Year: 2020

We have five different sensory organs: eyes, nose, ears, tongue, and skin. These five sensory organs are responsible for receiving different stimulations around us through seeing, smelling, hearing, tasting, and, finally, feeling through the skin. The signals which are received through our sensory organs from the environment around us are called sensations. Simply put, sensations are what our sense organs receive and transmit to the brain. Once the brain receives the stimulus, it converts the whole signal into feelings, taste, sound, sight, and smell. On the other hand, perception is almost like a sixth sense. It is what we perceive or form an opinion on of anything and everything happening around us.

The perception of a person is an absolutely personal experience. It is what a person thinks about his or her environment, and it is how the person looks at the world around him. It is more of a psychological concept than anything physical like sensations. Two different people can have different perceptions about the same thing. For example, in body image, a healthy person has a different perception about his or her body. Healthy people, even if they are a little overweight, react and see themselves differently and accept who they are or work towards achieving what they want. Once they achieve it, they stop. While an anorexic person, no matter how slim, no matter how underweight, has a perception that they are still overweight and stops eating food altogether to achieve, what they perceive, to be the right body for them.

Perception is what a person wants to believe, their personal opinion. People of different generations or people of different religions or people from different backgrounds have a difference of opinion only because they perceive everything differently. Wise people try to understand the perceptions of other people whereas unwise people believe that what they perceive about a situation or about a person is the only correct perception.

Perception and sensation are different mostly because sensation is more physical. Sensations arise only because the body receives a stimulus, and the body reacts to it converting the stimulus into one of the things that one of the sensory organs of the body can identify. However, perception is absolutely psychological. Perceptions are individual thoughts of individual people.

Sensation is objective. It normally just refers to the stimuli and the objective and universal affect of that stimuli. Everyone that has a functional eye and optic nerve have this, basically everyone that has vision.

Perception on the other hand is subjective. It is not necessarily universal and the same among everyone. This doesn’t have to be directly linked to the signal sent from the eye, various factors can make that interpretation of the brain make the image look different, both normal(physiological) and abnormal(pathological) factors. You don’t observe the sensing, but your perception of the picture the brain makes.

Processing of the sensation by the brain isn’t happening only for vision, but all inputs to the brain(tactile, smell, taste, and sound) and can be affected by various and there are many more factors that are involved.

In some way: Sensation is the raw material, while perception is the product after having been handled, manipulated and changed by the brain.

Summary

Sensation is the process of hearing, smelling, feeling, tasting, and seeing as a result of external stimulations received by the five sensory organs of the body; ears, eyes, nose, tongue, and skin. Perception, however, is the mental image of something or somebody made due to the different actions exhibited by the environment around us.

Job satisfaction is another important technique used to motivate the employees to work harder. It had often been said that “A HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE.” A happy employee is, generally, that employee who is satisfied with his job. Job satisfaction is very important because most of the people spend a major portion of their life at their working place.

Moreover, job satisfaction has its impact on the general life of the employees also, because a satisfied employee is a contented and happy human being. A highly satisfied worker has better physical and mental wellbeing. Though it is a debate able point as to which one is the cause and which is die effect but these are correlated to each other.

In simple words, job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitudes that individuals have towards their jobs. When a person says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes his job, feels good about it and values his job highly.

A few definitions of job satisfaction are quoted as follows:

According to E.A. Locke, “Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.”

According to Field man and Arnold, “Job satisfaction will be defined as the amount of overall positive affect or (feelings) that individuals have towards their jobs.”

According to Andrew Brin, “Job satisfaction is the amount of pleasure or contentment associated with a job. If you like your job intensely, you will experience high job satisfaction. If you dislike your job intensely, you will experience job-dissatisfaction.”

According to Keith Davis and Newstrom, “Job satisfaction is the set of favourable or unfavourable feelings with which employees view their work.”

We can say that job satisfaction is a result of employee’s perception of how well their job provides those things which are viewed as important. In the field of organizational field, job satisfaction is considered the most important and frequently studied attitude.

Dimensions of job satisfaction

There are three important dimensions to job satisfaction:

(i) Job satisfaction cannot be seen, it can only be inferred. It relates to one’s feelings towards one’s job.

(ii) Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meet the expectations or exceed the expectations.

If the employees working in the organisation feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but the receiving lower rewards, they will be dissatisfied and have a negative attitude towards the job, the boss and the co-workers. On the other hand, if they feel that they are being paid equitably and treated well by the organization, they will be satisfied with their jobs and will have positive attitudes.

