Year: 2020

A wide range of interventions exist that address a variety of problems. Many of these interventions target symptomatology in caregivers, most commonly depression. Others address training caregivers in skills related to managing caregiver problems, such as disruptive behaviors in dementia, or pain in patients with cancer. Careful assessment of the caregiver needs to be completed before implementing any of these interventions because the focus of the intervention needs to address the particular needs of the caregiver.

For many of these clinical approaches, building skills in coping, problem-solving, increasing the rate of pleasant activity for the caregiver and/or care recipient are either the explicit goal of interventions or are the active ingredient in the interventions prescribed. Stress reduction through environmental modification is also a common focus of individual interventions.

Personal development interventions

There are many ways in which you can develop leadership skills, although individuals and organizations often struggle to identify ways to do so. This post looks at providing an overview of possible key interventions for personal development.

For each type of intervention, the following four questions need to be asked:

• Is this readily available to me?
• Is this of interest to me?
• Will it benefit me directly?
• Will it benefit the projects I work on and the organisation?

Below is a list of key interventions that can be implemented and it has been adapted from Project Leadership 3rd Edition, where this information is featured in more detail.

• Self-reflection: Creating space and time to reflect on your actions and reactions to events, so that you can understand what you can learn and increase self-awareness. This distinguishes high performers and requires commitment until it becomes habit. Mainstream examples include meditation and mindfulness.
• Reflective journal: Documenting your reflections in note form, diagrams or mind-maps. It helps to increase critical thought, understanding and follow-up.
• Personal performance management: Gaining insight into your own performance, as a result of appraisals, discussions with peers, seniors, mentors or coaches, or informal discussions. It should be used as a basis to plan further development to improve personal performance.
• Project experience: Working on projects is a necessary environment and support for learning to take place, as an opportunity to apply what has been learnt and gain critical experience.
• Self-study: Learning topics of interest and value. The internet has made available a vast array of materials which makes self-study easier.
• Feedback: Requesting and obtaining insight on personal performance from different perspectives. Be sure you want to receive feedback but note that often it is the negative and challenging feedback that helps us most.
• Coaching: Working through particular problems, on a one-to-one basis, provided by an internal or external coach. This helps to develop individuals to achieve the best performance possible.
• Mentoring: Providing advice and support, which typically comes from someone who has had similar experiences or responsibilities. This can help you work through your own issue or situation and can be done one to one, or one to many.
• Buddying: Informally supportive relationship, which is an opportunity to share and compare approaches and experiences with others. Typically this is to provide mutual support through a close association.
• Shadowing: Gaining insight from observing others, usually on a temporary basis. It is effective for individuals moving into a new role, who need to develop particular expertise.
• Secondment: Gaining experience in new environments, where an individual temporarily transfers to another role for a defined period of time.
• Training: Gaining knowledge and skills through a multiplicity of options; face to face, classroom based, distance and e-learning, simulation and gamification.
• Storytelling: Actively seeking out opportunities to listen to others who have specific insights, which may be beneficial to your own position.
• Communities of interest: Joining and participating in communities or groups of people who share a common interest, and who share their experience, knowledge, skills and learning.
• Professional body membership: Participating in the wider profession by belonging to a professional body. This provides access to policy makers, researchers and a network of contacts. Membership also provides recognition of your knowledge.
• Professional body qualification: Gaining formal qualifications or accreditations demonstrates your skill and commitment, increases your value and enhances your career prospects.
• Community investment initiative: Contributing to the wider society are opportunities for personal development, typically under the headings of ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ or ‘Business in the Community’.
• Organizational investment task: Investing time and energy to contribute to initiatives outside your immediate area and remit, are opportunities for networking and contributing to the wider organization.
• Networking: Interacting with others to exchange information and develop professional contacts. This broadens your horizons, and increases your exposure to different experiences, people and ways of working.
• Academic qualification: Obtaining knowledge and skills provides specialised development.
• Conferences and seminars: Attending events exposes you to new offerings and thinking. You can hear a variety of practitioners and researchers, as well as taking the opportunity to present your own experiences.

