Sudras: The fourth class composed of laborers, craft-workers, servants and slaves.

7. Tribes

• India has the second largest tribal population in the world only next to Africa.
• According to 1941 census report tribal population of India was 2.47 crores.
• According to 1981 census it was 5.16 crores and it is estimated to have increased to 5.20 crores in 1991.
• It forms 7.8% of the country’s total population.
• About two-thirds of the total tribal population in India are found in the five states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharastra.
• More than 20 lakhs of tribal population are found in each state of Rajasthan, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
• In Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura tribals constitute 70% to 95% of the population of the states/territory.

8. Cultural Factor

• Indian Culture is very different.
• Hindu, Muslims and Christian marriages has their own values.
• Hinduism is a mixture of various cultures like, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity.
• Hindu philosophies are very strong and its culture was not much changed.

9. Political Factor

• India is called by other name Bharathavarsha.
• India’s political unity is an off shoot of the religious and cultural unity.
• India is a democratic country which has a written constitution.
• Indians enjoy certain fundamental rights and duties.
• India being democratic, socialistic republic is based on equality, justice, liberty and secularism.
• Indian laws apply all people without any discrimination.

1. Emotional Needs

For satisfaction of needs like love, affection, hunger, fear, self-preservation, self-gratification, and fear of the supernatural.

2. Economic Needs

Satisfies the material needs of people and for satisfaction of basic necessities of food, clothing and shelter.

3. Familial Needs

Establishes the institution of marriage and family for the continuation of human species through structured means.

4. Religious Needs

Deals with man’s inherent fear of the supernatural. It deals with this fear through religious prayers and offerings.

5. Political Needs

Deals with the basic necessity of governing large groups of people through formalized means of government and laws.

(i) Institutions are important means, by which social behaviour can be regulated and controlled.

(ii) Institutions are instrumental in transmitting culture from one generation to another.

(iii) Institutions unite people and groups. They maintain unity and harmony in so­ciety by providing unified patterns of behaviour that is followed by all members despite diversities.

(iv) Institutions provide status to every individual. For instance, the status of married/unmarried, status of son/daughter or sibling, economic status and so on can come under this.

(v) Not all the functions of institutions are positive. Certain aspects of institutions have a negative impact on the functioning of society. For example, the institu­tion of religion has led to religious fundamentalism, besides reinforcing reli­gious identities, that has resulted in conflicts and communalism.

In India, the caste system, which is a part of the Hindu religion, resulted in the emergence of untouchability. Similarly, marriage has resulted in the birth of social evil of dowry. Thus, institutions also have certain negative repercussions on society.

In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which anyone who wished to study went to a teacher’s (Guru) house and requested to be taught. If accepted as a student by the guru, he would then stay at the guru’s place and help in all activities at home. This not only created a strong tie between the teacher and the student, but also taught the student everything about running a house. The guru taught everything the child wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the holy scriptures and from Mathematics to Metaphysics. The student stayed as long as she wished or until the guru felt that he had taught everything he could teach. All learning was closely linked to nature and to life, and not confined to memorizing some information.

The modern school system was brought to India, including the English language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature was broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the student.

The Uttar Pradesh (a state in India) Board of High School and Intermediate Education was the first Board set up in India in the year 1921 with jurisdiction over Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. In 1929, the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana, was established. Later, boards were established in some of the states. But eventually, in 1952, the constitution of the board was amended and it was renamed Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). All schools in Delhi and some other regions came under the Board. It was the function of the Board to decide on things like curriculum, textbooks and examination system for all schools affiliated to it. Today there are thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both within India and in many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.

Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a cherished dream of the new government of the Republic of India. This is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the government appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen. The pressures of economic growth and the acute scarcity of skilled and trained manpower must certainly have played a role to make the government take such a step. The expenditure by the Government of India on school education in recent years comes to around 3% of the GDP, which is recognized to be very low.

“In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are;

(a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP.

(b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes.

(c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty.

(d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years.

(e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.”

Education in Ancient India

Broadly speaking three different types of institutions were in vogue which imparted education to the people in Ancient India. In the first instance there was the popular system under which the teacher, as a settled householder, admitted pupils of a tender age and imparted instructions to them.

We also get references in the earlier period when a child received education from his father. Usually the pupils were admitted by the teachers on request by the preceptor and the rite of upanayana was performed. The students usually spent twelve years with their guru. During this period the student lived at the house of teacher and performed several duties as a means of his moral and spiritual discipline.

The usual duties performed by the students included begging for the teacher, collec­tion of wood for sacrificial fires, looking after the house work as well as the cattle. They devoted the rest of the time to their studies.

On his part the teacher had also to fulfill certain moral and spiritual conditions. He was to be well versed in sacred lore and live entirely as a Brahman. He was expected to teach his pupil the truth as was known to him, without concealing anything. Education was open to people of all classes of the Indo-Aryan stock. But the course of training and subjects were not uniform for students of all castes.

While the Brahmana student was specially trained up for teaching and performing sacrifices for others and receiving gifts, the Kshatriya was taught about defence or protection of his people.

