Year: 2020

Fixed Asset is an asset held with the intention of being used for the purpose of producing or providing goods or services and is not held for sale in the normal course of business. (It is expected to be used for more than one accounting period.)

The cost of fixed asset includes:

• Purchase price
• Import Duties and other non-refundable taxes
• Direct cost incurred to bring the asset to its working condition
• Installation cost
• Professional fees like fees of architects
• General overhead of enterprise when these expenses are specifically attributable to acquisition/preparation of fixed assets
• Any expenses before the commercial production, including cost of test run and experimental production
• Any expenses before the asset is ready for use not put to use
• Loss on deferred payment arising out of foreign currency liability
• Price adjustment, changes in duties and similar factors.

The cost of fixed asset is deducted with:

• Trade discounts and rebates
• Sale proceeds of test run production
• Amount of government grants received/receivable against fixed assets
• Gain on deferred payment arising out of foreign currency liability

Similarly, historical cost of self constructed fixed assets will include:

• All cost which are directly related to the specific asset
• All costs that are attributable to the construction activity should be allocated to fixed assets
• Any internal profit included in the cost should be eliminated.
• Any expenses incurred on asset between date of ready for use and put to use is either charged to P&L A/c or treated as deferred revenue expenditure to be amortised in 3-5 years after commencement of production.

When fixed asset is acquired in exchange for another asset, the cost of the asset acquired should be recorded
– either at, fair market value
– or at, the net book value of the assets given up

For this purpose, fair market value may be determined by reference either to the asset given up or to the asset acquired, whichever is more clearly evident.

Fixed asset acquired in exchange for shares or other securities should be recorded at FMV of assets given up or asset acquired, whichever is more clearly evident. (i.e the option of recording the asset at net book value of asset given up is closed).

Fair market value is the price that would be agreed to in an open and unrestricted market between knowledgeable and willing parties dealing at arm’s length distance.

Subsequent expenditures related to an item of fixed asset should be added to its book value only if they increase the future benefits from the existing asset beyond its previously assessed standard of performance.

Material items retired from active use and held for disposal should be stated at the lower of their net book value and net realizable value and shown separately. Fixed assets should be eliminated from the financial statements on disposal or when no further benefit is expected from its use and disposal. Profit/loss on such disposal or writing off is recognized in the profit and loss account.

Revaluation

When the fixed assets are revalued, these assets are shown at revalued price. Revaluation of fixed assets should be restricted to the net recoverable amount of fixed asset.

When a fixed asset is revalued, an entire class of assets should be revalued or selection of assets for revaluation should be made on a systematic basis. That basis must be disclosed.

Accounting treatment of revaluation under different situation:

When revaluation is made upward
Fixed Assets A/c Dr

To Revaluation Reserve

When revaluation is made downward

P&L A/c Dr
To Fixed Assets

When revaluation is made upward subsequent to previous upward revaluation
Fixed Assets A/c Dr

To Revaluation Reserve
When revaluation is made downward subsequent to previous upward revaluation

Revaluation Reserve A/c Dr (To the extent of carrying amount of R.R)
P&L A/c Dr (Balancing Figure)
To Fixed assets

When revaluation is made upward subsequent to previous downward revaluation

Fixed assets A/c Dr
To P&L A/c (To the extent of
previous downward revaluation)
To Revaluation Reserve (Balancing Figure)

When revaluation is made downward subsequent to previous downward revaluation

P& L A/c Dr

To Fixed Assets

Accounting treatment on disposal of Fixed Assets:

On sale of fixed assets
Bank A/c Dr
P & L A/c Dr (If Loss)
To Fixed Assets
To P & L A/c (If Profit)

On sale of fixed assets where upward revaluation has taken place

On disposal of a previously revalued item of fixed asset, the difference between net disposal proceeds and the net book value is normally charged or credited to the profit and loss account except that, to the extent such a loss is related to an increase which was previously recorded as a credit to revaluation reserve and which has not been subsequently reversed or utilized, it is charged directly to that account. The amount standing in revaluation reserve following the retirement or disposal of an asset which relates to that asset may be transferred to general reserve.

In the case of fixed assets owned by the enterprise jointly with others, the extent of the enterprise’s share in such assets, and the proportion of the original cost, accumulated depreciation and WDV should be stated in the B/S.
Alternatively, the pro rata cost of such jointly owned assets may be grouped together with similar fully owned assets with an appropriate disclosure thereof.
Only purchased goodwill should be recorded in books.
Disclosure:
• Gross and net book value of fixed assets at the beginning and end of period showing additions and disposals
• Revalued amounts substituted for historical costs of fixed assets, the method adopted to compute the same and whether an external valuer was involved.