This list is neither mutually exclusive nor collectively exhaustive. Some people may value certain activities more than others and personal development should be about finding the best approach for each individual. In our experience, self-reflection is one of the most powerful but underrated activities.

Inter-group interventions are integrated into OD programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. For instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different units battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other units.

Conflict resolution meetings are one common inter-group intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to secure their commitment to the intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of intervention, say supporters, helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups that has arisen because of faulty communication.

OD joint activity interventions involve melding members of different groups to work together toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by finding an adversary common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to work together to overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies targeted in such programs include competitors, government regulation, and economic conditions.

Inter-group team building intervention intends to increase communications and interactions between work related groups to reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition and to replace a parochial independent point of view with an awareness of the necessity for interdependence of action calling on the best efforts of both the groups. Inter-group interventions are integrated into Organizational Development programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. For instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other departments. Conflict resolution meetings are one common inter-group intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to get their commitment to the intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of intervention helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups caused by lack of communication and misunderstanding.

Blake, Shepard and Mouton came up with a method which is used between groups that are strained and overly hostile. The process is to obtain commitment from the leaders of each group on their willingness to find procedures that will improve inter group relations. Groups are put in different rooms. The task of each group is to generate two lists. They should put down thoughts, attitudes, perceptions and feelings about the other group, predict what the other group will say about them. The groups come together and share their lists. No comments or discussions, only clarity. The groups reconvene to discuss their reactions to what they have learned about themselves from what the other group has said identify issues that still need to be resolved between the two groups. The two groups come together and share their lists, they set priorities, and they generate action steps and assign responsibilities. A follow up meeting is convened to ensure that the action steps have been taken. The method can be used with more than two groups where the hostility between the groups may not be extreme or severe. In this method, each group, separately compiles two types of lists namely a positive feedback list, a bug list and an empathy list. The two groups come together and share the lists; there is no discussion, except for seeking clarification. The total group generates a list of major problems and unresolved issues between the two groups. These issues are ranked in terms of importance. Sub groups are formed with members from each group, who then discuss and work through each item. The sub-groups report to the larger group. On the basis of the report back and all the other information gathered, the group proceeds to: generate action steps for resolving the conflict, assign responsibilities for each step and record a date by which the steps ought to have been carried out. With this method the two groups work together effectively.

Rotating membership

Such interventions are used by Organizational Development change agents to minimize the negative effects of inter-group rivalry that result from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival groups. As more people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results.  Organizational Development joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating membership approach, but it involves getting members of different groups to work together toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by finding an adversary common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to work together to overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies include competitors, government regulation, and economic conditions.

Characteristics of inter-group conflict

Inter group conflicts are characterized by perception of the other as the “enemy”, stereotyping, constipated, distorted and inaccurate communication and stoppage of feedback and data input. Each group begins to praise itself and its products more positively and believes that it can do no wrong and the other can do no right. There might even be acts of sabotage against the other group. Using the idea of a common enemy outside the group that both groups dislike to bring them closer, increasing interaction and communication under favorable conditions and finding a super – ordinate goal that both groups desire. Rotating members of the group, training, etc are helpful strategies that have been used to deal with inter-group conflict

Walton’s approach to third party peace making interventions

Walton’s approach to third party peace making interventions has a lot in common with group interventions but it is directed more towards, interpersonal conflict. Third party interventions involve confrontation and Walton outlines confrontation mechanisms. A major feature of these mechanisms is the ability to diagnose the problem accurately. The diagnostic model is based on four elements namely the conflict issues, precipitating circumstances, conflict-related acts and the consequences of the conflict. It is also important to know the source of the conflict. Sources could be substantive issues, which is conflict related to practices, scarce resources, and differing conceptions of roles and responsibilities. Sources of conflicts could also be emotional issues, involve feelings between the parties, such as anger, hurt, fear, resentment, etc. The former require bargaining and problem solving. The latter require restructuring perceptions and working through negative feelings. Ingredients of a productive confrontation include the following. Mutual positive motivation, which refers to the willingness on both parties resolve the conflict; Balance of power without any power differentials between the parties involved in a confrontation; Synchronization of confrontation efforts wherein the two parties address the conflict simultaneously; and Differentiation and integration of different phases of the intervention must be well paced. The intervention involves working through negative feelings and ambivalent positive feeling. The intervention must allow sufficient time for this process to take place. Conditions that promote openness should be created. This could be done through setting appropriate norms and creating a structure that encourages openness. Reliable communicative signal refers to using language that is understood by the parties involved in the confrontation. Optimum tension in the situation means that the stress experienced by both parties ought to be sufficient to motivate them but not too excessive. General principles on negotiation involve approaches to people, interests, options and criteria. People have different feelings and perceptions therefore it is important to separate people from feelings. Interest. Looking at party interests provide a vehicle for resolving conflict rather sticking to inflexible positions that entrench the conflict. Options ought to be generated in order to come up with best option for resolving conflict. Criteria for evaluating the success of the intervention ought to be clear and objective.