But we frequently come across references in Upanishads of Brahmanas of the learned Kshatriyas and princes who studied the Vedas and attained proficiency in the sacred lore, which was special pro­perty of the Brahmans. For example king Janaka of Videha was a learned Kshatriya who imparted sacred knowledge to the Brahmanas.

Women were also permitted to receive education in Ancient India. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we get a reference to Gargi taking impor­tant part in the philosophical discussions. The Upanishads also mention several women taking as teachers. However, the women specialised in fine arts like dancing and singing, the accomplishments which were considered unfit for men.

Education was imparted through discourses by the teachers. The students could ask questions and were supposed to introspect and contemplate on those topics. They were to acquire knowledge about Ultimate Truth and Reality through meditation.

The acqui­sition of knowledge was supposed to precede by annihilation of all desire and annihilation of the illusion of a manifold universe, of the consciousness of plurality. This could be attained through sannyasa and yoga.

The former meant casting off of one’s home, possessions and family and all that stimulated desire. Yoga meant withdrawal from all organs of sense and concentrating mind on the Inner Self endeavors with a view to secure union with Atma.

The second type of institutions were meant for the imparting of advanced education to the students who were not satisfied with the knowledge acquired as students and were popularly known as academies. Usually the specialists and literary celebrities held academic meetings in different parts of the country for the purpose of philosophical discussion.

The students keen to acquire advanced education held discussions with these specialists and learnt the truth about the Atma. Participation in debates with these academies enabled the students to check their knowledge which they had acquir­ed at elementary schools.

In addition to these academies located in different areas, the king often called special national gatherings or Congress, in which the representative thinkers of the country of various schools were invited to meet and exchange their views.

Such Congresses helped a great deal in the spread of learning in those days. We learn of one such Congress of rishis in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Satapatha Brahmana and the Vayu Purana.

Education in the Medieval Times

During the Medieval times the education continued to operate on the ancient lines. No doubt, some of the prominent Hindu universities of Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramshila, the great centres of learning, suffered a decline on account of the onslaughts of early Muslim invaders.

Professor A.L. Srivastava has said, “Muslim invaders destroyed Hindu seats of learning as well as Hindu temples and one of the first and most injurious result of the early Turkish rule was the decline, if not disappearance, of the ancient learning in Northern India.”

Though the temples and educational institutions suffered destruction at the hands of the Muslim invaders and Mosques were raised, the Hindu institutions continued to be a living reality. Their vitality was not killed or crushed through the Hindu edu­cation was deprived of the Government patronage, the individual patrons kept flam; of learning burning. Usually, the local popula­tion supported the village school.

Ibn Batuta writes “I saw in Hanaur thirteen schools for the instruction of the girls and twenty three for boys, a thing I have not seen anywhere else.”

During the medieval time, there were three types of Hindu educational institutions:

(1) Pathshalas or elementary schools

(2) Tols or Colleges and

(3) Private schools.

The children were sent to the Pathshalas at the age of 5 after consulting the Astrologer, where he learnt reading, writing and arithmetic. In addition, he was also given some type of elementary religious instructions. The Tols or Colleges were seats of higher learning where the students were taught Sanskrit language and literature.

The other subjects included in the curriculum were Kavya (poetry), Vyakarna (Grammar), Jyotish (astronomy and astrology), Chhanda (thetoric), Nirukta (lexicon) and Nayaya Durshan (philosophy). In some of the colleges instructions were also imparted in Medicine, History, Geography, Puranas, the Vedas.

The chief aim of Hindu education was character building, development of personality, preservation of ancient culture and inculcation of spirit of social service and performance of religious duties. Special emphasis was laid on discipline and self-dependence.

There was no printed Premier and the children were taught orally. During the primary stage, the children learnt alphabets and figures on wooden board (Takhti) or on the dust of the ground in their fingers. The pupils were usually taught under shadow of a tree where they sat in rows. The master attended to them either standing or sitting on a mat or deer skin. The classes were held twice a day—in the morning and evening with an interval for meals.

Education was imparted free. It was considered to be a pious and noble duty to impart education and it was a handmaid of religion. The State did not extend any financial assistance and the necessary funds were provided by individuals as a matter of religious duty with the object of acquiring personal merit in the next world.

According to Professor K.A. Nilakantha Shastri, “Adult edu­cation was provided throughout the country by endowments in temples for the recitation and exposition of the Epics and Puranas. An intelligent and popular expositor seldom contained himself to the words of his text, but at once instructed and amused his audience by ranging over a variety of popular instruction is not unknown even at the present day. The singing of devotional hymns in temples by choirs regularly maintained for that purpose and the training of young men for the same purpose in schools generally attached to it has is another side of education that deserve notice. Besides mathas, Jain Pallis and Buddhist Viharas played an important part in educating the people wherever they existed, and they had large libraries of books in all branches of learning which were being copied from time to time.”

Physical punishments were not that common in Hindu educa­tional institutions. Physical punishment was inflicted only to those students who did not behave properly or consistently failed to do their homework. Usually, punishments given to the students, included their detention after school hours or re-writing a particular lesson 10 or 15 times.