(iii) Job satisfaction and job attitudes are typically used interchangeably. Positive attitudes towards the jobs are conceptually equivalent to job satisfaction and negative attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction.

Even though these two terms are used interchangeably, but there are differences between the two. Job satisfaction is a specific subset of attitudes. Attitudes reflect one’s feeling toward individual’s organizations and objects.

But job satisfaction refers to one’s attitude towards a job. Attitudes refer to predisposition to respond but satisfaction relates to the performance factors. Attitudes are long lasting, but satisfaction is dynamic and it keeps on changing. It can decline even more quickly than it developed. Thus, managers need to pay attention to job satisfaction constantly.

Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction

There are a number of factors that influence job satisfaction. A number of research studies have been conducted in order to establish some of the causes that result in job satisfaction. These studies have revealed consistent correlation of certain variables with the job satisfaction.

These factors can be explained with the help of the following chart given below:

1. Organizational Factors

Some of the organizational factors which affect job satisfaction are:

(a) Salaries and Wages: Wages and salaries play a significant role in influencing job satisfaction. This is basically because of a few basic reasons. Firstly, money is an important instrument in fulfilling one’s needs.

Money also satisfies the first level needs of Maslow’s model of satisfaction. Secondly, employees often see money as a reflection of the management’s concern for them. Thirdly, it is considered a symbol of achievement since higher pay reflects higher degree of contribution towards organisational operations.

Non-monetary benefits are also important, but they are not as influential. One reason for that that is that most of the employees do not even know how much they are receiving in benefits. Moreover, a few tend to under value their benefits because they do not realise their monetary value. The employees, generally, want a pay system which is simple, fair and in line with their expectations.

(b) Promotion Chances: Promotional chances considerably affect the job satisfaction because of the following reasons:

Firstly, Promotion indicates an employee’s worth to the organization which is highly morale boosting. This is particularly true in case of high level jobs.

Secondly, Employee takes promotion as the ultimate achievement in his career and when it is realised, he feels extremely satisfied.

Thirdly, Promotion involves positive changes e.g. higher salary, less supervision, more freedom, more challenging work assignments, increased responsibilities, status and like.

(c) Company Policies: Organizational structure and policies also play an important role in affecting the job satisfaction of employees. An autocratic and highly authoritative structure causes resentment among the employees as compared to a structure which is more open and democratic in nature.

Organizational policies also govern the human behaviour in the organizations. These policies can generate positive or negative feelings towards the organization. Liberal and fair policies usually result in more job satisfaction. Strict policies will create dissatisfaction among the employees because they feel that they are not being treated fairly and may feel constrained.

Thus, a democratic organizational structure with fair and liberal policies is associated with high job satisfaction.

2. Work Environmental Factors

The work environmental factors include the following important factors:

(a) Supervision: Supervision is a moderately important source of job satisfaction.

There are two dimensions of supervisory styles which affect the job satisfaction:

First is Employee Centeredness. Whenever the supervisor is friendly and supportive of the workers there is job satisfaction. In this style, the supervisor takes personal interest in employee’s welfare.

Second is Participation. The superiors who allow their subordinates to participate in decisions that affect their own jobs, help in creating an environment which is highly conducive to job satisfaction.

Thus, the supervisors who establish a supportive personal relationship with subordinates and take personal interest in them contribute to the employees satisfaction.

(b) Work Group: The nature of the work group or team will have effect on job satisfaction in the following ways:

• A friendly and co-operative group provides opportunities to the group members to interact with each other. It serves as a source of support, comfort, advice and assistance to the individual group members. If on the other hand, the people are difficult to get along with, the work group will have a negative impact on job satisfaction.
• The work group will be even a stronger source of satisfaction when members have similar attitudes and values. In such a group, there will less friction on day to day basis.
• Smaller groups provide greater opportunity for building mutual trust and understanding as compared to larger groups.

Thus, the group size and quality of interpersonal relations within the group play a significant role in worker’s satisfaction.

(c) Working Conditions: Good working conditions are desirable by the employees, as they lead to more physical comfort. People desire that there should be a clean and healthy working environment. Temperature, humidity, ventilation, lighting and noise, hours of work, cleanliness of the work place and adequate tools and equipment are the features which affect job satisfaction.

While the desirable working conditions are taken for granted and may not contribute heavily towards job satisfaction, poor working conditions do become a source of job dissatisfaction, simply because they lead to physical discomfort and physical danger.

