Factors influencing value of IPR

Standard of value

The most commonly used standards of value are Fair market value and Fair Price Value. It is important when undertaking an IP valuation exercise. Fair market value (Market value) can be defined as the price at which an asset or service passes from a willing seller to a willing buyer. It is assumed that both buyer and seller are rational and have a reasonable knowledge of relevant facts. Fair value (Fair price) is seen as appropriate for use in post transaction purchase price allocation. It is based on the assumptions that market participants would use when pricing the asset. Whereas fair market value is seems to be more appropriate when used in the premise of value in exchange, fair value is often based on premise of value in-use. As mentioned earlier. in common situation, IP valuation is a process to evaluate the fair market value of an IP asset.

Purpose of valuation

In order to determine the premise for calculation of value, it is necessary to understand the purpose for valuation. For instance, valuation from the perspective of market value and investment would be completely different. In commercial situations, market value is the appropriate premise. International Value Standards define market value as “The estimated amount which a property should exchange on the date of valuation between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arm’s‐length transaction after proper marketing wherein the parties had each acted knowledgeably, prudently, and without compulsion.”

Valuation methods

The methodology applied and assumptions made while applying particular valuation method affects the value of IP assets. Market Method is the ost effective form of valuation. Cost method is usually refrained by companies since it ignores the novel characteristic of IP. This method is helpful for R&D costs.

Nature and strength of IP asset

The competitive strength of an IP asset determines the comparative valuation that it shall hold in the market. The factors such as customer responsiveness and market distribution of a product or availing service determine its IP value. The threat of new entry and substitutes affect the value of IP assets.

Licensing and Franchising

A thorough understanding of the IP Assets ensures an informed negotiation and decision making regarding the terms and conditions at the time of licensing-in or licensing-out of IP especially in determining fair and robust royalty rates. In the case of franchising too, both the franchisor and the franchisee require a thorough understanding of the value of the trademark(s) and trade secrets and know- how of other IP assets. Examples; Mc Donald’s , Pizza Hut, Dominos, Haldiram, Bikanerwala.

Merger & Acquisition, Joint Venture or Strategic Alliance

The primary reason for considering an M & A transaction is the value of the IP assets of the target company. IP valuation enables the parties to take an informed decision on the acceptable cost of capital or deciding on financial leverage strategy to be followed. It also influences positively the resulting company’s value and share price. The strategy of world class companies such as Volkswagen group and Tata group enunciates the IP valuation technique to adopt brands. The Volkswagen Group owns Audi, Bentley, Skoda, Lamborghini, Buggati , Porsche and many other well-known brands. Tata group owns Jaguar and Land Rover.

Investment in Research and Development (R&D)

IP valuation helps in budgeting and resource allocation decisions. For example, if a company is spending a significant amount of money on internal R&D but is losing ground to competitors due to slow or late product introductions, it may need to rethink its R&D strategy and processes. IP valuation also provides strategic guidance for new product development, brand-extensions, line-extensions, managing foreign filing and prosecution costs, etc.

Financial Reporting

The recognition of the increasing share of IP assets in the total market value of enterprises has contributed to the change in the way the accounting community has begun to treat IP assets in financial reporting. The international accounting standards board (IASB) now recognizes acquired and identifiable intangible assets (i.e., IP assets) and requires all acquired IP assets to be recognised as assets, separately from goodwill, on the balance sheet of the business acquiring the IP assets. For instance, when a brand is acquired, IP valuation is done for the initial valuation as well as the periodical impairment tests for the derived values to be included in the balance sheet.

Optimizing Taxation

In devising ways to optimize the tax to be paid by a company, its assets, including its IP assets, require to be valued. IP assets create numerous opportunities for tax planning in both third party transactions as well as internal strategies such as cross-border transfer pricing and centralizing the ownership of IP assets in IP holding companies. The internal revenue service or other tax authorities would like to know as much as possible about the basis for any value determination used when allocating portions of the purchase price associated with the acquisition of a company. Valuation of IP assets helps in assessing fair transfer prices for the use of IP assets, including brands, to subsidiary companies.