There was no system of regular examinations or award of degrees. The promotion of student to the next higher class depended entirely on the discretion of the teachers.

The chief centres of Hindu learning, which can be designated as the universities, were usually set up at places where eminent scholars resided. Usually these universities came up at places of pilgrimage so that the pilgrims could offer necessary financial assistance.

The teachers and scholars thus rid themselves of financial worries and devoted themselves to the acquisition and dispersal of education. Amongst the prominent seats of learning during the Medieval time mention may be made of Banaras (Varanasi), Nadia, Mithila, Madura, Srinagar, Prayag, Ayodhya etc.

Banaras which had been a great centre of learning from earliest times, suffered a great setback during the early Muslim rule due to their policy of religious persecutions. With the advent of the Mughals it once again regained its importance as a seat of learning and attracted scholars from remotest corners of India.

Bernier was greatly impressed by the facilities of higher education available at Banaras and compared it with Athens of ancient Greece as a centre of learning.

He says in his travels, “The town contains no colleges or regular classes as in our universities, but resembles rather the schools of the ancients, the masters being dispersed over different parts of the town in private houses and principally in the gardens of the suburbs, which the rich merchants permit them to occupy. Some of these eminent may have twelve or fifteen, but this is the larger number. It is usual for the pupils to remain ten or twelve years under their respective preceptors, during which time the work of instruction proceeds, but slowly…”

Kabir and Tulsidas carried on their literary activities at Banaras. Raja Jai Singh also founded a college for the education of the Princes at Banaras. In addition, there were number of other scholars of Hindu religion and philosophy which dispersed their knowledge.

Nadia in Bengal was another rare centre of Hindu learning during the Mughal period. This university rose to prominence after the destruction of the university of Nalanda and Vikramshila. The University of Nadia consisted of three branches at Nabadvipa, Santipura and Gopalpara and attracted students from all parts of the country. It is said that in 1618 there were 4,003 pupils and 600 teachers at Nadia. At Nadia the famous Nyaya school was set up by Vasudeva Sarvabhauma and it soon out-rivalled the school of Mithila. Separate sections were also set up for the study of logic,, philosophy and astronomy.

Mithila, located in North Bihar, which was a centre of great learning from the earliest times retained its importance as a centre of learning throughout the medieval period. It made notable contributions in the realm of scientific subject.

During the Mughal days it drew students from all parts of the country and became great seat for the study of logic. With Nadia gaining prominence as a seat of learning Mithila suffered a setback and many students from Mithila started migrating to Nadia. The other important centres of Hindu learning were Mathura, Brindaban, Prayag and they specialised in certain special subjects.

Modern Education System in India

In India the education system has various aspects and it has evolved since ancient time. The unique things about Indian education system are diversity in fundamentals like language, culture and dialect etc. In the times of yore, India had the Gurukula System of education where the teacher and the pupils used to live together in a distant place and were taught philosophy, arts, science administration and military techniques. Guru was the central persona and the students returned the favour by helping their teacher in their daily chores. Women like Gargi, Gayatri and Maitrayi were prominent personas who participated in educational debates and scholarly researches. However the biggest demerit of the Vedic education was that only one section of society such as the Brahmins had the privilege of education. The Kshatriyas were also given gurucula educations but the lower strata of the society were never imparted any kind of knowledge.

The modern school system was brought to India, including the English language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature was broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the student. Today there are thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both within India and in many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a cherished dream of the new Government of the Republic of India. This is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the Government appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen.

Modern day education is aided with a variety of technology, computers, projectors, internet, and many more. Diverse knowledge is being spread among the people. Everything that can be simplified has been made simpler. Science has explored every aspect of life. There is much to learn and more to assimilate. Internet provides abysmal knowledge. There is no end to it. One can learn everything he wishes to. Every topic has developed into a subject. New inventions and discoveries have revealed the unknown world to us more variedly. Once a new aspect is discovered, hundreds of heads start babbling over it, and you get a dogma from hearsay. Not only our planet but the whole universe has become accessible. Skill-development and vocational education has added a new feather to the modern system of education. There is something to learn for everyone. Even an infant these days goes to a kindergarten. Rightly said by  Aristotle, “Education is an ornament in prosperity and a refugee in adversity.” what everybody feels now.

Well, that was the positive side, but every story has two telling. Of all the virtue, our education system has developed into mere schooling now. Firstly our education is confined to schools and colleges. It has become a process of spoon feeding. “Spoon feeding in the long run teaches us nothing but the shape of the spoon”. Not art, not books, but life itself is the true basis of teaching and learning. Cramming of facts and dates, hi-fi mathematical formulas, theories and doctrines should be at college levels when one has chosen his area of interest. Secondly, an art can only be learned from a workshop of those who are earning their bread from it. Modern education has spread more ignorance than knowledge. “How” is missing in our world which causes ignorance. Thirdly all education is bad which is not  self-education. Presently, children after school are sent to tuitions. This is a clear question mark on the ability of school teacher. Students are thought of like they can’t do anything on their own and so are sent even to do the homework.. Homework is a waste of time, if it is to repeat class work done today or to be repeated as class work to be done tomorrow. Our schooling does not leave us with time to get educated.  My neighbour’s daughter once requested me to give her a print of article from internet on Baisakhi festival as her teacher has ordered for a nice article from internet and not to write on her on. I told her to write it on her own otherwise  she will not use her mind  but a print command from computer will do the purpose which is not a right thing. Finally our education is producing machines out of pupil. They read books, they speak books and they do books. Discussing in class lead to complications, which  remains as confusions for a life time if left untreated.  “Discussion in class, which means letting twenty young blockheads and two cocky neurotics discuss something that neither their teacher nor they know.” The private education market in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrollment, and a 19% increase in girl’s enrollment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its education has been questioned particularly in its Government run school system. Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25 percent of teachers everyday. It is the duty of Government and education authorities to improve system of education for producing intellectual brains for future and not machines for job.