Almost everyone wants to build teams at work. But, the process of building teams and having them function successfully takes work. Teamwork requires a commitment to understanding yourself, understanding others, and developing teamwork skills.

• To understand yourself means that you are aware of emotions, personal needs, strengths, and weaknesses. Plus, you need to examine how you communicate and the roles you play within the team.
• To understand others involves a willingness to give and receive sensitive and constructive feedback.
• To develop teamwork skills, focus on supporting and listening to others, negotiating differences, and offering constructive feedback. These requirements are often unheard or only given lip service.

Teamwork is not something that develops spontaneously or easily. Team-based interventions provide an avenue for success. The Highlands Ability Battery (THAB) assessment measures natural abilities through work samples. The value of having an understanding of your hard-wired strengths, while developing a common team understanding, is immeasurable.

The assessment should be followed by individual feedback consultations. This provides a clear understanding to the team member about how they contribute, from the perspective of both strengths and challenges.

Types of Team Building Intervention

No team is “born” fully effective; it develops over time with ups and downs, successes and failures. Effective teamwork is essential to project, department and organizational success. It requires hard work, persistence and a committed team leader. Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher Nolan Ryan said, “My job is to give my team a chance to win.” This is also the job of a committed team leader. But sometimes, committed leaders need help addressing team dynamics.

1. Teamwork Effectiveness Problems

In his book “The Five Dysfunctions of a Team,” management consultant Patrick Lencioni identifies several “natural pitfalls” that can prevent a team from being effective. These pitfalls include a lack of trust among team members; destructive rather than constructive conflict; lack of commitment to the team; lack of accountability – the willingness of team members to accept responsibility for their behavior; and the failure of the team to produce results.

Team building intervention strategies may help teams avoid or recover from these pitfalls. The type of team building intervention used depends on the team’s composition and history, along with the nature and the severity of the problem. For an intervention to be effective, there must be ongoing follow-up to incorporate the lessons learned to the team’s daily work.

2. Skill-Based Team Intervention Strategies

Sometimes a team has problems because its members do not have the basic knowledge or skills they need to work together. Skill building interventions give members the opportunity to learn and practice team skills, such as leading a team meeting, reaching group consensus, improving team communications, constructively giving and receiving feedback, resolving conflicts, listening effectively and sharing information. These team building interventions are presented as a course in which all members participate and during which they develop action plans for practicing the needed skills.

3. Problem Solving Interventions

Problem solving interventions are most effective with a team that has a specific project problem or barrier to teamwork that is blocking progress. In these interventions, all team members meet at an off-site location with an outside facilitator and without the distraction of daily work. The facilitator’s job is to help the team explore and understand the problem in order to find a solution. Problem solving retreats are the most common form of team building intervention because the activity is immediately applied to the team’s daily work.

4. Personality-Based Interventions

Personality-based interventions focus in improving interpersonal skills among the team members. Members take personality or psychometric tests such as the Myers-Briggs Personality Type, Insights Team Dynamics, Enneagram or DISC assessments. The results are communicated to each team member and, in some instances, the entire team to help members understand and appreciate their own and their teammates’ personalities and interpersonal styles. Ideally, this understanding leads to better communication and improved team effectiveness.

