Month: January 2021

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Trade Letters

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The letter that contains business related issues and information is called business or commercial letter. It refers to the letter in which business people or person exchange information with various business firms, customers, suppliers, employees, banks, insurance, companies, government agencies, business associations with aimed at selling or buying goods, obtaining information, placing orders, making inquiry etc and other related issues. Some important definitions of business letter are given below:

So, Business letter refers to formal written letter where business-related issues and information is exchanged with the suppliers, customers, clients, banks, insurance companies, government agencies or other external parts of the organization.

Essentials of a good business letter

The following are some of the important characteristics of a business letter.

  • Well defined objectives: There is an old saying an aimless ship never able to reach the destination. In case of business letter-a letter without specific objectives is meaningless. Thus, to be effective business leaders need to have well defined objectives.
  • Contact information: The header of the business letter includes the senders name, phone number, address and email address, which may be left or right justified or centered at the top of the page. This is followed by the date the letter was sent, which in turn is followed by the “inside address.” The inside address contains the recipient’s name, job title and company address.
  • Benefits: Discuss the benefits offer to the receiver or customer before the nuts-and-bolts basic information. Benefits to the customer could be tangible, such as saving money and having more choices in service packages or intangible but still more choices in service packages, or intangible but still valuable, including gaining peace of mind.
  • Brief description: Any business letter must be short. The significance of a short letter is that the person reading the letter must understand the significance of the letter in the minimum possible lines. This is usually done in order to save time and energy of the receiver of the letter.
  • Definite structure: The structure or main text of a business letter is typically divided into three sections: the introduction, the body and the closing. Introductory paragraphs should be brief and explain the letter’s intent. The body should elaborate on that intent and may include facts and statistics, descriptions and or explanations. The closing should thank the recipient for his time and include a “call to action,” which indicates the next step in the communication process, such as a phone call or a scheduled meeting.
  • Positive approach: The writer has to be optimistic regarding the achievement of the goal. Thus, throughout the letter a positive tone must be present. Positive approach not only helps to convince the reader but also express the confidence of the writer.
  • Courtesy: The tone of the letter is another very important aspect of the letter. The letter must sound polite, courteous and firm. The letter should also sound convincing the must have a polite tone.
  • Coherence: Factually the business letter must be relevant and the facts and thoughts should be presented in a very systematic manner.
  • You-attitude: To ensure effective writing the writer should put himself or herself in the reader’s place and then try to realize how the reader will respond to the letter. The ‘you attitude’ emphasis on the readers rather than the writer. Example of you-attitude is as follows: I or we attitude: I will give you a 10 % discount. You-attitude: You can get a 10 % discount.
  • Clearness: A business letter must be readable and clear. If the reader of a business letter fails to understand the message, it will matter little to him. So the messages of the letter must be clear in meaning.
  • Relevance: One of the important qualities of a business letter is relevance. The writer of a business letter should avoid the irrelevant matter that can vex the reader’s mind. So, unnecessary words should be avoided.
  • Simplicity: A good business letter should be simple and easy. The writer of a business letter should use simple language in drafting a letter so that the reader can easily understand the meaning and significance of the letter.
  • Free from error: A business letter should be free from all kinds of errors. So, the writer should be aware of spelling, grammatical sense and letter style in drafting a business letter.
  • Appropriate timing: Appropriate timing is one of the important qualities of a good business letter. All letters must be sent and replied at the most appropriate time.
  • Clear concept: If the writer does not have a clear concept about the subject matter then it will be very difficult on his or her part to make the subject matter understandable to the reader.
  • Evaluation of the reader’s position: This is perhaps the most important thing that should be taken into consideration to draft an effective letter. The attitude, cultural and religious background, educational level, level of understanding etc. If the reader is likely to be different from those of the writer. That is why to be successful the writer must try to get an idea about the aforesaid aspects of the reader.
  • Accuracy or correctness: There is nothing painful than preparing a letter with wrong information. It not only fails to achieve the goal but also detrimental for the goodwill of the firm. Thus, correctness of the message must be ensured.
  • Completeness: It means messages should be presented in such a way that helps the reader to understand what the writer actually wanted to convey. Incomplete messages not only create confusion but also can damage the mutual relationship.
  • Persuasion: To convince the reader or to motivate him or her to do some favor business letters must be written in a persuasive tone.
  • Use of simple language: To be effective business letter should avoid the use of difficult words and jargons. Simple and plain language should be used to clarify the message.

Writing:

Beginning the Letter

  • Know the format: There are some business standards that need to be followed. One must use a common font to type a business letter. One must use indentation, paragraphs, margins, etc. The text must be typed in black color only.
  • Choose the Right Kind of Paper: One must print a letter in a letter-sized paper. The standard size of the paper is A4.
  • Include information about the Company: One must clearly state the name and the address of the company. Try to use a letterhead of the company for any business use.
  • Include the date: Writing the date helps the person to have a record of the on-going business.
  • Add the Recipient’s Information: In a business letter, one must clearly type the name, address, and job title of the recipient to remove any ambiguity.
  • Choose a Salutation: It is a way of showing respect towards the recipient. One can also use ‘To Whom It May Concern’ if he doesn’t know the person addressed.