Insurance of IP assets

A completely new market is opening up for the insurance of IP assets with a number of major insurers in the developed countries creating products tied to the capital value of IP assets, especially trademarks/brands. Valuation is of extreme importance as far as Insurance is concerned.

Determination the value of your Intellectual Property

Evaluation of IP can be a challenging process. The most suitable method for IP assets depends upon the premise of purpose to be derived from the result, assets subjected to valuation and the specific section for which the valuation is prepared.

The two effective ways of valuation are:

Market based

This is the most commonly used approach, this approach is based on the comparison with the actual price paid for a similar IP asset under comparable circumstances. The calculation would be accurate if there exists appropriate information on the nature and extent of rights transferred, circumstances of transaction for eg; license agreed in litigation settlement. The process initiates with research of an appropriate market to obtain the transaction information about sales, licensing of subject IP. The second step is to select relevant units of comparison such as “per drawing”, “per location”. “per customer” and develop a comparative analysis for the units considering factors such as profitability, risk, Industry, company structure, strength of IP rights, etc.

Income Method

It values the IP on the basis of amount of financial income that IP is expected to generate. In order to evaluate, project the revenue flow over remaining useful life of asset and offset those revenues by the cost related to asset. The risk has to be discounted from the amount of income by using discount rate or capitalization rate. The method is most suitable for capturing value of IP that generates stable cash flows. However, the method does not consider independent risks associated with an IP asset and lumps all the risks together to be adjusted in discount rate.

Factors influencing value of patents

Patent monetization is an important part of managing an IP portfolio. But before pursuing a particular patent monetization strategy, it is important to have a general sense of the value of the portfolio. In all, the complexities and nuance of patent valuation is a complicated undertaking, requiring a great deal of experience, expertise, and judgment. As such, the many approaches that a patent valuation expert might employ, and the information he or she might rely upon, are beyond the scope of an introductory article. However, this article will enable skilled IP attorneys to develop a solid sense of the valuation process, and to make informed decisions as to how and when to engage an expert.

Potential for Producing Revenue and Profitability

Some patents possess value because they are directly responsible for added revenue. The patented technology might be so important to the product that it drives additional purchases or commands a premium price. Similarly, the subject of the patent might drive sales of related, but unpatented, products. Examples include derivative sales (replacement parts, supplies, and maintenance services) and convoyed sales (sales often made in conjunction with the patented product).

Other patented technologies do not directly contribute to revenue, but might nonetheless be valuable to the patent owner. For example, the patented technology might make it less expensive to manufacture a product, directly reducing the cost of doing business and improving the owner’s bottom line. Others represent an add-on technology that doesn’t directly increase revenue but allows the patent owner to keep up with the feature offerings provided by competitors.

Patents may also be valuable to the patent owner in circumstances where there is not a clear connection to profitability. Patents can, in some circumstances, also be used to great effect for strictly defensive purposes. For example, the patent owner might rely on the patent to stake out a technological realm within which the owner could potentially sue for infringement, but which may also ward off competitors contemplating a lawsuit by raising the prospect that the owner would institute a countersuit.

Years of patent life remaining. Most investors would not want a patent that has limited years of patent protection (e.g. one that is more than 16 years old). However, a patent that was too recently issued (e.g. within the past three years) is unlikely to have been litigated. The average age of patents when they are litigated is three years old. It is better to acquire a patent after it has been proven valid during litigation or has passed through the period when challenge to its validity is most likely. As a sweeping generality, those patents that are most valuable are between 10 and 13 years old.

Number of inventors listed on a patent. A higher number of inventors listed on a patent indicates that the patent is of higher quality than a patent that has a lower number of patent inventors listed. The reason is that more intelligent scientists or engineers believed in and dedicated their time to championing–the technology behind the patent. However, having numerous inventors listed on a patent can be a source of vulnerability: if these inventors are deposed or cross-examined when their patent’s validity is challenged, it becomes more likely that one of the inventors will mention the existence of prior art. Also, failing to list an inventor on a patent risks giving rise to litigation.

Anticipated licensing revenue. A standard procedure in patent valuation is determining the net present value of royalties that will be received as a result of licensing the patent. One benefit of developing a highly delineated model of projected royalties is that very specific factors can be taken into account.