5. Activity-Based Interventions

In activity-based interventions, team members participate in physical challenges, such as playing games, canoeing or hiking. The interventions focus on teamwork, problem solving, trust and risk taking. The activity addresses specific problems facing a team with the goal that the success achieved by working together in the activity will carry over into the team’s work.

Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis”. In other words, one of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to collaboration between researcher and member of organisation in order to solve organizational problems.

Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both, researcher and research being one part of that change. Generally, action researches can be divided into three categories: positivist, interpretive and critical.

1. Positivist approach to action research, also known as ‘classical action research’ perceives research as a social experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real world environment.
2. Interpretive action research, also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives business reality as socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and organizational factors when conducting the action research.
3. Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business processes and aims for improvements.

The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its suitability for any given study:

• It is applied in order to improve specific practices. Action research is based on action, evaluation and critical analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce improvements in relevant practices.
• This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of individuals with a common purpose
• Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context

Advantages of Action Research

• High level of practical relevance of the business research;
• Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data;
• Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research

• Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research and ensure the application of both;
• Delays in completion of action research due to a wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences
• Lack of repeatability and rigour

It is important to make a clear distinction between action research and consulting. Specifically, action research is greater than consulting in a way that action research includes both action and research, whereas business activities of consulting are limited action without the research.

Action Research Spiral

Action study is a participatory study consisting of spiral of following self-reflective cycles:

• Planning in order to initiate change
• Implementing the change (acting) and observing the process of implementation and consequences
• Reflecting on processes of change and re-planning
• Acting and observing
• Reflecting

Nature of Organizational Development

1. Organizational development is an educational strategy for bringing a planned change.
2. It is related to real problems of the organization.
3. Laboratory training methods based on experienced behaviour are primarily used to bring change.
4. O.D. uses change agent (or consultant) to guide and affect the change. The role of change agent is to guide groups towards more effective group processes rather than telling them what to do. Change agents simply assist the group in problem solving processes and the groups solve the problems themselves.
5. There is a close working relationship between change agents and the people who are being changed.
6. O.D. seeks to build problem-solving capacity by improving group dynamics and problem confrontation.
7. O.D. reaches into all aspects of the organization culture in order to make it more humanly responsive.
8. O.D. is a long term approach (of 3 to 5 years period) and is meant to elevate the organization to a higher level of functioning by improving the performance and satisfaction of organization members.
9. O.D. is broad-based and describes a variety of change programmes. It is concerned not only with changes in organizational design but also with changes in organizational philosophies, skills of individuals and groups.
10. O.D. is a dynamic process. It recognises that the goals of the organization change and hence the methods of attaining them should also change.
11. O.D. utilizes systems thinking. It is based on open, adptive systems concept. The organization is treated as an interrelated whole and no part of the organization can be changed without affecting other parts.
12. O.D. is research based. Change agents conduct surveys, collect data, evaluate and then decisions are taken.
13. O.D. uses group processes rather than individual process. It makes efforts to improve group performance.
14. O.D. is situational and contingency oriented.
15. Organization Development and Management Development are complementary rather then con­flicting.

Characteristics of OD

The salient characteristics of OD implied in its definitions are gleaned as follows:

• OD is a systematic approach to the planned change. It is structured style of diagnosing organizational problems and opportunities and then applying expertise to them.
• OD is grounded in solid research and theory. It involves the application of our knowledge of behavioral science to the challenge that the organizations face.
• OD recognizes the reciprocal relationship between individuals and organizations. It ac­knowledges that for organizations to change, individuals must change.
• OD is goal oriented. It is a process that seeks to improve both individual and organizational well- being and effectiveness.
• OD is designed to solve problems.

Objectives of OD

The main objectives of OD are to:

• Improve organizational performance as measured by profitability, market share, innovativeness, etc.
• Make organizations better adaptive to its environment which always keeps on changing.
• Make the members willing face organizational problems and contribute creative solutions to the organizational problems.
• Improve internal behaviour patterns such as interpersonal relations, intergroup relations, level of trust and support among the role players.
• Understand own self and others, openness and meaningful communication and involvement in planning for organizational development.