Composing the Body

  • Strike the Right Tone: The tone of the letter must be formal, clear and polite. Do not use fancy, lengthy, and big words. One must be persuasive in the letter.
  • Use of Personal Pronoun: One can use personal pronouns in a business letter. If writing on behalf of the organization one must use ‘we’ instead of ‘I’.
  • Write Precisely and Clearly: The content of the letter must be precise, clear, brief, and easily understandable.
  • Use the Active Voice: Always write your letter in an active voice.
  • Be Courteous: Always write a letter in a polite and respectful way. Always use courteous words.
  • Use Additional Pages: If the matter is not fitting in one page of the letterhead, use the second page. One must keep in mind to include the page number on the second and subsequent pages.

Closing the Letter

  • Choose a Closing: One must use a proper closing in a business letter. Use a comma (,) after it.
  • Sign the Letter: Always sign the letter in ink. If sending a printed copy, always affix the scanned signature.
  • Make Note of Enclosure: One must properly enclose a list of attached documents with the letter. One can use the abbreviation of the enclosure, i.e., Encl. or Enc.
  • Use of C.C.: For persons other than the recipient, include their name on the letter by typing C.C.
Management Notes

Appraisal interview

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An appraisal interview is a formal discussion process between an employee and his/her manager. It is one of the best ways for an employee to increase productivity and change work habits. In appraisal interview, the employer and the employee discuss the performances of the individual and the key areas of improvement and how the employee can grow through a feedback mechanism.

A performance appraisal interview is the first stage of the performance appraisal process and involves the employee and his or her manager sitting face to face to discuss threadbare all aspects of the employee’s performance and thrash out any differences in perception or evaluation. The performance appraisal interview provides the employee with a chance to defend himself or herself against poor evaluation by the manager and also gives the manager a chance to explain what he or she thinks about the employee’s performance.

In a nutshell, the performance appraisal interview precedes the normalization process and is subsequent to the employee filling up the evaluation form and the manager likewise doing so. The interview is the stage where both sides debate and argue the employees’ side of the story as well as the manager’s perception.

An appraisal interview gives the employee the chance to shield himself/herself from poor evaluation by the manager. It also gives the manager an opportunity to spell out his/her reviews. It helps the employees to determine whether there is a need for training if they lack in any particular skill and who will be promoted, demoted, retained or fired.

Guidelines for conducting Appraisal Interviews

The following things should be kept in minds while conducting appraisal interviews:

  • Value employee’s opinion: Encourage the employee to talk. Ask his/her opinion to improve the situation.
  • Don’t tiptoe around: Make sure the employee gets to know what he/she is doing correctly or incorrectly. Advise the employee on how to improve things.
  • Use of work data: Use of actual numbers like productivity reports, leaves, orders and so on.
  • Don’t get personal: Try and avoid negative sentences that directly affects the employee. Compare the employee’s performance with a standard not with other people.

The Right and Wrong Way to Approach a Performance Appraisal Interview

The performance appraisal interview must be taken seriously and both the employee and the manager must set aside time to go through the process. The manager cannot arbitrarily change the time or the venue and must not approach the interview in a haphazard manner. Despite all these injunctions, it is often the case that the manager has to be reminded about the interview and then he or she hurriedly arranges the meeting. This is definitely the wrong way to approach the interview. Further, the manager must make the time to go through the employees’ self-evaluation and rate the same objectively.

Though there is no right way to conduct the performance appraisal interview, it is incumbent upon the manager to avoid the pitfalls described above. A rule of thumb would be set aside a few days to conduct all the interviews with members of his or her team and ensure follow-ups to the process. The follow-up is needed when the employee is not satisfied with the interview discussion and hence requests for additional time to debate the rating. In some cases, the HR manager may need to step in to ensure that the process is concluded to the satisfaction of the employee and the manager.

Objective Evaluation versus Personal Biases

Though management theorists like to propound the benefits of objective evaluation, it is a fact in contemporary organizations that an element of personal bias enters the evaluation. This is evident from the studies and surveys done by HR consultants like Hewitt that point to the employee’s dissatisfaction with the performance appraisal process as one of the main reasons for leaving the company. To curb the incidence of biases and heuristics playing a role in the appraisal, HR managers typically conduct orientations and trainings to both the Managers and the Employees to sensitize them to these dangers that are sometimes inherent in the process.

On the other hand, the employees should approach the process without unrealistic expectations and expect the Manager to agree to whatever they write on the performance evaluation form. Hence, there is a need for both sides in the interview process to approach the same with an open mind and be as objective as possible. However, this is easier said than done and hence organizations expend resources on making the process as transparent and objective as possible.

Management Notes

Conference Meaning and importance organizing a conference

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A conference is a meeting of people who “confer” about a topic. Conference types include:

Physical

  • Academic conference, in science and academic, a formal event where researchers present results, workshops, and other activities.
  • Athletic conference, a competitive grouping of teams, often geographical
  • Authors’ conference, or writers’ conference, where writers gather to review their written works and suggest improvements
  • Conference call, in telecommunications, a call with more than two participants at the same time
  • Conference hall, room where conferences are held
  • Convention (meeting), meeting of a, usually large, group of individuals and/or companies in a certain field
  • Conference, between the two houses of a bicameral legislature
  • News conference, an announcement to the press (print, radio, television) with the expectation of questions, about the announced matter
  • Parent-teacher conference, a meeting with a child’s teacher to discuss grades and school performance
  • Peace conference, a diplomatic meeting to end conflict
  • Professional conference, a meeting of professionals in a given subject or profession dealing with related matters or developments
  • Settlement conference, a meeting between the plaintiff and the respondent in lawsuit, wherein they try to settle their dispute without proceeding to trial
  • Trade fair, or trade conference
  • Unconference, or open space conference, who avoids meeting [with more persons], a participant-driven meeting that tries to avoid one or more aspects of a conventional conference

Virtual

  • Video conference, with the reception and transmission of audio-video signals by users at different locations.