Book-keeping refers to the systematic recording, organizing, and storing of all financial transactions of a business. It is a process that ensures every financial activity is accurately documented for future reference.

Features of Book-Keeping

1. Chronological Recording: Transactions are recorded in the order they occur.
2. Double-Entry System: Each transaction is recorded as a debit and a corresponding credit to maintain balance.
3. Accuracy: It involves precise documentation of figures to reflect the true financial position.
4. Regular Updating: Book-keeping is a continuous process and must be updated regularly.

Objectives of Book-Keeping

• To maintain a detailed record of all financial transactions.
• To provide data for preparing financial statements.
• To ensure transparency in financial dealings.

Importance of Book-Keeping

• Compliance: Helps businesses comply with tax and legal requirements.
• Audit Preparation: Facilitates smooth audits by providing accurate records.
• Decision-Making: Enables better decision-making by providing a clear financial picture.

Methods of Book-Keeping

1. Single-Entry System: Involves recording only one side of the transaction (e.g., cash receipts or payments).
2. Double-Entry System: Every transaction affects two accounts, ensuring the accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Equity) holds true.

What is Accounting?

Accounting builds upon book-keeping and involves summarizing, analyzing, and reporting financial data to stakeholders. It interprets the raw data from book-keeping into meaningful information.

Features of Accounting

1. Analysis: Accounting analyzes data to understand trends and financial health.
2. Summarization: It summarizes large volumes of transactions into comprehensible statements.
3. Interpretation: Financial data is interpreted to guide managerial decisions.
4. Communication: Information is communicated to stakeholders through financial reports.

Objectives of Accounting

• To ascertain the financial position of the business.
• To measure profit or loss over a period.
• To facilitate informed decision-making.
• To ensure accountability and transparency.

Types of Accounting

1. Financial Accounting: Focuses on preparing financial statements for external stakeholders.
2. Management Accounting: Provides information to managers for internal decision-making.
3. Cost Accounting: Analyzes costs to improve efficiency and reduce expenses.
4. Tax Accounting: Deals with preparing and filing tax returns in compliance with laws.

Key differences Between Book-Keeping and Accounting

Components of Book-Keeping and Accounting

1. Journal: The first place where transactions are recorded.
2. Ledger: A book of accounts where transactions are posted from the journal.
3. Trial Balance: A summary of all ledger accounts to ensure that debits equal credits.
4. Financial Statements: Includes the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement.
5. Cash Book: A specialized journal to track cash receipts and payments.

Relationship Between Book-Keeping and Accounting

• Dependency: Accounting relies on book-keeping for raw data.
• Hierarchy: Book-keeping is the foundation, while accounting is the next step in the financial process.
• Output: The output of book-keeping (trial balances) serves as the input for accounting.

Benefits of Book-Keeping and Accounting

1. Legal Compliance: Ensures adherence to financial regulations.
2. Performance Tracking: Monitors the profitability and sustainability of the business.
3. Resource Management: Aids in budgeting and resource allocation.
4. Transparency: Builds trust among stakeholders by providing accurate financial information.

Challenges in Book-Keeping and Accounting

1. Complexity: Requires precision and attention to detail.
2. Time-Consuming: Regular updates can be labor-intensive.
3. Errors: Mistakes in book-keeping can lead to inaccurate accounting.
4. Regulatory Changes: Adapting to new financial laws can be challenging.

Technological Advancements

Modern software tools like Tally, QuickBooks, and Xero have simplified book-keeping and accounting. They automate calculations, generate reports, and ensure compliance, saving time and reducing errors.

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are globally recognized accounting principles and guidelines developed by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). IFRS aims to standardize financial reporting across countries, ensuring transparency, consistency, and comparability of financial statements worldwide.

The standards focus on principles like fair value measurement, revenue recognition, and full disclosure, emphasizing the economic substance of transactions over legal form. IFRS is adopted by over 120 countries, facilitating cross-border investments and financial integration. By providing a common financial language, IFRS enhances global economic collaboration, supports informed decision-making, and strengthens the reliability of financial information for stakeholders.

Principles of IFRS:

1. Accrual Basis of Accounting

Transactions and events are recorded when they occur, not when cash is received or paid, ensuring that financial statements reflect the company’s true financial position.

2. Going Concern

Financial statements are prepared with the assumption that the entity will continue its operations in the foreseeable future, unless there is evidence to the contrary.