Douglas McGregor, who was working in the Union Carbide, is considered one of the first behavioural scientists to systematically talking about and advocating for the implementation of OD for organizational improvement. OD as a subject is relatively new. Notwithstanding, it is becoming increasingly popular and visible in USA, UK, Japan, Norway, Sweden and even in India.

In India, OD is in scene since 1968. Since then, many public and private sector organizations like HAL, HMT, IDPL, LIC, SAIL, TELCO and TISCO have been applying the interventions of OD to solve the organizational problems.

When the Leadership System functions effectively, performance improves. The Leadership System is the central organizing system that must deliver on all functions owned by the Top Team or C-suite. These functions include and require that leadership: become cohesive, define the future (vision), set direction, create and execute strategy, ensure alignment, communicate clarity, engage stakeholders, develop talent, manage performance, build accountability, ensure succession, allocate resources, craft the culture, and deliver results.

The Leadership System is the organization’s DNA its genetic code or distinctive brand. It sets the context that produces all outcomes, gives everything its meaning, and indicates what we are predisposed to doing and being. The effectiveness of the Leadership System determines the performance of the business. Does your Leadership System predispose you for quality, agility, speed, stakeholder engagement, profitable growth, fulfillment, competitive advantage, and strong financial performance? How can we improve business performance by establishing a healthy Leadership System?

We use our proven Whole Systems Approach to advance the Six Systems of organizational effectiveness. This approach to developing the organization, with leadership at the core, balances the development of competence and capability with consciousness and character, and transforms any enterprise into a profitable and purposeful organization. Every essential system is integrated and aligned, and every stakeholder is involved.

The Six Systems are broader in scope than functional departments and must be understood independently and interdependently as part of an integrated whole. These Six Systems set up the conditions and components necessary to create a healthy, high-performing organization.

1. Leadership

To achieve high performance or sustain results, leaders must define and refine key processes and execute them with daily discipline. They must translate vision and values into strategy and objectives, processes and practices, actions and accountabilities, execution and performance. Leaders address three questions:

1) Vision/Value. What unique value do we bring to our customers to gain competitive advantage? What do we do, for whom? Why?

2) Strategy/Approach. In what distinctive manner do we fulfill the unique needs of our customers and stakeholders? What strategy supports the vision for achieving competitive advantage?

3) Structure/Alignment. What is the designed alignment of structure and strategy, technology and people, practices and processes, leadership and culture, measurement and control? Are these elements designed and aligned to create optimal conditions for achieving the vision?

2. Communication

Everything happens in or because of a conversation, and every exchange is a potential moment of truth a point of failure or critical link in the success chain. Strategic communication ensures that the impact of your message is consistent with your intentions, and results in understanding. What you say, the way you say it, where, when, and under what circumstances it is said shape the performance culture. When leaders maximize their contribution to daily conversations, they engage and align people around a common cause, reduce uncertainty, keep people focused, equip people for moments of truth that create an on-the-table culture, prevent excuses, learn from experience, treat mistakes as intellectual capital, and leverage the power of leadership decisions to shape beliefs and behaviors.

3. Accountability

Leaders translate vision and strategic direction into goals and objectives, actions and accountabilities. Performance accountability systems clarify what is expected of people and align consequences or rewards with actual performance. Leaders need to build discipline into their leadership process and management cycle to achieve accountability, predictability, learning, renewal, and sustainability.

4. Delivery

The best organizations develop simple processes that are internally efficient, locally responsive, and globally adaptable. Complexity is removed from the customer experience to enable them to engage you in ways that are both elegant and satisfying. Establishing and optimizing operational performance is an ongoing journey. Operations need to be focused on the priority work, using the most effective techniques aligning initiatives and operations with strategy; continuously improving operations; pursuing performance breakthroughs in key areas; using advanced change techniques in support of major initiatives; establishing a pattern of executive sponsorship for all initiatives; and building future capability and capacity.

5. Performance

The Human Performance System is designed to attract, develop, and retain the most talented people. The idea is to hire the best people and help them develop their skills, talents, and knowledge over time. Of course, it becomes more critical, as they add abilities and know-how, that we reward them properly so they feel good about their work and choose to remain with the organization as loyal employees.