“Indian value systems do not encourage us to replicate the same consumer culture that is rampant in the West,” For example: Families in India still make younger children wear the clothes worn by older children in the house, not because of poverty, but because Indian value systems encourage ‘recycle and reuse’ of material goods at home.

India is a pluralistic and multi-cultural society where many faiths and belief systems regulate the life of individuals. India is not a Hindu society even though Hinduism is the religion of the vast majority of the people. In this part of the globe many religious traditions, both indigenous and foreign, have been established over the years. We have Buddhism, Sikhism, Bhakti cult, Sufi tradition as well as Islam and Christianity. Many religious gurus, law-givers, social reformers and statesmen have come to guide and influence the life and culture of Indians. The Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Bhagvat Gita as well as the Quran, the Bible, the Guru Bani, etc., have molded the thinking pattern and consciousness of Indians. So also the Hindu caste system and the joint family pattern have a decisive influence on the followers of other religions.

The struggle for human rights essentially reflects the concerns and requirements of modern human being whereas the cultural values operated in a traditional context where many of the agencies which at present account for the violation of human rights norms were not known. Since human rights is basically a problem between authority and the individual it is essential to examine the Indian understanding of the origin of authority.

1. Duty-First Approach

Broadly speaking Indian culture never saw the individual and society as antagonistic to each other. The Hindu vision was that of an orderly society, with each individual doing his assigned job. The individual and society were viewed as two complementary and incomplete entities tied to a relationship of mutual obligations, a commitment which was essential to ensure the well-being of all. Those who acted as the guardians of society and worked out the delicate nuances and detailed network of the social order were neither concerned about, nor even conscious of, the concept of human rights. They were more commercial about the moral dimension of a human being’s activities than the legal aspect. Much emphasis was placed on the understanding of society from a moral perspective. Of course this understanding was highly elitist reflecting the brahminical vision of a perfect society. However, this is not to deny the existence of a legal framework and law books to regulate social relationship at various levels. Those were of different nature and have nothing to do with the present concept of Rule of Law which is the main vehicle to ensure the equality of all — a fundamental objective of the human rights movement.

As regards the origin of the government (authority), the Hindu tradition believed in a supernatural source. According to it, human beings in a state of defenselessness and social disorder appealed to the gods. The gods appointed a king in their own image and on their behalf whose task was to protect the people and maintain law and order. In return, the king would claim a share of one sixth of the produce. The caste-based social order also emerged from this divine source.

In terms of well-codified norms and level of the people’s consciousness, the notion of human rights did not exist. But in terms of implications, i.e., ensuring a person’s protected position, one can say that people enjoyed their rights. Thus in the Indian culture rights flowed from duties. The performance of one’s boundless duties in accordance with dharma (duties) ensured the rights of another. Non-adherence to the neatly defined and minutely worked out duty code would lead to a state of anarchy in society which would destroy the individual himself.

Another dimension of this duty-first value system of Indian culture is that since the emphasis on rights leads to conflicts and claims of one’s own due, the architects of society and its law-makers, probably sought to avoid a scenario wherein each one would be fighting for his rights. Such a situation would have resulted in an anarchy defeating the very purpose of arranging a stable social order.

2. Nishkama Karma

Another dictum of the Gita which has taken deep roots in the Indian mind is Karmanye badhika rastu ma falesu kadachan. That is, one must go on performing one’s duties without being worried about the rewards or the results. One finds most of the Indian parents consoling their children by citing this Gita bani in the event of the latter’s failure in any endeavour despite hard work and sincere efforts. The habit of conformism ruled out any scope for challenge which is the main vehicle to ensure one’s rights. Further, the concept of an individual was also not there. The individual as an individual had no identity as he essentially belonged to his family group, caste or sub-caste, etc. Each individual is called upon to perform his duty without being concerned about the reward for or consequences of such an action — nishkama karma.