The Role of Conferences

The role of a conference is to gather like-minded individuals from across the country or across the globe, to learn, discuss thoughts, network, share ideas, create new ideas, and to ignite motivation. The benefits of attending a conference are different for everyone. By attending a conference, individuals are expanding their professional and personal development, and are provided with insightful information that couldn’t be taught internally from within the organization or online.

The Advantages of Attending Conferences

Fresh Perspective: There are many advantages to attending conferences. As Dr. Stephen Covey so eloquently says, “We must never become too busy sawing to take time to sharpen the saw.” Sharpen the Saw meaning preserving and enhancing the greatest asset an individual has – which is themselves. By seeking continuous improvement and renewal professionally and personally, an individual keeps themselves sharp. Essentially the analogy is saying that sometimes individuals must step away from the “work” of their work in order to sharpen their work skills. There is no better opportunity to sharpen one’s skills than at a conference.

Networking: Developing a strong professional network has become one of the key prerequisites for professional success. In fact, research indicates that successful managers spend 70% more-time networking than their less successful counterparts and that people with rich social networks are better informed, more creative, more efficient, and better problem-solvers than those with limited social networks. Industry conferences provide a tremendous opportunity to network. Attendees from other companies and from other areas of the country can become valuable resources for referrals, new ways of thinking, solutions, and best practices.

Learning: Another advantage of conferences is that they provide a blended learning environment with multiple opportunities for individuals to learn and engage in a wide array of formats. Conferences typically provide special guest speakers, breakout sessions, one-on-one engagements, group outings, and events for social interaction. The learning facet of a conference can expose attendees to new ways of operating and can help them discover ways to be even more productive. Whichever way an individual learns best, there are multiple ways to learn something new and impactful.

Spark New Ideas: Conferences are a great way for employees to be inspired by fresh ideas, to start rethinking the status quo, and to hopefully leave ready to tackle business challenges in creative and innovative ways. Conferences also allow individuals to share their progress, hurdles they’ve come across, and techniques devised for solving them. After hearing from leading experts and visionaries on how they found success, attendees are inspired and encouraged to think outside the box, which leads to successful outcomes for the organization.

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Drafting of Notice

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The word notice has come from the Latin word notitia meaning knowledge. Notice, therefore, means ‘a warning or intima­tion of something’. It is also defined as ‘a written or printed announcement’. The word notice, therefore, has two aspects it may be an intimation or information and it may be a kind of warning. A notice may be general or confidential.

The persons entitled to attend a meeting must be informed of the time, place, date and business of the meeting in proper time.

The communication informing the persons entitled to attend the meeting about time, place, date and business of the meeting is called the ‘notice’.

To make the meeting valid, the notice must be served by the right person by the right means to all the persons entitled to attend the meeting. Usually, the notice is drafted and issued by the Secretary under the instruction of the Director of the company. A notice, in order to be valid, must be signed by the proper authority.

The requisites of the meeting can be classified into the following classes:

  1. The notice must specify the exact date, time and place of the meeting.
  2. The notice must state the nature of business to be transacted at the meeting. A complete agenda is appended to the notice.
  3. The notice should be served to all members entitled to attend the meeting.
  4. The notice must be clear and unconditional.
  5. Proper length of notice must be given in accordance with the rules of the organisation.

Intimation of Notice:

Various kinds of intimation or information have to be sent from office to the inmates of an office, to the members of the organisation to which the office belongs or to outsiders. In the first category come notices issued declaring a holiday or introduction of some new or modified office rule, e.g. change of office hours, etc.

Sometimes notices have to be displayed at specific places under some statute, For example, a factory manager has to display a notice for safety measures in a factory subject to the rules as under Sec. 108 of the Factories Act, 1948. A notice may be meant for the general staff or may be served on an individual, e.g. ‘discharge notice’.

Notice under the second category means a notice for a general meeting issued to the members of a company. This type of notice has to be sent by post or even published in newspapers. Under the third category we find different kinds of notices including announcements.

For example, a tender notice inviting quotations from suppliers, either published in newspapers or hung up on the notice board in the office. An announcement in newspapers on change of office address or opening of a branch is a notice of this category.

Drafting of Notice:

Whatever may be the category of notice, each has a form and style of writing.

A notice:

(1) must be written in a language understandable to those for whom it is meant. Sometimes there is a statutory direction too. For example, a notice under the Factories Act shall be written in English (as court language) and in a language understandable by the majority of the workers of the factory.

(2) It must convey a message clearly what was intended to be conveyed.

(3) A notice must be brief and avoid unnecessary words.

(4) A notice must be drafted according to a form. That form may be a statutory form.

(5) It shall be signed by some authoritative person.

(6) It shall normally bear a date.

(7) A confidential or individual notice or any public notice having legal implications must be drafted by a lawyer. A qualified secretary is expected to have the competence for the same.

Drafting and Issue of Notices for Meetings:

Notice has to be drafted and issued for every kind of private meeting.

There are two distinct kinds of forms for the purpose:

(1) Form No. 1:

In case of a notice for a meeting of a committee like an Executive Committee or Managing Committee or Board of Directors, etc., the notice is in the form of a letter.

(2) Form No. 2:

In case of a notice for a meeting of a general body of members of an organisation, the notice is in the form of a circular with some special features.

Specimen 1: Notice for the first Board Meeting of a Company.