Moreover, all the employees are not satisfied or dissatisfied by favourable or unfavourable work environment as shown in the figure.

As shown in the figure, all the four employees are dissatisfied when the working conditions are unfavourable. However, as the working conditions start becoming favourable, the job satisfaction of employee A and B increases sharply while employees C and D have only minor increase in satisfaction.

3. Work Itself

The content of the work itself plays a major role in determining the level of job satisfaction.

Some of the aspects of the work which affect job satisfaction are:

(a) Job Scope: It provides the amount of responsibility, work pace and feedback. The higher the level of these factors, higher the job scope and higher the level of satisfaction.

(b) Variety: A moderate amount of variety is very effective. Excessive variety produces confusion and stress and a too little variety causes monotony and fatigue which are dissatisfies.

(c) Lack of Autonomy and Freedom: Lack of autonomy and freedom over work methods and work pace can create helplessness and dissatisfaction. Employees do not like it when their every step and every action is determined by their supervisor.

(d) Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict: Role ambiguity and role conflict also lead to confusion and job dissatisfaction because employees do not know exactly what their task is and what is expected of them.

(e) Interesting Work: A work which is very interesting and challenging and gives status, provides satisfaction to the employees as compared to work which is boring and monotonous.

4. Personal Factors

Personal attributes of the individuals also play a very important role as to whether they are satisfied at the job or not. Pessimists and people with negative attitudes will complain about everything including the job. They will always find something wrong in every job to complain about.

Some of the important personal factors are:

(a) Age and Seniority: With age, people become more mature and realistic and less idealistic so that they are willing to accept available resources and rewards and be satisfied about the situation. With the passage of time, people move into more challenging and responsible positions. People who do not move up at all with time are more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs.

(b) Tenure: Employees with longer tenure are expected to be highly satisfied with their jobs. Tenure assures job security, which is highly satisfactory to employees. They can easily plan for their future without any fear of losing their jobs.

(c) Personality: Some of the personality traits which are directly related to job satisfaction are self-assurance, self-esteem, maturity, decisiveness, sense of autonomy, challenge and responsibility. Higher the person is on Maslow’s needs hierarchy, the higher is the job satisfaction. This type of satisfaction comes from within the person and is a function of his personality.

Accordingly, in addition to providing a healthy work environment management must ensure that the employee is happy with himself and has a positive outlook on life.

Organizational culture can be defined as the group norms, values, beliefs and assumptions practiced in an organization. It brings stability and control within the firm. The organization is more stable and its objective can be understood more clearly.

Organizational culture helps the group members to resolve their differences, overcome the barriers and also helps them in tackling risks.

Elements of Organizational Culture

• Visible elements: These elements are seen by the outer world. Example, dress code, activities, setup, etc.
• Invisible elements: These inner elements of the group cannot be seen by people outside the group or firm. Example, values, norms, assumptions, etc. Now let us discuss some other elements of organizational culture. They are:
• Stories: Stories regarding the history of the firm, or founder.
• Rituals: Precise practices an organization follows as a habit.
• Symbol: The logo or signature or the style statement of a company.
• Language: A common language that can be followed by all, like English.
• Practice: Discipline, daily routine or say the tight schedule everyone follows without any failure.
• Values and Norms: The idea over which a company is based or the thought of the firm is considered as its value and the condition to adopt them are called norms.
• Assumptions: It means we consider something to be true without any facts. Assumptions can be used as the standard of working, means the employees prepare themselves to remain above standard.

Different Types of Organizational Culture

The culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are:

• Mechanistic and Organic culture
• Authoritarian and Participative culture
• Subculture and Dominant culture
• Strong and Weak culture
• Entrepreneurial and Market culture

Mechanistic and Organic Culture

Mechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures. Everything needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility and concerned authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction given by the organization. Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic culture.

Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus there exists a high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in the company. It has a systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of communication. Some key elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility, accountability and direct flow towards the employee.

Authoritarian and Participative Culture

Authoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top level management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no employee involvement in the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The authority demands obedience from the employee and warns them for punishment in case of mistake or irregularity. This type of culture is followed by military organization.

In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal shaping process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In this type of culture, employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with group decision making, group problem solving process is also seen here.

Subculture and Dominant Culture

In subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all members. It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an organization. Every department in a company have their own culture that gets converted to a subculture. So, the strength and adaptability of an organizational culture is dependent on the success of subculture.

In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The success of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that is, the mixture of different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a dominant culture and a minor culture can also be seen.