3. Fair Presentation and Compliance

Financial statements must present a true and fair view of the entity’s financial position, adhering to all applicable IFRS standards and guidelines.

4. Consistency

Accounting policies should be applied consistently across reporting periods, unless changes are required by new IFRS standards or result in more reliable financial reporting.

5. Materiality and Aggregation

Only information that is material and relevant to stakeholders should be disclosed, ensuring clarity while avoiding unnecessary detail.

6. Substance Over Form

Transactions are recorded based on their economic reality rather than their legal form, reflecting the true nature of business activities.

7. Prudence

Financial statements should not overstate assets or income, nor understate liabilities or expenses, promoting caution in financial reporting.

8. Full Disclosure

Entities must provide all relevant information necessary for stakeholders to understand the financial performance and position, including explanatory notes and disclosures.

9. Comparability

Financial statements should allow for comparisons over time and across entities, ensuring consistent presentation and classification of similar items.

10. Offsetting Prohibition

Assets and liabilities, or income and expenses, should not be offset unless expressly permitted by IFRS standards.

Benefits of IFRS:

1. Improved Comparability

IFRS promotes consistency in financial reporting across borders, allowing companies from different countries to prepare their financial statements according to the same set of rules. This comparability enables investors, analysts, and other stakeholders to easily compare financial performance, regardless of geographic location. It also enhances the ability of multinational companies to consolidate financial statements from subsidiaries in different countries without adjusting for differences in accounting standards.

2. Enhanced Transparency

IFRS requires detailed disclosures about financial performance, financial position, and risk management practices, providing stakeholders with a clearer and more comprehensive view of an organization’s financial health. Transparent financial reporting helps investors make informed decisions, reduces the risk of misleading information, and fosters trust in the company’s management.

3. Greater Access to Capital

By adopting IFRS, companies can attract international investors more easily, as IFRS is widely recognized by the global investment community. Financial statements prepared in compliance with IFRS are seen as reliable, which increases investor confidence and improves access to capital markets. Companies adopting IFRS may also benefit from better credit ratings, which could lead to lower borrowing costs.

4. Simplified Financial Reporting

For multinational companies with subsidiaries in different countries, adopting IFRS streamlines the financial reporting process. It eliminates the need to prepare multiple sets of financial statements according to different national accounting standards. This reduces the cost and complexity associated with complying with multiple regulations, allowing companies to focus on their core operations.

5. Consistency and Reliability

IFRS ensures that financial statements reflect the true economic substance of a company’s activities. Its principles-based approach provides flexibility, allowing companies to present a more accurate picture of their financial position and performance. This consistency in reporting builds investor confidence, as it provides a reliable basis for assessing business performance and making investment decisions.

6. Enhanced Corporate Governance

The adoption of IFRS promotes better corporate governance practices by requiring companies to disclose detailed financial information and risk management strategies. It encourages management to operate transparently, leading to stronger accountability and better decision-making. This aligns management’s actions with the interests of shareholders and other stakeholders.

7. Alignment with Global Practices

IFRS aligns financial reporting practices with global standards, enabling companies to be more competitive on the international stage. As more countries adopt IFRS, businesses can operate seamlessly in the global marketplace without the need for significant adjustments to their financial reporting systems. This standardization also facilitates mergers and acquisitions by simplifying the integration process between companies operating in different countries.

Challenges of IFRS:

1. Complexity and Technical Difficulty

IFRS is principles-based rather than rules-based, which allows for flexibility but can lead to complexities in its application. Some standards, such as those related to financial instruments and revenue recognition, can be difficult to interpret and implement, especially for companies without specialized accounting expertise. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) may find it particularly challenging to navigate the complexity of IFRS, requiring substantial training and resources to ensure compliance.

2. High Implementation Costs

Transitioning to IFRS can involve significant costs. Companies must invest in training staff, updating financial reporting systems, and, in some cases, hiring external consultants to ensure compliance. Additionally, for companies with operations in multiple jurisdictions, implementing IFRS may require adjustments to existing systems and reporting processes, which adds to the overall cost. These costs can be a burden for smaller companies or those with limited resources.

3. Lack of Expertise

Many businesses, especially in emerging markets, may lack the necessary accounting expertise to effectively implement and comply with IFRS. This shortage of skilled professionals may hinder smooth adoption and could lead to errors or inconsistencies in financial reporting. In some cases, local accountants may be unfamiliar with the principles-based approach of IFRS, creating a knowledge gap that must be addressed through extensive training programs and recruitment of skilled personnel.