XYZ Co. Ltd

Reg. Off_______________

November 17, 1988

________________

(Director)

Dear Sir,

          The first meeting of the Board of Directors of the Company will be held on Saturday 25.11.88 at 12 Noon at the registered office of the Company to transact the following business.

You are requested to attend the meeting.

Yours faithfully,

________________

Secretary

Agenda:

(1) Election of the Chairman of the meeting.

(2) Adoption of the Memorandum of Association, the Articles of Association, and the Certificate of Incorporation of the Company to be presented by the Secretary.

(3) Adoption of the Common Seal of the Company.

(4) Appointment of the first directors of the Company.

(5) Election of the Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Company.

(6) Appointment of the Secretary of the Company with retrospec­tive effect.

(7) Appointment of the Bankers of the Company.

(8) Appointment of the first Auditors of the Company.

(9) Appointment of the legal adviser of the Company.

(10) Adoption of all the preliminary contracts and preliminary expenses made by the promoters of the Company.

(11) Approval of the Draft Prospectus to be presented by the Secretary.

(12) Consideration of the Application to be made to the Controller of Capital Issue.

(13) Consideration of the Application to be made to the Calcutta Stock Exchange for the enlistment of the Shares in the Company.

(14) Approval of the Specimen Share Certificate to be presented by the Secretary.

(15) Determination of the quorum for Board meetings of the Company.

(16) Fixing the date of the next meeting of the Board.

(17) Any other business with the permission of the Chairman.

Management Notes

Resolutions, Meaning and Types, Registration of resolutions

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Resolutions in corporate meetings are formal decisions passed by a company’s board of directors or shareholders. They are legally binding and serve as documented evidence of the company’s decisions regarding its governance, operations, or strategic plans. Resolutions are integral to corporate decision-making and are required for actions that need the approval of shareholders, directors, or other stakeholders. These resolutions ensure compliance with laws, transparency, and accountability.

Types of Corporate Resolutions:

  • Ordinary Resolution

Ordinary resolution is the most common type of resolution passed at a company’s general meeting. It requires a simple majority—that is, more than 50% of the votes cast by members present and entitled to vote—for approval. Ordinary resolutions cover routine business decisions such as approving annual financial statements, declaring dividends, appointing or reappointing directors and auditors, and approving the remuneration of directors. These resolutions are generally straightforward and do not require special notice. Once passed, they become legally binding and enable the company to carry out ordinary business activities. Ordinary resolutions promote democratic decision-making by reflecting the majority opinion of shareholders on regular company affairs.

  • Special Resolution

Special resolution requires a higher level of approval—typically at least 75% of the votes cast—to pass. This type of resolution is necessary for major decisions that affect the company’s structure or fundamental policies. Examples include altering the company’s Articles of Association, changing the company’s name, reducing share capital, approving mergers or acquisitions, or winding up the company voluntarily. Special resolutions usually require prior notice to members, often specifying the intention to propose such a resolution. The higher voting threshold protects minority shareholders by ensuring that significant changes cannot be made without broad consensus, safeguarding their interests and ensuring corporate stability.

  • Board Resolution

Board resolution is passed during meetings of the company’s Board of Directors. It authorizes decisions related to the management and day-to-day operations of the company. Common examples include approving contracts, opening bank accounts, appointing officers or key executives, authorizing borrowing, or implementing company policies. Board resolutions typically require a majority of directors present and voting to pass. These resolutions enable the board to act collectively and officially document their decisions. Board resolutions are essential for maintaining proper governance and ensuring that managerial actions are authorized and legally valid, providing clarity and accountability in corporate management.

  • Unanimous Resolution

Unanimous resolution is one agreed upon by all members entitled to vote without any opposition. It is often used in small or closely held companies where all shareholders must consent to decisions, ensuring total agreement. Unanimous resolutions may be passed outside formal meetings, via written consent, and are legally binding. This type of resolution is important when the company wants to take swift decisions without convening a meeting, or when unanimity is required by the company’s governing documents for certain actions. Unanimous resolutions provide certainty and prevent disputes by reflecting the collective agreement of all shareholders.

Registration of Resolutions:

Registration of resolutions refers to the formal process of recording and filing the decisions made by the company’s general meetings or board meetings with appropriate governmental or regulatory bodies, such as the Registrar of Companies (RoC) in India. This process involves preparing official documents that detail the resolution, getting them signed and certified, and submitting them within prescribed timelines.

The registration serves multiple purposes:

  • It makes the resolution legally binding.
  • It ensures transparency and public disclosure.
  • It protects the company and its members by providing a formal record.
  • It facilitates regulatory oversight to prevent fraud or misuse of corporate powers.

Types of Resolutions Subject to Registration

Not all resolutions require registration. Generally, special resolutions and some ordinary resolutions that affect the company’s constitution or statutory compliance must be registered. Examples include:

  • Amendments to the Memorandum of Association (MoA) or Articles of Association (AoA)
  • Changes in the company’s name
  • Increase or reduction of share capital
  • Approval of mergers, demergers, or acquisitions
  • Voluntary winding up of the company
  • Appointment or removal of auditors in some jurisdictions

Ordinary business resolutions like approval of annual financial statements or appointment of directors typically do not require registration, though they must be recorded in the company’s minutes.

Process of Registration:

The registration process typically involves the following steps:

  • Passing the Resolution: The resolution must be passed in a validly convened meeting with the required quorum and voting majority.

  • Recording Minutes: The company secretary or authorized person records the minutes, including the text of the resolution.

  • Certification: The resolution and minutes are signed and certified by the chairman or company secretary.