Strong and Weak Culture

In a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness towards the organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they do and they slave towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception and commitment are two aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture, there is less employee turnover and high productivity.

In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty towards the company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two aspects of this culture.

Entrepreneurial and Market Culture

Entrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show their innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations make the goal easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The organization rewards the employees for better performance.

Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and completely profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and the organization is to achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not motivating.

Create an Organizational Culture

An organizational culture is created with the combination of certain criteria that are mentioned below:

• The founder of the organization may partly set a culture.
• The environment within which the organization standards may influence its activities to set a culture.
• Sometimes interchange of culture in between different organizations create different new cultures.
• The members of the organization may set a culture that is flexible to adapt.
• New cultures are also created in an organization due to demand of time and situation.

The culture of an organizational can change due to composition of workforce, merger and acquisition, planned organizational change, and influence of other organizational culture.

Social system is a comprehensive arrangement. It takes its orbit all the diverse subsystems such as the economic, political, religious and others and their interrelation too. Social systems are bound by environment such as geography. And this differentiates one system from another.

Elements of Social System:

1. Faiths and Knowledge:

The faiths and knowledge brings about the uniformity in the behaviour. They act as controlling agency of different types of human societies. The faiths or the faith is the result of the prevalent customs and beliefs. They enjoy the force of the individual are guided towards a particular direction.

2. Sentiment:

Man does not live by reason alone. Sentiments filial, social, notional etc. have played immense role in investing society with continuity. It is directly linked with the culture of the people.

3. End Goal or object:

Man is born social and dependent. He has to meet his requirements and fulfill his obligations. Man and society exist between needs and satisfactions, end and goal. These determine the nature of social system. They provided the pathway of progress, and the receding horizons.

4. Ideals and Norms:

The society lays down certain norms and ideals for keeping the social system intact and for determining the various functions of different units. These norms prescribe the rules and regulations on the basis of which individuals or persons may acquire their cultural goals and aims.

In other words ideals and norms are responsible for an ideal structure or system of the society. Due to them the human behaviour does not become deviant and they act according to the norms of the society. This leads to organization and stability. These norms and ideals include folkways, customs, traditions, fashions, morality, religion, etc.

5. Status-Role:

Every individual in society is functional. He goes by status-role relation. It may come to the individual by virtue of his birth, sex, caste, or age. One may achieve it on the basis of service rendered.

6. Role:

Like the status, society has prescribed different roles to different individuals. Sometimes we find that there is a role attached to every status. Role is the external expression of the status. While discharging certain jobs or doing certain things, every individual keeps in his mind his status. This thing leads to social integration, organization and unity in the social system. In fact statuses and roles go together. It is not possible to separate them completely from one another.

7. Power:

Conflict is a part of social system, and order is its aim. It is implicit, therefore, that some should be invested with the power to punish the guilty and reward those who set an example. The authority exercising power will differ from group to group; while the authority of father may be supreme in the family, in the state it is that of the ruler.

8. Sanction:

It implies confirmation by the superior in authority, of the acts done be the subordinate or the imposition of penalty for the infringement of the command. The acts done or not done according to norms may bring reward and punishment.

Characteristics of Social System:

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:

It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of the activity of one individual. It is the result of the activities of various individuals. For system, or social system, interaction of several individuals has to be there.

2. Aim and Object:

Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless or without object. These activities have to be according to certain aims and objects. The expression of different social relations borne as a result of human interaction.

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social system does not necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern, arrangement and order. The underlined unity amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.

4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:

We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order to form a system. This unity is based on functional relations. As a result of functional relationships between different constituent units an integrated whole is created and this is known as social system.

5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:

It means that every social system is connected with a definite geographical area or place, time, society etc. In other words it means that social system is not the same at different times, at different place and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the social system again point out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.

6. Linked with Cultural System:

Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural system bring about unity amongst different members of the society on the basis of cultures, traditions, religions etc.

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:

Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other words, it means that social system is the coming together of different individual actors who are motivated by their aims and objectives and their needs.

8. Characteristics of Adjustment:

Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic phenomenon which is influenced by the changes caused in the social form. We have also seen that the social system is influenced by the aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the social system shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the changed objects and needs. It has been seen that change takes place in the social system due to human needs, environment and historical conditions and phenomena.

9. Order, Pattern and Balance:

Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance. Social system is not an integrated whole but putting together of different units. This coming together does not take place in a random and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.