3. Ahimsa and human rights

Ahimsa can be identified as another key Indian cultural value which ensures rights by implication and interpretation. Since the concept of ahimsa emerged out of a very healthy Buddhist tradition, it is essential to understand the Buddhist theory on the origin of government or authority. The Buddhist theory did not believe in any divinity. As opposed to the Hindu tradition, it was rooted in a republican mold. It talked about a “golden age which gradually decayed through the institution of private property and other social evils”. As a result, the people assembled and elected one from among themselves to rule over and ensure an orderly society. This has various implications. The ruler is a chosen representative of the people and not a monarch appointed by God with absolute powers. Thus the emphasis is on the sovereignty of the people which naturally leads to a stress on the rights of the individual in society. Even though the idea of the sovereignty of the people remained central to the Buddhist political philosophy, it could never be developed into a theory of the rights of the people (Romila Thapar 1985). May be it was not necessary then. Nevertheless ahimsa , which gives every life a right to live, is a reflection of the belief in the sovereignty of the people.

In a broader sense, ahimsa means much more than non-violence. It means not hurting anyone or any life both physically and psychologically. Basically it is a negative concept from which flows a positive value, i.e., protection. Ahimsa aims at ensuring and providing a protected existence to every one free from mental and physical violence and it is here that the basic postulation of ahimsa coincides with the main concern of the present human rights movement worldwide.

The value systems in societies differ considerably because the value systems are built through centuries. Japanese and Chinese ethical values differ considerably to Indian ones.

The main issues in ethics are:

(i) The academic discipline of business ethics requires approval and support of industry in those countries.

(ii) Equal treatment of technical and human resources in management. In Japan human resource is given more weightage.

(iii) Social justice and efficiency should go hand in hand.

(iv) In Japan ethical managements already in place since last two decades with emergence of large business houses and MNCs. In China the importance of business ethics is felt and being practiced under the conditions of contemporary market economy.

(v) Japanese consumers are more willing to support business that were identified as socially more responsible than Chinese.

(vi) Chinese value economic aspects of business organization whereas Japanese considered more about business conforming to legal and ethical standards.

(vii) The culture has profound base on ethical management in each country.

Some of the ethical values noticed in different countries are:

Some of ethical Vedantic principles as applied to modern business are:

(i) Treat people decently. Respect all stakeholders’ opinions, background, privacy dignity and desire to grow.

(ii) All people are having egos and selfish nature. Respect diversity.

(iii) Companies or business is created to serve people and all stakeholders.

(iv) Some are more intelligent and powerful but protect the weak.

(v) Look inside sitting alone and think is it right? Is it fair? Will it do good to all?

(vi) Be good, do good to as many and as much.

(vii) Mahabharata sums up importance of ethical behaviour in a sloka.

Ethical behaviour is important for a man. When a man goes down in ethical values, he will have no use of his money or his relatives and he has no reason to live.

As noted above, ethics was and is a traditional subject in India. Vedantic ethics had spiritual approach, which is summed up in its entirety (what you do not wish unto you do not do it to others). Business ethics is a new branch of study giving ethic plus business combination in decision making processes in industry and commerce.

Indian ethos was introduced in daily walk of life for everyone by various methods. Religious teachings, listening to Puranas, Kathas, Bhajans, Yoya, Pooja, Yajyas and the like are some examples where these remind time and again the essence of ethical behavior in a society. Over the centuries many of these became mechanical and ritualistic and lost the ethical touch in them.

Two other religions which had their origins in India are Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism and Jainism stress the ethical behavior and non-violence in more stringent manner to the society. In fact ‘The Digambar’ sect of Jainism advocated no attachments of possession to any worldly goods.

Indian ancient texts give guidelines to ethical behaviour of a man in his daily life since days of Veda. The same principles apply to modern day business.

Some of the important ethical lessons are:

(i)  Foundation for a healthy business is sound morals and ethics.

(ii) For managers to be good decision makers and to stand up to temptation and pressures, he should have his own peace of mind, strength of will and ethics.

(iii) Selfishness and greed are source of evil that reduces ethical standards in an organization.

(iv) Ethical levels should be built up from top down to curb lies, hurting, cheating or unethical acts.

Indian Values

Indian culture is much diversified because of varieties of customs, beliefs and many gods. It is difficult to find single culture at one place. Hinduism has much type of worship and festivals.

In tradition Indian has Vedantic, Buddhist, Jaina and Sikh traditions. India has also welcomed and absorbed good ethical lessons from Christian, Islamic and Parsi religions. The culture has enriched with diversity of outsiders. It is now a unity in diversity.

The important Vedantic values in Indian society valid even today are:

(i) Showing respect to elders specially teachers

(ii) Not showing emotion outward

(iii) God fear in all walks of life. In any function Pooja or offering to God is made first before the work begins.

(iv) Marriage is made in heaven and is considered lifelong bond. Some consider it as bond even after death.

(v) In recent years Indian household look western. These are outward looks, whereas the Vedantic culture flews in hearts and actions. Similarly Indian ethos had many changes when foreigners ruled India for many centuries but Vedantic identify and ethos remained intact.

(vi) Indian ethos were built and perfected long before others evolved them. Hence India contributed immensely in teaching ethical lessons to outside world with its classical books. The ethical thought process in Vedantic ethos starts with Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis and Puranas. These were told in many ways with day to day life in epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and Gita. The ethical values were told in story form in Panchatantra, Hitopdesha, Katha- Saritsagaf, Bhoja prabhand, Chanakya Neeti, Bliagavata, Sooktimuktavali, Neeti Shastra, Neeti Shataka Manusmuti and the like.