  • Preparation of Filing Documents: The company prepares the required forms and attaches certified copies of the resolution and any supporting documents.

  • Submission to Registrar: The forms and documents are submitted electronically or physically to the Registrar of Companies or relevant authority within the prescribed time.

  • Acknowledgment and Registration: Upon acceptance, the Registrar registers the resolution and issues an acknowledgment or certificate.

Importance of Registration:

Registration of resolutions is crucial for multiple reasons:

  • Legal Validity: Registered resolutions are legally enforceable. Unregistered resolutions may be challenged in court, potentially invalidating company decisions.

  • Public Record: Registration ensures that key decisions are part of the public record, allowing shareholders, creditors, and other stakeholders to access them. This transparency builds trust and accountability.

  • Compliance and Governance: Proper registration demonstrates compliance with statutory requirements, reducing the risk of penalties and enhancing corporate governance.

  • Facilitates Future Transactions: Registered resolutions often form the basis for legal actions like share transfers, borrowing, or contracts with third parties.

Drafting and Passing Resolutions:

Corporate resolutions must be clearly worded and include:

  • The title indicating the type of resolution.
  • A statement of purpose or intent.
  • The details of the decision being approved.
  • The names of members/directors involved in the voting process.

Resolutions are passed through voting mechanisms, such as:

  • Show of Hands: Common for ordinary resolutions.
  • Poll: Ensures weighted voting based on shareholding.
  • Postal Ballot/Electronic Voting: Used for decisions requiring broader shareholder involvement.
University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Role of the Chairperson in Meeting

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Duty 1. According to Rules:

It is the duty of the chairman to see that the proceedings are carried on strictly according to the rules.

Duty 2. The Meeting is in Order:

First of all, the chairman shall see that the meeting itself is in order and for that the following points have to be taken into consideration:

(a) That a proper notice has been sent to all the persons entitled to receive a notice.

(b) That only those persons who are entitled are present at the meeting.

(c) That his own appointment is in order.

(d) That the quorum of members is present.

(e) If there is want of quorum at the beginning and the quorum is not present within half an hour then the chairman is to see that the meeting is adjourned.

Duty 3. Within the Scope of the Meeting:

It is his duty to see that the participants do not raise discussions or suggestion of amendments or otherwise on any matter which is not within the scope of the meeting.

Duty 4. Agenda is Followed:

The chairman shall see that the busi­ness at a meeting is conducted in the order as given in the agenda. He may vary the order with the consent of the meeting. When he finds that some important item is placed at the bottom of the agenda which needs discussion on the day and within the presence of the largest number of participants, but much time has passed in taking up a few items at the top, he changes the order.

Duty 5. Maintenance of Order:

A major duty of the chairman is to see that perfect order and tranquility prevail at the meeting). Unless there is perfect order, the business of the meeting cannot be con­ducted smoothly and timely. The participants may cause disorder by making adverse remarks on one another, by personal talks while dis­cussion is going on, by disobeying the orders or rulings of the chairman, by violating the rules of the meeting, etc. The chairman has powers to take steps to maintain order, discipline and decorum at the meeting.

Duty 6. Discussion on Motions Only:

Further, the chairman shall also see that the participants do not discuss anything for which specific motion is not before the house.

Duty 7. Accurate Voting:

Another major duty of the chairman is to see that the sense of the house is properly ascertained. It means that voting is conducted perfectly and the results are declared accor­dingly. In case a special resolution is necessary, he shall see that the difference of votes is correct. He has to ask the secretary to arrange poll when it is demanded. In counting votes the chairman takes the help of the secretary as well as of the ‘tellers” appointed by him.

Duty 8. Opportunity to Speak:

The chairman shall see that every participant gets reasonable opportunity to speak. Generally, he does not allow one individual to speak more than once on the same topic unless he is compelled to explain something what he has already said. The chairman must see that persons belonging to the minority group, if any, and whatever small number they may have, are given oppor­tunities to place their views.

Duty 9. Other Duties:

The chairman has some other formal duties.

For example:

(a) If he is elected a pro tem chairman, his duty is to vacate when, the fixed chairman arrives.

(b) He shall not be partial in his behaviour and shall exercise his casting vote, if any, very selectively.

(c) He shall lend patient hearing to every-body, whether the views expressed are liked or disliked by him.

(d) He has to see that the business of the meeting be completed within the shortest possible time.

(e) He shall comply with the requests of the participants for adjourning the meeting.

(f) He has to give satisfactory replies to the questions raised by members on his speech, if any.

(g) He shall exercise his powers reasonably.

Duty 10. Minutes are Kept:

It is the duty of the chairman to con­firm the minutes, by putting his signature, prepared by the secretary after the meeting is over. Similarly, the chairman shall see that the secretary takes necessary notes at a meeting so that minutes can be subsequently prepared. The chairman himself puts down notes on the detailed agenda sheet for the purpose.

Non-compliance with Duties:

If a chairman does not comply with his duties then the participants as a whole or in part may stage a walk-out as a mark of protest. This we often find in an Assembly or in Parliament. If he is a temporary chairman, elected at the meeting, he may be removed by the participants.

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Role of the Participants in the Meeting

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The participants of a meeting other than the chairperson attend the meeting not just complete the quorum. They have also some responsibilities and can make some positive contribution there. The members can play important roles in making the meeting and its proceedings worthwhile. The followings are the important points to the followed by the participants in meeting.