It is so because different units of the society do not work as independent units but they do not exist in a vacuum but in a socio-cultural pattern. In the pattern different units have different functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the social system.

Types of Social System:

Parsons presents a classification of four major types in terms of pattern variable. These are as follows:

1. The Particularistic AscriptiveType:

According to Parsons, this type of social system tends to be organized around kinship and sociality. The normative patterns of such a system are traditional and thoroughly dominated by the elements of ascription. This type of system is mostly represented by preliterate societies in which needs are limited to biological survival.

2. The Particularistic Achievement Type:

There is a significant role of religious ideas as differentiating element in social life. When these religious ideas are rationally systematized that possibility of new religious concepts emerge. As a result of this nature of prophecy and secondly it may depend on non-empirical realm to which the porphyry is connected.

3. The Universalistic Achievement Type:

When ethical prophecy and non-empirical conceptions are combined, a new set of ethical norms arise. It is because the traditional order is challenged by the ethical prophet in the name of supernatural. Such norms are derived from the existing relations of social member; therefore they are universalistic in nature. Besides, they are related with empirical or non-empirical goals, therefore they are achievement oriented.

4. The Universalistic Ascription Type:

Under this social type, elements of value orientation are dominated by the elements of ascription. Therefore emphasis is placed on status of the actor, rather than his performance. In such a system, actor’s achievements are almost values to a collective goal. Therefore such a system becomes politicized and aggressive. An authoritarian State example of this types.

Functions of Social System:

Social system is a functional arrangement. It would not exist if it were not so. Its functional character ensures social stability and continuity. The functional character of society, Parsons has discussed in depth. Other sociologists such as Robert F. Bales too have discussed it.

It is generally agreed that the social system has four primary functional problems to attend. These are:

1. Adaptation,
2. Goal attainment,
3. Integration,
4. Latent Pattern-Maintenance.

1. Adaptation:

Adaptability of social system to the changing environment is essential. No doubt, a social system is the result of geographical environment and a long drawn historical process which by necessity gives it permanence and rigidity. Yet, that should not make it wooden and inelastic. It need be a flexible and functional phenomenon.

Economy for its maintenance, division of labour for better production of goods and effective services, and role differentiation for job opportunity is essential. Durkheim in Division of Labour in society has given great attention to the role of division of labour and role differentiation as these make possible a higher average degree of skill than would otherwise be possible.

Lack of adaptability, very often has caused the social system to be challenged. It has caused revolution resulting in the overhauling of the system. The British system, in the nineteenth century, when the continent was in the inferno of revolution, showed remarkable adaptability. It responded well to the mounting demands of change. Over the time our system has demonstrated the excellent sense of adaptability.

2. Goal Attainment:

Goal attainment and adaptability are deeply interconnected. Both contribute to the maintenance of social order.

Every social system has one or more goals to be attained through cooperative effort. Perhaps the best example of a societal goal is national security. Adaptation to the social and nonsocial environment is, of course, necessary if goals are to be attained. But in addition, human and nonhuman resources must be mobilised in some effective way, according to the specific nature of tasks.

For example, there must be a process of ensuring that enough persons, but not too many, occupy each of the roles at a particular time and a process for determining which persons will occupy which roles. These processes together solve the problem of allocation of members in the social system. We have already touched upon the “need” for property norms. The rules regulating inheritance e.g., primogeniture-in part solve this problem.

The allocation of members and the allocation of scarce valuable resources are important, of course, for both adaptation and goal attainment. The difference between adaptation and goal attainment is a relative one.

The economy of a society is that subsystem which produces goods and services for a wide variety of purposes; the “polity”, which includes above all the Government in complex societies, mobilizes goods and services for the attainment of specific goals of the total society regarded as a single social system.

3. Integration:

Social system is essentially an integration system. In the general routine of life, it is not the society but the group or the subgroup in which one feels more involved and interested. Society, on the whole does not come into one’s calculations. Yet, we know as indicated by Durkheim, that individual is the product of society. Emotions, sentiments and historical forces are so strong that one cannot cut oneself from his moorings.

The working of these forces is best seen when society is involved in a domestic crisis or an external challenge. An appeal in the name of society, culture, heritage, patriotism, national solidarity or social welfare invokes quick response. Cooperation in effort is often demonstrative of integrating. It is the real basis of integration.

During normal times, the spirit of integration is best expressed by not disregarding the regulative norms. Abiding by them is essential, as otherwise, it will be the domination of might over right, of self over society, and the spirit of mutuality which is based on common welfare, will get eliminated. The command and obedience relation as it exists is based on rationality and order. If it is not sustained, the social order would break down.