6. Measurement

A system of metrics, reviews, and course corrections keeps the business on track. Organizations need concrete measures that facilitate quality control, consistent behaviors, and predictable productivity and results. Within these parameters, control is instrumental to viability and profitability. Every activity has a set of daily rituals and measures. Leaders establish and maintain the measurement system to ensure disciplined processes. They track progress against strategy and planning; review status on operational results through clear key metrics; update the strategy regularly; and ensure action is driven by insight based on relevant, current information that is focused on achieving the vision.

This Six Systems frame helps people see how everything is integrated. Again, until the Leadership System operates effectively, all other systems are degraded. We work with leaders to ensure their Leadership System is highly effective, and we have dozens of cases that demonstrate the power of using a Whole Systems Approach.

The starting point to understand buyer behaviour is the stimulus-response model. Marketing and environmental stimuli enter the buyer’s consciousness. The buyer’s characteristics and decision process lead to certain purchase decisions. The marketer’s task is to understand what happens in the buyer’s consciousness between the arrival of outside stimuli and the buyer’s purchase decision.

A consumer’s buying behaviour is influenced by cultural, social, and personal factors. Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence. Culture is the fundamental determinant of a person’s wants and behaviours. Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationality religion, racial groups, and geographic region.

Multicultural marketing grew out of careful marketing research revealing how different ethnic and demographic niches did not always respond favourably to mass-market advertising. Virtually all human societies exhibit social stratification. This stratification sometimes takes the form of caste system where members of different castes are reared for specific roles and they cannot change their caste membership.

More frequently the stratification takes the form of social classes, relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in society that are hierarchically ordered and whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviour.

Social classes have several characteristics

(a) Those within a class tend to behave more alike than persons from two different social classes.

(b) Persons are perceived as occupying an inferior or superior position according to their social class.

(c) Social class is indicated by a cluster of variables (occupation, income, etc.) rather than by any single variable.

(d) Individuals can move up or down the social-class ladder.

(e) Social classes show distinct product and brand preferences in many areas.

(f) Social classes differ in media preferences. There are also language differences among them.

In addition to cultural factors, a consumer’s behaviour is influenced by such social factors as reference groups, family, and social roles and statuses A person’s reference group consists of all the groups that have a direct (face-to-face) or indirect influence on his/her attitudes or behaviour. Groups with a direct influence on a person are called membership groups.

Some memberships groups are primary such as family friends, neighbours, and co-workers with whom the person interacts fairly continuously and informally. Some membership groups are secondary groups such as religious and professional groups that tend to be more formal.

People are significantly influenced by their reference groups in at least three ways. One, they expose an individual to new behaviours and lifestyles, influencing attitudes and self-concepts (how one views oneself). Two they create pressures for conformity that may affect actual product and brand choices Three, people are also influenced by groups to which they do not belong aspirational groups are those a person hopes to join, associative groups are those whose values or behaviours an individual rejects. The buyer evaluates these elements together with the monetary cost to form the total customer cost.

Manufacturers of products where group influence is strong must determine how to reach and influence opinion leaders in these reference groups. An opinion leader is a person who through informal, product-related communication, offers advice or information about a specific product or product category Marketers try to reach opinion leaders by identifying demographic and psychographic characteristics associated with opinion leadership, while also identifying the media preferred by the opinion leaders.

Buying roles and buying decisions constitute consumer decision-making behaviour. A customer can adopt various buying roles like initiator, influencer, decider, buyer, preparer, maintainer and disposer. A buyer’s decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics.

These include the buyers age and stage in the life cycle; occupation and economic circumstances; personality and self-concept; and lifestyle and values. Each person has personality characteristics that influence his or her buying behaviour. Kotler has defined brand personality as the specific mix of human traits that may be attributed to a particular brand.

Jennifer Aaker identified the following five traits:

• Sincerity (down-to-earth)
• Excitement (daring)
• Competence (reliable)
• Sophistication (upper class)
• Ruggedness (outdoorsy).