Taking preparation for the meeting: Whoever is the participant of the meeting must take necessary preparation before attending the meeting. In taking preparation the following points should be

Considered:

  1. Do homework:

Once the purpose of a meet is known, the attendee has to visualize his/her role and gather information and inputs for use in the meet to make it productive. He/she may consult other members to allocate roles.

  1. Be punctual:

We in India have to specially stress the need to be on time. Our trains, buses and airplanes will run on time when we learn to be punctual for routine meets.

  1. Participate actively:

A member should listen carefully (so that he may be able to summaries what is being said). He should plan what to speak and say it concisely and precisely.

  1. PREP formula:

He should be rational and forceful. PREP means:

  • State your Position
  • Reason it out
  • Give Examples
  • Restate your Position
  1. Showcase your talent:

A meet is an opportunity to showcase one’s talent and get credit for giving useful ideas.

  1. Take initiative:

There may be occasions when a member may propose a motion or second a motion when it sounds right. This requires quickness. Francis Bacon says, “Conference makes a ready man.”

  1. Follow rules:

He should speak when permitted to. He should avoid cross-talk.

  1. Take responsibility:

When tasks are being assigned, a member should come forward to take up suitable responsibilities. If a task is assigned to him/her, then a willing acceptance is also a sign of dynamism.

  1. Disagree agreeably:

All differences should be expressed with courtesy and a friendly feeling.

  1. Help to steer the meet:

If the meeting is going off the track, he/she may remind the chairman to keep it on course.

  1. Stay related to previous discussion:

Any contribution to the meeting must be made in the context of the previous discussion. An idea that is already proposed need not be repeated, but one can amend it or improve it.

  1. Be involved:

The member should, in his higher self-interest, be involved in collectivism. A good participant becomes a good leader just as a good soldier makes a good general.

Management Notes

Selection interview

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One of the assessments and evaluation techniques for a candidate is interview. It is a type of oral exami­nation. Selection interview is the next process to conduct of tests. Even though written tests and psy­chological tests are conducted, still one-to-one communication between individuals always remains the crucial part in selection of a candidate. Behavioural traits, presence of mind and psychological bearing capacity can be tested through interview.

Selection interviews are typically conducted onsite at the hiring company. The purpose of a selection interview is to determine whether a candidate will be selected for the position he or she is interviewing for. A selection interview is typically more rigorous than a screening interview. At this point, a company is trying to decide whether or not you should either be moved to the next step in the hiring process or an offer is going to be extended, so there will be more scrutiny than with a screening interview.

Role of Interview in the Selection Procedure:

Critical Analysis of the Personality of Candidates:

As the candidate is going to be in front of the interviewer or a panel, face-to-face communication is facilitated. The interviewer can observe the behaviour, style, approach, promptness and sharpness of the candidate.

Providing Details about the Company to the Candidate:

As the company would like to know the detailed information about the candidate, the same way, the candidate is also eager to know about the work culture, the nature of the job, working schedules, etc., in the company. Interview provides the opportunity to the candidate to know more about the company.

Accurate Final Selection:

Interview facilitates to obtain additional information about the candidate through personal contact. After the detailed scrutiny of all the information about the candidate, the final selection can be made easily.

Use of Experience and Knowledge of Expert Interviewers:

Whenever the interviews are conducted, there is generally a panel of interviewers consisting of more than three members. All of them are working for the company for a long time, and when the selection interview takes place, it is their knowledge and experience which is going to give the best results in terms of a suitable and appropriate candidate.

Types of Interview:

Informal interview:

There is no specific procedure followed in this case. They are conducted at any place, and any types of questions can be asked to the candidate.

Formal Interview:

It is held in formal atmosphere with pre-decided and planned procedures and questions.

Situation Interview:

An imaginary situation is told to the candidates and they are asked to respond to it.

Stress Interview:

It is conducted to evaluate the behaviour of the candidate under stressful conditions. How does a can­didate react to stress? Whether they remains quiet and calm or becomes stressed, can be judged by creating different stressful conditions around, and the case with which they gets out of it indicates their stress-handling capacity in future.

Directive Interview:

It is structured interview. A same set of questions is repeated for every candidate to make the compari­son among the answers received from them.

Non-directive Interview:

It is non-structured interview. There is no specific format, and any questions can be asked to candidates. Candidates are free to express themselves under this type.

Panel Interview:

A selection committee appointed for interviewing candidates is called a panel. It generally consists of three or more members who collectively perform the task of selection. The final decision is taken with the consent of all panel members.

Group Interview:

Candidates are supposed to form groups, and one group together will be interviewed at one time. It is a sort of group discussion. The person’s ability to lead, their presence of mind and communication can be evaluated under this technique.

Depth Interview:

All the minute details of important nature are asked to a candidate to have the extensive information about them.

University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Effective use of OHP in Presentation, Effective use of Transparencies

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An overhead projector (OHP), like a film or slide projector, uses light to project an enlarged image on a screen, allowing the view of a small document or picture to be shared with a large audience.

You may consider overhead projectors to be yesterday’s technology, but when you know you’ll be making a presentation in a facility that relies on them, you can set up an effective set of projection materials that work just as well as digitally projected output. Instead of carrying your presentation on a thumb drive or CD, plan on toting along a box of transparencies, as well as a few extras tools to add depth to your talk.

In the overhead projector, the source of the image is a page-sized sheet of transparent plastic film (also known as ‘foils’) with the image to be projected either printed or hand-written/drawn. These are placed on the glass platen of the projector, which has a light source below it and a projecting mirror and lens assembly above it (hence, ‘overhead’). They were widely used in education and business before the advent of video projectors.