Ability to trigger sales of end products. Patents are most valuable when they cause consumers to buy more of the product or newer versions of the product. For instance, some ten years ago Intel and Microsoft were able to spark sales of personal computers when they introduced new semiconductors and software. Consumers willingly retired perfectly good PCs as they raced to embrace PCs with the greatest processing power and snazziest software. Similarly, patents that increase the utility for existing or new users are generally very valuable. Examples of this can be found in the patents behind the features on cell phones. Finally, patents are valued dearly when the patented feature is a primary factor in the demand for the product. This is to say that the patent is the product. Examples of this contention include the primary patents underpinning many pharmaceuticals, Velcro and Post-It notes.

Ability to generate add-on sales. A licensee may derive important ancillary benefits associated with selling products with embedded cutting-edge technologies. The benefits may be in the form of greater traffic generation to its web-site, catalogs, or stores. A more direct example of generating add-on sales would be a patent that improves on the functionality of ice skates could also contribute to higher sales of protective gear. In such instances, the licensor should seek higher licensing fees from the licensee since the licensee will enjoy spill-over benefits associated with selling the cutting-edge technologies.

Ability to generate sales in new markets. Licensors typically seek lower royalty rates from licensees who will sell the related products in a new market compared to the royalty rates they seek from competitors who will challenge the licensors in their existing markets. While the royalties per unit from the former licensee will be lower, there are two factors that are accretive to patent value in this scenario. First, the total royalties generated by a licensee pioneering a new market are likely to be substantial. Secondly, licensees penetrating new markets do not pose the profit denigration issues for licensors that competing licensees represent.

Stage of development. Typically, the earlier in the commercialization stage a technology is, the lower the licensing value. This is because there are significant risks in the technology never being brought to the market and if the technology eventually becomes market-ready, this will only be achieved at great expense. In the scenarios in which the licensee would have to make much of this investment, the licensing fees would be less lucrative for the patentee.

Quality of law firm. Services such a PatentCafe rate and rank law firms on their history of writing patents that successfully sustain invalidity challenge. Patents drafted by law firms that score highly on such rosters are generally of higher quality than patents that score poorly on such surveys.

Quality of patent examiner. Patents that are granted by patent examiners with longer tenures and more impressive records of granting patents that successfully sustain invalidity challenge are statistically more valuable than patents without such lineage.

Size of portfolio being sold. Our research indicates that each patent family will receive the highest price when between 25 and 76 patent families are included in a patent portfolio. Portfolios with more than 76 patent families are discounted because the buyers believe that the sellers are purging a lot of their mediocre patents in the portfolio sale. On the other side of the spectrum, selling too few patents yields a discounted value per patent because of the natural aversion that patent managers have to seek significant funds (e.g. $3 million) from their Boards of Directors in order to buy a small number of patents (e.g. two).

Personal Wealth Management Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Wealth Management and Financial Planning [Book]
Meaning of Wealth Management, Need, Scope of Wealth Management VIEW
Components of Wealth Management VIEW
Process of Wealth Management, Expectations of Clients VIEW
Expectations of Clients VIEW
Code of Ethics for Wealth Manager VIEW
Challenges to Wealth Manager in India VIEW
Financial Planning VIEW
Systematic Approach to Investing:
SIP VIEW
STP & SWP VIEW
Life Cycle and Wealth Cycle VIEW
Financial Planning in India VIEW VIEW
Legal aspects of Financial Planning VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 2 Estate Planning and Tax Planning [Book]
Real Estate, Role of Real Estate, Real Estate Investment Routes VIEW
VIEW VIEW
Real Estate Indices: Assets & Liabilities, Nomination, Inheritance Law, Will, Understanding Trust and Trust Documents VIEW
Tax Planning Concepts, VIEW
Assessment Year, Financial Year VIEW
Income Tax Slabs VIEW
TDS VIEW
Advance Tax VIEW
LTCG, STCG VIEW VIEW
Carry Forward and Set-off VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 3 Asset Allocation Strategies [Book]
Asset allocation Strategies VIEW
Asset allocation Decision VIEW
Equity portfolio strategies, Active Vs Passive VIEW
Management Portfolio Strategies VIEW
Value Vs growth investing, Tactical, Fixed & Flexible VIEW
Portfolio Management Strategies, Indexing, Active VIEW VIEW VIEW
Interest rate anticipation VIEW VIEW VIEW
Valuation analysis VIEW
Credit Analysis VIEW
Yield spread analysis VIEW
Bond swaps VIEW VIEW VIEW
Allocation to Speculation VIEW
Diversification in Perspective VIEW VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 4 Retirement Planning and Employee Benefits [Book]
Introduction to Retirement Planning: VIEW
Types of Retirement Plans VIEW
Defined Benefit plan VIEW
Defined Contribution plan VIEW
Superannuation Fund and other retirement plans VIEW
VIEW
Pre and Post Retirement Planning Strategies VIEW
ESOP VIEW
ESPP VIEW
Insurance Products in Wealth Management VIEW
Meaning, Basic of Insurance, Functions, Characteristics VIEW
Principles of Insurance VIEW
Characteristics VIEW
Group Life and Health Insurance VIEW
Types of Life Insurance Policies VIEW
Types of General Insurance Policies, Health Insurance and Group Insurance Policy VIEW
Types of Health Insurance Policy VIEW
Group Insurance Policy VIEW
Risk Management through Insurance VIEW