(vii) Sacred simplicity of four goals to a man.

• Dharma – Righteousness
• Artha – Creation of wealth
• Kama – Desires and needs
• Moksha – Liberation of the spiritual core.

(viii) The ethos in work life are:

• Man’s inner strength. Simple livingHolistic relationship between man and nature
• Cooperation with each other
• Yoga and meditation. That is excellence and concentration.
• Spirit of sacrifice.

(ix) Internal orientation towards work as worship.

Ashramas are the stages of life which provide training and environment for realising the ideal of our life. There are four ashramas in all: Brahmacharya (student life), Garhasthya (family life), Vanaprastha (retired life), and Sannyasa (life of renunciation). The first two provide the training and environment for the Pravrtti Marg and the last two for the Nivrtti Marg of development.

Each stage has its own specific duties (Vishesha Dharmas). We will discuss the duties of a garhasthi (householder), a student (Brahmacharin), a retired person, and a renunciated person separately. Just as ashramas refer to specific duties in life, varnas refer to duties related to the four professional roles in life: the profession of scholarship, of defence and administration, of production and distribution, and of unskilled labour. Thus, along with ashramas, we will analyse the varnas too.

1. Brahmacharya Ashram

It is a specific period of education for all young persons before they can grow independent to work for life. At home, a child gets education in how to eat, walk, talk, dress, meet other people, and behave in their presence. In some castes and communities, a child also learns how to plough land, make shoes, do pottery work, ironsmith’s work, goldsmith’s work, carpentry work, and so on. But he does not get education in reading and writing or skilled and professional training.

He gets this education from teachers (gurus). During this period of education, he has to follow some ideals and live in a specific environment. In the ancient past, schools were boarding schools where a child was admitted at the age of 8-12 years, after following certain ceremonies and imparted knowledge, skills and crafts, general and physical education, and training in logic.

What was important was ‘comradeship’ between the teacher and the taught, skills, knowledge and dedication of the teacher, and commitment of students to certain values and ideals. The students were taught discipline of life during this stage and were asked to take four vows of sexual purity (to check sex indulgence), simplicity in food and dress (to generate a sense of equality, fraternity and independence), respect for and obedience to the teacher (to create discipline) and enjoying selfexertion in acquiring knowledge and offering prayer (reciting hymns and meditation) for the cooperation of the divine powers. Thus, chastity, simplicity, hard work, devotion to knowledge, and spiritual reality were the ideals of student life.

2. Garhasthya Ashram

This period of life covers an active period of ef­fective membership of society and covers 25 years of life after the first 25 years of education. This is householder’s life, a married life. The ideal marriage was considered one which was performed for moksha or final liberation and intellectual companionship through the performance of household duties, including upbringing of children and offering reverence (shradha) to ancestors.

Thus, by developing virtues of purity of heart, fidelity, chastity and mutual love, marriage is raised from being merely a biological association. Indian culture considers marriage not merely as an association but as absolute oneness. The marriage ceremony binds a man and a woman into a single complete being of which one half is the man and the other half is the woman.

The oneness is not to last for a lifetime but it is to be continuous birth after birth. Thus, since marriage is for spiritual ends of oneness (as different from union motivated by biological and social ends), it is regarded as a sacrament and not as a contract.

3. Vanaprastha Ashram

After the responsibilities to children are over, the parents are expected to take to social welfare work, so that they do not remain entrapped in moha (attachment). The idea is not to retire to forests and live in a place away from human habitation but to live in villages, away from thickly populated cities. Thus, the idea of third stage is to develop a new level of interest and action and not merely a retirement into a particular place.

The idea also is that people in far off places (villages) will get an opportunity to consult for their problems those who have spent their best years in that field. Even kings and rulers visited re­tired people for similar purposes. Thus, vanaprastha people were superior guides on social problems. The retirement of the old people (after 50 years of age, which is not a fixed age but is an average age which permits variations) also gives an opportunity to the youth to make experiments and contribute to the variety and richness of life.

Very late retirement of the ‘old’ denies the opportunity to the young of initiation into new fields of activity. Vanaprastha stage does not expect husband and wife to break up their relationship. It is left to the option of the couple. But they are ex­pected to lead an austere and ascetic life. The cultural importance of this third stage is that after enjoying physical pleasures when the body ages, a person experiences a sense of frustration and a sense of degeneracy. One wishes to return to bodily pleasures by artificial stimulation. By retiring, one is saved from frustrations. The decline in biological urges (sex, self-assertion, etc.) is compensated by interest in human welfare.

4. Sanyasa Ashram

Sanyasa is the final stage in life’s growth. It differs from the vanaprastha stage in two respects in the development of interests and in the development of motivation. While the dominant interest in grahasthya stage is the family, in vanaprastha stage it is human society as a whole, in sanyasa stage, the interest is the Universe with its universal consciousness. Interest in the universal consciousness is identification with total existence in its deepest being.