Use in education

Overhead projectors were widely used in education and business before the advent of computer-based projection.

The overhead projector facilitates an easy low-cost interactive environment for educators. Teaching materials can be pre-printed on plastic sheets, upon which the educator can directly write using a non-permanent, washable color marking pen. This saves time, since the transparency can be pre-printed and used repetitively, rather than having materials written manually before each class.

The overhead is typically placed at a comfortable writing height for the educator and allows the educator to face the class, facilitating better communication between the students and teacher. The enlarging features of the projector allow the educator to write in a comfortable small script in a natural writing position rather than writing in an overly large script on a blackboard and having to constantly hold their arm out in midair to write on the blackboard.

When the transparency sheet is full of written or drawn material, it can simply be replaced with a new, fresh sheet with more pre-printed material, again saving class time vs a blackboard that would need to be erased and teaching materials rewritten by the educator. Following the class period, the transparencies are easily restored to their original unused state by washing off with soap and water.

Page Size

When you design a presentation for an overhead projector, you’ll want to set up your working document to match the size of the medium on which you’ll print it out. Regardless of whether you’re targeting a networked colour copier, laser or inkjet printer, the transparency film you buy comes in one size: 8.5 inches by 11 inches. Although you won’t want to crowd each sheet of film with more content than you can project legibly, you also don’t want to work on a document that doesn’t match your output dimensions.

Page Coverage

Especially if you plan to attach your transparencies to cardboard frames for easier handling, leave generous margins around your content to enhance its effectiveness when you project it. Just as you’d set up PowerPoint slides following the 7×7 rule no more than seven lines of type, each with no more than seven words add type sparingly to each page you prepare for overhead projection. Avoid simply summarizing your talk in a series of unedited bullet-point pages that add nothing to your message.

Blanks and Writing Tools

Because overhead transparencies accept hand-written annotations in grease pencil, you can plan ahead for those portions of your talk in which you ask your audience for comments. Adding blank sheets of film to your stack of printouts enables you to ask questions and record the replies. If you bring extra blanks with you, you can accommodate long sets of suggestions without resorting to too-small handwriting to write down all the input. Bring spare grease pencils so you don’t have to stop if your point wears down, as well as a paper towel to use as an eraser.

Paper Copies

To give yourself a convenient reference to what you’re projecting, print your entire set of overheads once on transparency film and again on plain bond paper. If you store your overheads in a box, you can interleave the paper copies with the transparencies. When you want to check what you’re about to project, or refer back to a previous transparency, you can look at your paper printouts instead of fumbling through a stack of plastic sheets in a darkened room. The paper copies also help protect your transparencies from static cling.

Advantages

Whether you prepare support materials for in-house or client presentations in Microsoft PowerPoint or pull together the equivalent of PowerPoint slides from a variety of applications, you want a projector solution that fits your budget and accommodates your needs. Overhead projectors may lack the high-tech appeal of LCD-based digital projectors, but they offer advantages that may make their time-tested design a good fit for your office.

Simple Technology

An overhead projector relies on a bright lamp that sends an image through a lens-and-mirror assembly onto a screen. With the exception of the fan that cools the lamp, these devices contain no moving parts. If you want to project movies and sound, an overhead projector won’t meet your needs, but it also doesn’t require cables and software troubleshooting, or force you to reboot a misbehaving computer to complete a presentation. Compared to computer-connected LCD projectors, overhead projectors provide uncomplicated service based on reliable low-tech components, and don’t require you to learn new technologies or skills.

Equipment Costs

Overhead projectors carry a price tag that can run from 10 percent to 50 percent of the cost of their LCD-based cousins. Both device types use specialized lamps, but the price differential continues when you evaluate their parts head-to-head. In some cases, you can buy a new overhead projector for the cost of an LCD projector lamp. If you present materials that don’t require computer projection of A/V content, an overhead projector will save you money, both when you buy it and over its functional life.

Transparencies

Transparency film may cost more than regular office paper, but it’s available at virtually any office-supply store, local or on the Web. If you prefer to purchase environmentally friendly materials, look for transparencies with recycled content. Regardless of whether you use a laser or inkjet printer, or direct your output to a networked colour copier, you’ll find a film product formulated for your device. You can prepare your transparencies well in advance of your presentation and reuse them each time you give the same talk. If parts of your message change, replace the outdated transparencies with new ones.

Annotations

Because overhead projectors display anything you print onto sheets of clear plastic material, their transparencies make it easy to annotate your presentation pages with comments you elicit from your audience or points of emphasis related to your data. With an inexpensive wax or grease pencil, you can write or draw on your transparencies during your talk and wipe the notes away with a tissue or paper towel. Overhead projectors can’t display anything through opaque materials, so you can cover parts of a transparency with a piece of cardboard and reveal your talking points one at a time, focusing audience attention.