Business Leadership Skills Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Introduction to Business Leadership [Book]
Introduction to Business leadership, Meaning & Definition of Leadership VIEW
VIEW
Evolution and Growth of leadership VIEW
Functions and Characteristics of leadership VIEW
Importance of Leader in Organisation Culture VIEW
Latest trends / Current scenario of business leadership VIEW
Dark traits of Leadership VIEW

 

Unit 2 Leadership from Managerial Perspective [Book]
Nature Significance or Importance of leadership VIEW
Top 10 Qualities of an effective leader VIEW
Leader versus Manager VIEW
Leader versus Mentor VIEW
Authority versus Leadership VIEW
Formal versus Informal Leadership VIEW
Different roles of leadership VIEW
Different levels of leadership VIEW
Traits of an ethical leader VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 3 Leaders and Team Decisions [Book]
Team Decision making VIEW
Power and influence in teams VIEW
Leadership and Team empowerment VIEW VIEW VIEW
Challenges in Team decision making VIEW
Role of a Leader in decision making VIEW

 

Unit 4 Leadership Styles & Skills [Book]
Leadership styles: a) Autocratic leadership, b) Bureaucratic leadership, c) Democratic leadership, and d) Laissez faire leadership e) Transformational Leadership, f) Charismatic Leadership VIEW
Leadership Skills VIEW VIEW
Communications Skills VIEW
Decision Making Skills VIEW
Emotional Management Skills VIEW
Public Relation Skills VIEW
Personal Values and Ethics VIEW VIEW
Conflict Resolution Skills VIEW VIEW
Emerging Trends in Leadership: VIEW
Transgender in Leadership; Limitations VIEW
Challenges & Opportunities of a Women Leadership VIEW
Challenges & Opportunities of a Transgender Leadership VIEW
Role of a e-leadership VIEW

Financial Management Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Introduction to Finance {Book}
Meaning of Finance, Types of finance VIEW
Functions of finance VIEW VIEW
Financial management Meaning, Definitions and Importance VIEW
VIEW
Objectives of Financial Management VIEW
Role of a Financial Analyst VIEW VIEW
Financial Planning VIEW
Financial Planning Steps VIEW
Financial Planning Principles VIEW
Factors influencing a sound financial plan VIEW
Financial Planning Process, Limitations VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 2 Financial Decision {Book}
Introduction, Meaning of financing decision VIEW
Sources of Finance VIEW VIEW
Meaning of Capital Structure VIEW VIEW
Factors influencing Capital Structure VIEW
Optimum Capital Structure VIEW
EBIT, EPS Analysis VIEW
Leverages VIEW

 

Unit 3 Investment Decision {Book}
Introduction, Meaning and Definition of Capital Budgeting, Features, Significance, Process VIEW
Factors affecting Capital Budgeting VIEW
Capital Budgeting Techniques: VIEW
Payback Period, Discounted Pay- back period VIEW
Accounting Rate of Return VIEW
Net Present Value VIEW
Internal Rate of Return VIEW
Profitability Index VIEW