As regards motivation in grahasthya stage, the individual is motivated to seek the interest of members of family, while in the vanaprastha stage, he is motivated to work for the interest of a particular group or community or human society. In both cases, if interests are achieved, the grahasthi and the vanaprastha feel happy and experience pleasure; if not, they feel unhappy and experience pain. When motivation is related to an end, success or failure in them leads to pleasure or pain respectively.

Such actions are called interested actions, i.e., actions inspired by fruit of action. Contrary to these, action in sanyasa is disinterested action. Let us take the example of speaking truth. A person may speak truth when it pays him, another person may do so even if he has to lose by it. One does it (speaks truth) viewing it as a duty or a command that comes from conscience without the calculation of gains or losses, or even at the cost of his life.

Only a sanyasi will be motivated to perform a disinterested action which is not desirous of any fruits here or hereafter. The simple dress of a sanyasi symbolises the ideal of life for which he stands and lives. A sanyasi surrenders home and possessions because he perceives the whole Universe as his home. He is above fears, passions and hatred. Thus, sanyasa is not a life of inaction but a life of action risen to the highest level of motivation and widest interest.

It may, however, be noted that these stages of life are meant for aver­age persons. These are not necessary for a genius or for an extraordinarily gifted person. Persons like Tagore, (and Charles Dickens) never went to school. Persons like Shelley and Wordsworth did not have much college education and yet they were master poets. A genius can bypass any stage(s) and reach the highest stage.

Varnas: Four-fold Order of Society

Varna order is different from the caste system. While the latter is believed to be the greatest blot on Indian culture, since it has divided the society into conflicting camps, perpetrated harsh sufferings on a large section of the Indian people, and has made social justice difficult, or has proved socially monstrous, politically suicidal, morally obnoxious and economically disastrous, the former is the division of people into groups on the basis of aptitudes and abilities and vocations.

The Aptitudes and Abilities are Classified as Those:

(a) For scholarship

(b) For administration and defence

(c) For production and distribution

(d) For unskilled la- hour

The first group of people came to be called brahmins who were engaged in priestly function, teaching, medicine etc.; the second group Kshatriyas, who were engaged in fighting, ruling and administration; the third group vaishyas who were engaged in agriculture, trade and commerce; and the last group sudras who were engaged in unskilled work under the direction of the members of other three groups.

The Brahmins have the qualities of self restraint, austerity, purity, serenity, forgiveness, simplicity, wisdom and philosophic insight into truth and reality. The Kshatriyas have the qualities of courage, strength, firmness, skillfulness, charitableness, and administrative ability. The Vaishyas have the qualities of hard work, intelligence, and quick decision making. The Sudras lack abilities and aptitudes; hence they have to work under others’ direction and accept their authority and dominance.

The duties (dharmas) of Brahmins are: offering prayers, performing ceremonies and sacrifices, and teaching. The duties of Kshatriyas are: protecting people from external aggression and internal disturbances as well as governing them, punishing the wicked and contributing liberally for nation building institutions. The duties of Vaishyas are: engaging in agriculture, procuring commodities from others and selling them, rearing cattle and rendering help to the poor and the needy. The duties of Sudras are to do those things which others want them to do. Sudras are not per­mitted to read Vedas or observe Vedic rites or recite mantras (incantations).

Since a person or a group was entitled to a varna membership by satisfying the qualifications, any individual or a group could find a place in any of the varnas, if he/it satisfied the qualifications. Thus, membership of a varna was not determined by birth but by qualifications. A Sudra became a Brahmin in his life by sheer merit; a Brahmin became a Sudra if he did not study the Vedas; and so also a Kshatriya or a Vaishya. The Bhagwad Gita also states that the four varnas are constituted on the principle of guna, i.e., natural and acquired qualities and character, and karma, i.e., calling and profession.

Some scholars have, however, maintained that varna system was as rigid as caste system today. A few examples of upgrading of individuals mentioned in some early religious books (say, of Vasistha who was born of a prostitute, Vyasa of a fisher woman, Parasara of a low born girl) were exceptions rather than a rule.

Purushartha and Ashrama Vyavastha are closely linked with each other. These help in the conduct of human activities leading towards Moksha. Thus Ashrama and Purushartha systems run parallel to each other. Just like four Ashrama, there are four Purusharthas which are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Man is a thinking animal and all of his actions have some end or purpose behind these. We can distinguish between right and wrong behaviour on the basis of social values which are prevalent in society. Society lays down the standard of behaviour and permits human actions which are in right direction.

The standard of behaviour also restricts human actions which are socially considered incorrect and improper. The theory of Purushartha determines the values and a measuring-rod according to which human actions are to be performed or a avoided.

Literally speaking, Purushartha means those actions which are proper and correct. The aim of life of an individual is determined by the doctrine of Purushartha. It also decides the course of life of man and lays down norms and values for the behaviour patterns.

Purushartha means “Purusharthate Purushartha”, which are the efforts made by the individual to achieve the aims, goals and ultimate values of life. The ultimate end of Hindu culture is to attain ‘Moksha’ or salvation and hence, man should behave in such a manner that this aim may be achieved. By Purushartha we mean the pursuance of those actions which lead to the fulfillment of socially approved values and goal.