Advantages of overhead transparencies

  • Transparencies are easy to make. Simply prepare your visual aid on paper and then copy it on a copier. But instead of copying onto blank paper, copy onto a transparency. This way you can make transparencies quickly, revise them quickly, and revise them often. You can also make them yourself, without waiting for a professional staff to produce them for you. This convenience often translates into whether people update their presentations or let them go stale.
  • They’re cheap. They cost only pennies a copy.
  • They ‘re portable. For most presentations, you can easily fit your transparencies in your briefcase with room to spare. This is no small matter if you travel often. If you use cardboard frames around your transparencies, you increase the bulk somewhat, but they’re still quite portable.
  • They let you be flexible. You can rearrange your presentation on the fly with the audience staring at you to meet new needs. For example, occasionally someone needs an answer now for something you planned to cover later. No problem: just reach for the appropriate transparency and press ahead.
  • You can write on them. Sometimes you don’t want the audience to see a static visual aid (like a ready-made equation); instead, you want to create it, step by step, as the audience watches. With a transparency, you can do that easily. Some pens are designed for that purpose. An added advantage is that you can easily erase your writing later with a damp paper towel (if you’re like me, however, you may walk around for a day or so with red or green or blue fingers).
  • You can see what’s next. Since most speakers handle their own transparencies, they can glance at the label on the next one and see what the next topic is. That’s a really important advantage; otherwise, part of your mind is constantly trying to remember what’s next. Sneak glances are no problem with overheads.
  • They can look extremely professional. Color printers and copiers can enhance your message by drawing attention to key features and providing a visually interesting (yet still unobtrusive) background. You can also reproduce colorful photographs on a transparency and have good resolution.
  • They can be informal if necessary. For an impromptu meeting with colleagues, you can simply hand print or hand draw your transparencies.

Disadvantages of using overhead transparencies

  • The projector may not be very good. Because overhead transparencies are the most popular visual aid, the equipment takes a beating. You’ll often find projectors that don’t focus well, have dim bulbs, or have no bulbs at all. That’s why I carry my own projector for local presentations. When I travel, I insist in advance on a good projector. Then, when I arrive at the place for my presentation, I go immediately to the projector and try it out. If it’s not good, I try to get another one.
  • The bulb can burn out. Many of today’s projectors have a spare bulb built in, but sometimes the spare is burned out, too. Presenters who have a bulb burn out switch to the spare and go on. They usually forget to tell the visual aids people that the overhead is now down to only one good bulb. If that one burns out, you’re left with none.

Many speakers consider the overhead transparency their first choice of visual aid unless they have a good reason not to use it. But there are many good reasons to use other visual aids, either separately or in conjunction with overhead transparencies.

Management Notes

Presentation

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A presentation is the process of communicating a topic to an audience. It is typically a demonstration, introduction, lecture, or speech meant to inform, persuade, inspire, motivate, or to build good will or to present a new idea or product. The term can also be used for a formal or ritualized introduction or offering, as with the presentation of a debutante. Presentations in certain formats are also known as keynote address.

Context

Ask yourself the following questions to develop a full understanding of the context of the presentation.

  • When and where will you deliver your presentation?

There is a world of difference between a small room with natural light and an informal setting, and a huge lecture room, lit with stage lights. The two require quite different presentations, and different techniques.

  • Will it be in a setting you are familiar with, or somewhere new?

If somewhere new, it would be worth trying to visit it in advance, or at least arriving early, to familiarise yourself with the room.

  • Will the presentation be within a formal or less formal setting?

A work setting will, more or less by definition, be more formal, but there are also various degrees of formality within that.

  • Will the presentation be to a small group or a large crowd?
  • Are you already familiar with the audience?

With a new audience, you will have to build rapport quickly and effectively, to get them on your side.

  • What equipment and technology will be available to you, and what will you be expected to use?

In particular, you will need to ask about microphones and whether you will be expected to stand in one place, or move around.

  • Check how you will be ‘billed’ to give you clues as to what information needs to be included in your presentation.

All these aspects will change the presentation. For more on this, see our page on Deciding the Presentation Method.

Visuals

A presentation program is often used to generate the presentation content, some of which also allow presentations to be developed collaboratively, e.g. using the Internet by geographically disparate collaborators. Presentation viewers can be used to combine content from different sources into one presentation. Some of the popular presentation products used across the globe are offered by Apple, Google and Microsoft.

Microsoft PowerPoint and Google Slides are effective tool to develop slides, though Google Slides allows groups to work together using Google Drive to update each account as it is edited. Content such as text, images, links, and effects are added into each of the presentation programs to deliver useful, consolidated information to a group.

A presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference.

To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.

A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a ‘persuasive’ element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.

Audience

The audience receives the presenter’s messages.

However, this reception will be filtered through and affected by such things as the listener’s own experience, knowledge and personal sense of values.

Message

The message or messages are delivered by the presenter to the audience.

The message is delivered not just by the spoken word (verbal communication) but can be augmented by techniques such as voice projection, body language, gestures, eye contact (non-verbal communication), and visual aids.

The message will also be affected by the audience’s expectations. For example, if you have been billed as speaking on one particular topic, and you choose to speak on another, the audience is unlikely to take your message on board even if you present very well. They will judge your presentation a failure, because you have not met their expectations.

Method

Presentations are usually delivered direct to an audience.  However, there may be occasions where they are delivered from a distance over the Internet using video conferencing systems, such as Skype.

It is also important to remember that if your talk is recorded and posted on the internet, then people may be able to access it for several years. This will mean that your contemporaneous references should be kept to a minimum.

Reaction

The audience’s reaction and therefore the success of the presentation will largely depend upon whether you, as presenter, effectively communicated your message, and whether it met their expectations.

As a presenter, you don’t control the audience’s expectations. What you can do is find out what they have been told about you by the conference organisers, and what they are expecting to hear. Only if you know that can you be confident of delivering something that will meet expectations.

Impediments

Many factors can influence the effectiveness of how your message is communicated to the audience.

For example, background noise or other distractions, an overly warm or cool room, or the time of day and state of audience alertness can all influence your audience’s level of concentration.

As presenter, you have to be prepared to cope with any such problems and try to keep your audience focussed on your message. 

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