Consumers choose and use brands that have a brand personality consistent with their own self-concept. Although in some cases the match may be based on the consumer’s ideal self-concept (how he would like to view himself), in certain cases they are influenced by others’ self-concept (how he thinks others see him).

A lifestyle is a person’s pattern of living as expressed in activities, interests and opinions. Lifestyle portrays the whole person’ interacting with his or her environment. Marketers search for relationships between their products and lifestyle groups. Lifestyles are shaped partly by whether consumers are money-constrained or time-constrained. Consumers who lack time are prone to multitasking.

Change is a word that generates uneasiness in most of us. However, successful organizations understand that when they are doing things the same way with poor results, implementing organizational change can be necessary.

But most would agree that we can think of a time we had a good change in our lives.

A marriage, the birth of a baby, moving into a new home or a new job are examples of positive changes in our lives. So why is it so difficult to swallow change at work?

For anyone who has ever gone into an organization and tried to change “the way things are” understands the resistance employees can have against any kind of change effort.

I worked for an organization that was implementing some change and we started the process by asking the staff to read this book:

The book was simply a way to help employees think about change a little differently and hopefully embrace some of the changes we were getting ready to make.

It was sadly comical how resistant the staff was to just the mention of change.

There was a woman who participated in the training that we later moved from a very small cubicle to a large shared office, with privacy and new furniture.

8 Steps to Implementing Change

1. Management Support for Change

Employees develop a comfort level when they see management supporting the process.

It is critical that management shows support for changes and demonstrates that support when communicating and interacting with staff.

There is nothing worse than sending a mixed message to employees.

If you can’t support the change 100%, don’t even think about making it.  Employees will know it and it will self destruct.

2. Case for Change

No one wants to change for change sake, so it is important to create a case for change.

A case for change can come from different sources. It can be a result of data collected on defect rates, customer satisfaction surveys, employee satisfaction surveys, customer comment cards, business goals as a result of a strategic planning session, or budget pressures.

Using data is the best way to identify and justify areas that need to improve through change initiatives.

3. Employee Involvement

All change efforts should involve employees at some level.

Organizational change, whether large or small, needs to be explained and communicated, specifically changes that affect how employees perform their jobs.

Whether it is changing a work process, improving customer satisfaction, or finding ways to reduce costs, employees have experiences that can benefit the change planning and implementation process.

Since employees are typically closest to the process, it is important that they understand the why behind a change and participate in creating the new process.

4. Communicating the Change

Communicating change should be structured and systematic.

Employees are at the mercy of management to inform them of changes.

When there is poor communication and the rumor mill starts spreading rumors about change, it can create resistance to the change.

Being proactive in communications can minimize resistance and make employees feel like they are part of the process.

5. Implementation

Once a change is planned, it is important to have good communication about the roll-out and implementation of the change.

A timeline should be made for the implementation and changes should be made in the order of its impact on the process and the employees who manage that process.

For instance, if your organization is upgrading its software program, employee training should be done before the software is installed on their computers.

An effective timeline will allow for all new equipment, supplies, or training to take place before it is fully implemented.

Implementing without a logical order can create frustration for those responsible for the work process.

6. Follow-up

Whenever a change is made it is always good to follow-up after implementation and assess how the change is working and if the change delivered the results that were intended.

Sometimes changes exceed target expectations but there are occasions that changes just don’t work as planned.

When this is the case, management should acknowledge that it didn’t work and make adjustments until the desired result is achieved.

7. Removing Barriers

Sometimes employees encounter barriers when implementing changes.

Barriers can be with other employees, other departments, inadequate training, lacking equipment, or supply needs.

Sometimes management also needs to deal with resistant or difficult employees.

It is management’s responsibility to ensure that employees can implement change without obstacles and resistance.

It is unfortunate but there are times when employees simply can’t accept a change. In these rare cases, employees simply need to move on in order to successfully implement a needed change. These are difficult but necessary decisions.

8. Celebrate

It is important to celebrate successes along the way as changes are made. Celebrating the small changes and building momentum for bigger changes are what makes employees want to participate in the process.

When employees understand why a change is made and are part of the process for planning and implementing the change, it allows for a better chance for successful implementation.