According to P.N. Prabhu, “The theory of Purusharthas concern themselves with the understanding, justification, management and conduct of affairs of the individual’s life in relation to the group in and through the Ashramas”. We speak of those Purusharthas as the psycho­moral bases of the Ashrama theory. Because on the one had, the individual receives a psychological training through the Ashramas in terms of lessons in the use and management of the Purusharthas, while on the other hand, in actual practice, he has to deal with society in accordance with these lessons.”

Prof. K.M’ Kapadia says, “According to this theory there are four Purusharthas or aims of life- Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. He is of the opinion that, ‘the theory of Purushartha thus seeks to co-ordinate material desires and spiritual life. It also tries to satisfy the sex of instinct in man his love of power and property, his thirst for an artistic and cultural life, his hunger for reunion with paramatman. It comprehends life as a whole, its hopes and aspirations, its acquisitions and enjoyment, its sublimation and spiritualization”

It is clear that Purushartha, according to Hindu Sastras, is the basis of Human life and it is to be regarded as basis on which the life of a man rotates. It is an amalgam of this worldliness. It coordinates the activities of a man for the realization of spirituality as well as for the maintenance of day to day life. The theory of Purushartha thus covers the total life of man. It finds concrete expression through the Ashrama system.

Different Purusharthas

There are four Purusharthas or aims of life namely Dharma., Artha, Kama and Moksha.

1. Dharma

The word Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhri’ which means to hold together or to preserve. Hence, the social implication of Dharma as a principle to maintain the stability of the society is brought out in various classical Hindu texts.

Dharma is so called because it protects all. Dharma preserves all that iscreated. Dharma, then, is surely that principle which is capable of preserving the universe. Dharma is for the welfare of mankind. It protects and preserves all human beings. Hence, Hindu view of Dharma is that it is the force of power which protects man from all kinds of dangers.

K.M Kapadia is of the view that Dharma provides a link between Artha and Kama. According to him, “Dharma is knowing that Kama and Artha are means and not ends “ He believes that if a person devotes all his energies to the satisfaction of basic urges then life becomes undesirable and even dangerous. Therefore, some power or force is required to regulate and control mankind. Dharma provides direction to the acquisitive and emotional drives in man and by enjoying life in this manner; Dharma brings about harmony between temporal interest and spiritual freedom. It provides a code of conduct through which man has to conduct his day-to-day life.

2. Artha

Artha means the economic and the material aspects of life. According to Zimmer, “it includes the whole range of tangible objects that can be possessed, enjoyed and lost and which are required in daily life for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family income and discharge of religious duties.” According to P. N. Prabhu, “Artha is to be understood as referring to all the means necessary for acquiring worldly prosperity such as wealth or power”.

According to К. M. Kapadia, “Artha refers to “the acquisitive instinct in man and signifies his acquisition, enjoyment of wealth and all that it connotes”. The old Hindu thinkers allowed the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate action.

Apart from this, Artha is desirable because it unfolds the spirituality of man only when he is not economically starved. A man has to maintain a household and perform the Dharma as a householder. Hence, Artha is necessary for the maintenance of life and the maintenance of Dharma.

3. Kama

Kama refers to all the desires in man for the enjoyment and satisfaction of the senses including sex and the drives to which man is prone to.

N. Prabhu writs, the term “Kama” refers to “the native impulses, instincts and desires of man; his natural mental tendencies, and finds its equivalent, we may say in the use of the English terms, ‘desires, ‘needs,’ basic or primary motives “According to him, the collective use of the term Kama would refer to the totality of the innate desires and drives of man.

Hence it is clear that Kama refers to the basic impulses and desires of man and it may also be used in a broader sense to include the motivation of man which is socially acquired. Hence, due importance is also given on Artha and Kama. These, when pursued in accordance with Dharma are the right functions of a man.

According to К. M. Kapadia, “Kama refers to the instinctive and emotional life of man, and provides for the satisfaction of his sex drives and aesthetic urges. Kama as the satisfaction of the instinctive life is recognized as one of the aims of marriage, along with Dharma and procreation”. Sex refers to procreation and it is regarded as the lowest aim of marriage. According to old classical Hindu thought, Kama does not mean sex life alone. It means emotional and aesthetic life also.

Another belief of Hindu thinkers is that it is necessary to satisfy the basic desires; their suppression will ultimately be a great source of hindrance in the attainment of salvation. Hence it is necessary to allow the satisfaction of sex for the healthy development of personality.

The theory Purushartha does not prohibit physical pleasure. On the contrary, Kama is prescribed for the development of inner and outer life of man.

The good of man consists in the harmonious co- ordination of the three, “Hence, it is clear that the well-being of man depends upon the harmonious blending of these three – Dharma, Artha and Kama. These three combined together are called Trivarga.

4. Moksha

The ultimate end of life is to attain Moksha. When a person performs the above mentioned three Purusharthas he can think of salvation. According Kapadia, “Moksha represents the end of life, the realization of an inner spirituality in man. Some thinkers believe that Moksha is the most important Purusartha and remaining three are only means while Moksha is end in itself.