In almost every social system, and in every system as large as a society, some participants, including whole subgroups, violate the relational or regulative norms. So far as these norms meet social needs, violations are a threat to the social system,

This necessitates the need for social control. “Social control” is the need for standardized reactions to violations in order to protect the integrity of the system. When there is dispute concerning the interpretation of relational or regulative norms, or concerning the factual aspects of conflicts of interest, there is need for agreed-upon social arrangements for settling the dispute. Otherwise the social system would be subject to progressive splits.

4. Latent Pattern-maintenance:

Pattern maintenance and tension management is the primary function of social system. In absence of appropriate effort in this direction maintenance and continuity of social order is not possible. In fact within every social system there is the in built mechanism for the purpose.

Every individual and subgroup learns the patterns in the process of the internalization of norms and values. It is to invest the actors with appropriate attitude and respect towards norms and institution, that the socialization works. It is not; however, merely the question of imparting the pattern, equally essential is to make the actor to follow it. For this there is always a continuous effort -in operational terms of social control.

There may yet be occasions when the components of social system may become subject of distraction and disturbance. Tension may arise due to internal or external causes and society may get involved into a critical situation. Just as a family in distress draws upon all its resources to overcome it, so also society has to overcome it.

This process of ‘overcoming’ is the management of the tension. Society has the responsibility, like a family, to keep its members functional, to relieve them of anxiety, to encourage those who would be detrimental to the entire system. The decline of societies has been very much because the pattern maintenance and tension management mechanism has often failed.

Equilibrium and Social Change:

Equilibrium is a state of ‘balance’. It is “a state of just poise”. The term is used to describe the interaction of units in a system. A state of equilibrium exists, when systems tend towards conditions of minimum stress and least imbalance. The existence of balance between units facilitates the normal operation of system. Community evaluates and recognises the importance of equilibrium.

The equilibrium condition, is a “condition of integration and stability”. It is sometimes made possible with the development of a certain set of productive forces such as pressure groups which brings into being an appropriate super structure of institutions. Equilibrium can also be of moving sort, which according to Parsons, is “an orderly process of change of the system”.

The maintenances of equilibrium, according to him resolve two fundamental types of process: “The first of these are the process of the socialization by which actors acquire the orientations necessary to the performance of their roles in the social systems, when they have not previously possessed them; the second type are the process involved in the balance between the generation of motivations to deviate behaviour and the counter balancing motivations to restoration of the stabilized interactive process which we have called mechanism of social control”.

A social system implies order among the interacting units of the systems. This order, be it equilibrium or harmonious relations between individuals, is likely to be disturbed, at times, by social changes, occasioned by innovations which force new conceptions of roles and norms. The role of a housewife is affected when she goes for work away from home. This change is bound to influence other social institutions as well.

Maintaining the orderliness or social system is difficult when social changes are frequent. Herbert Spencer introduced the cause and effect relationships to explain the changing nature of societies in the equilibrium/disequilibrium’ analysis.

The structural-functional pattern of institutions which constitute a society would change in accordance with change it may encounter in its total external environment, and with changes in its internal conditions. There would be a changing disposition of the parts of a society until some appropriate ‘equilibrium’ is reached.

Spencer elaborating the theory of equilibrium has indicated its universal applicability. He pointed out that members of a society are continuously in the process of adapting to its material substance. “Each society”, he wrote, “displays the process of equilibration in the continuous adjustment of its population to its means of subsistence.

A tribe of men living on wild animals and fruits is manifestly like every tribe of inferior creatures, always oscillating from side to side of that average number which the locality can support. Thought by artificial production unceasingly improved, a superior race continually alters the limit which external conditions put to population, yet there is ever a checking of population at the temporary limit reached”.

In elaborating his theory of equilibrium, Spencer has referred to several economic aspects, and to the industrial system, of a society which continuously adjusts itself to the forces of ‘supply and demand’. He has also discussed political institutions in ‘equilibrium-disequilibrium’ terms. It is applicable to, all societies equally.

Taking society as a total entity, and its interrelationship with its parts, the changes in them can be explained by ‘equilibrium- disequilibrium’ adjustments. “Marxian Historical Materialism” remarks Ronald Fletcher, in The Making of Sociology is in fact an” equilibrium-disequilibrium analysis of the historical sequences of social order and social changes, and the explanation of this process in terms of material changes, attendant social conflict, and its resolution.”