4. Resistance to Change

Organizations that have been following their local Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) for many years may be resistant to adopting IFRS. Employees, managers, and even investors accustomed to local standards may be reluctant to adjust to new procedures and financial reporting methods. Overcoming this resistance requires strong leadership, effective change management, and the clear communication of the benefits of IFRS adoption to stakeholders.

5. Differences in Interpretation

Although IFRS aims to standardize financial reporting globally, its principles-based nature allows for some degree of flexibility in interpretation. Different countries or companies may interpret the standards in different ways, leading to inconsistencies in application. This can undermine the comparability and transparency that IFRS intends to achieve, especially if the standards are not applied uniformly across jurisdictions.

6. Impact on Financial Performance Reporting

Some companies may find that adopting IFRS impacts the way they report their financial performance. For example, the shift from historical cost accounting to fair value accounting under IFRS can lead to fluctuations in reported profits and asset values, which may not align with the company’s actual operational performance. These changes can affect key financial ratios and investor perceptions, particularly for industries where volatility is high.

7. Ongoing Compliance and Updates

IFRS standards are subject to regular updates and revisions by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). This requires companies to stay informed about changes to ensure ongoing compliance. The continuous need for adjustments to align with the latest standards can add to the administrative burden and costs, particularly for organizations with global operations that must ensure consistency across multiple jurisdictions.

Accounting is the process of recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting financial transactions to provide accurate financial information. It helps in assessing the financial performance, position, and cash flows of an organization. Accounting ensures transparency, accountability, and informed decision-making for businesses, investors, and stakeholders.

Objective of Accounting:

• To maintain full and systematic records of business transactions

Accounting is the language of business transactions. Given the limitations of human memory, the main objective of accounting is to maintain ‘a full and systematic record of all business transactions.

2. To ascertain profit or loss of the business

Business is run to earn profits. Whether the business earned profit or incurred loss is ascertained by accounting by preparing Profit & Loss Account or Income Statement. A comparison of income and expenditure gives either profit or loss.

3. To depict financial position of the business

A businessman is also interested in ascertaining his financial position at the end of a given period. For this purpose, a position statement called Balance Sheet is prepared in which assets and liabilities are shown.

Just as a doctor will feel the pulse of his patient and know whether he is enjoying good health or not, in the same way by looking at the Balance Sheet one will know the financial health of an enterprise. If the assets exceed liabilities, it is financially healthy, i.e., solvent. In the other case, it would be insolvent, i.e., financially weak.

4. To provide accounting information to the interested parties

Apart from owner of the business enterprise, there are various parties who are interested in accounting information. These are bankers, creditors, tax authorities, prospective investors, researchers, etc. Hence, one of the objectives of accounting is to make the accounting information available to these interested parties to enable them to take sound and realistic decisions. The accounting information is made available to them in the form of annual report.

Nature of Accounting:

We know Accounting is the systematic recording of financial transactions and presentation of the related information of the appropriate persons.

1. Accounting is a process:

A process refers to the method of performing any specific job step by step according to the objectives, or target. Accounting is identified as a process as it performs the specific task of collecting, processing and communicating financial information. In doing so, it follows some definite steps like collection of data recording, classification summarization, finalization and reporting.

• Accounting is an art:

Accounting is an art of recording, classifying, summarizing and finalizing the financial data. The word ‘art’ refers to the way of performing something. It is a behavioral knowledge involving certain creativity and skill that may help us to attain some specific objectives. Accounting is a systematic method consisting of definite techniques and its proper application requires applied skill and expertise. So, by nature accounting is an art.

• Accounting is means and not an end:

Accounting finds out the financial results and position of an entity and the same time, it communicates this information to its users. The users then take their own decisions on the basis of such information. So, it can be said that mere keeping of accounts can be the primary objective of any person or entity. On the other hand, the main objective may be identified as taking decisions on the basis of financial information supplied by accounting. Thus, accounting itself is not an objective, it helps attaining a specific objective. So it is said the accounting is ‘a means to an end’ and it is not ‘an end in itself.’

• Accounting deals with financial information and Transactions:

Accounting records the financial transactions and date after classifying the same and finalizes their result for a definite period for conveying them to their users. So, from starting to the end, at every stage, accounting deals with financial information. Only financial information is its subject matter. It does not deal with non-monetary information of non-financial aspect.

• Accounting is an information system:

Accounting is recognized and characterized as a storehouse of information. As a service function, it collects processes and communicates financial information of any entity. This discipline of knowledge has been evolved out to meet the need of financial information required by different interested groups.