 

Unit 4 Dividend Decision {Book}
Introduction to Dividend Decisions, Meaning & Definition, Forms of Dividend VIEW
Types of Dividend Policy, Significance of Dividend VIEW
**Determinants of Dividend Policy VIEW
Impact of Dividend Policy on Company VIEW
Factors affecting Dividend Policy VIEW
Walter divided model VIEW

 

Unit 5 Working Capital Management {Book}
Introduction Concept of Working Capital VIEW
Significance of Adequate Working Capital VIEW
Evils of Excess or Inadequate Working Capital VIEW
Determinants of Working Capital VIEW
Sources of Working Capital VIEW
Working Capital Management Operating Cycle VIEW

Indian Financial System Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Overview of Financial System [Book]
Introduction to Financial System, Features VIEW
Constituents of Financial System VIEW
Financial Institutions VIEW VIEW
Financial Services VIEW VIEW
Financial Markets VIEW VIEW
Financial Instruments VIEW VIEW
VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 2 Financial Institutions [Book]
Financial Institutions, Characteristics VIEW
Broad Categories:
Money Market Institutions VIEW VIEW
Capital Market Institutions VIEW VIEW
Objectives and Functions of Industrial Finance Corporation of India VIEW
Industrial Development Bank of India VIEW
State Financial Corporations VIEW
Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India VIEW
EXIM Bank of India VIEW VIEW
National Small Industrial Development Corporation VIEW
National Industrial Development Corporation VIEW
RBI Measures for NBFCs VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 3 Financial Services [Book]
Financial Services, Meaning, Objectives, Functions, Characteristics VIEW
Types of Financial Services VIEW
**Fund based Services and Fee based Services VIEW
**Factoring Services VIEW
Merchant Banking: Functions and Operations VIEW VIEW
Leasing VIEW
Mutual Funds VIEW VIEW
Venture Capital VIEW
Credit Rating VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 4 Financial Markets and Instruments [Book]
Meaning and Definition, Role and Functions of Financial Markets VIEW VIEW
Constituents of Financial Markets VIEW
Money Market Instruments VIEW
Capital Market and Instruments VIEW VIEW
SEBI guidelines for Listing of Shares VIEW VIEW
Issue of Commercial Papers VIEW

 

Unit 5 Stock Markets [Book]
Meaning of Stock, Nature and Functions of Stock Exchange VIEW VIEW
Stock Market Operations VIEW VIEW
Trading, Settlement and Custody (Brief discussion on NSDL & CSDL) VIEW VIEW
BSE, NSE, OTCEI VIEW VIEW

Business Analytics Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Introduction to Business Analytics {Book}
Business Analytics, Terminologies used in Analytics: Business Analytics VIEW
Business Intelligence VIEW
Meaning, Importance, Scope, Uses of Business Analytics VIEW
Architecture of Business Analytics VIEW
Types of Analytics: Descriptive, Diagnostics, Predictive, Prescriptive VIEW
Application of Business analytics VIEW
Introduction to Data Science and Big Data VIEW

 

Unit 2 Role of Data in The Organization {Book}
Sources of data VIEW
Use of Data in Decision making VIEW VIEW
Importance of data quality VIEW VIEW
Dealing with missing or incomplete data VIEW
Types of Digital Data: Structured, Semi Structured, Unstructured Data VIEW
Data Warehouse VIEW VIEW
Data Mining VIEW
Data Integration: What, need, advantages, approaches of Data integration VIEW
Data profiling VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 3 Tools Used for Data Analytics {Book}
Introduction to data analytics software VIEW
Types of Data analytics software, Open source and Proprietary software VIEW

 

Unit 4 Database Orientation {Book}
Database VIEW
Types of Structures, DBMS VIEW
RDBMS VIEW
Relational Database Language VIEW
Introduction to SQL, Features of SQL, SQL Languages VIEW
DDL commands: Create, Add, Drop VIEW
Constraints in SQL VIEW
DML Commands: Insert, Delete, Update VIEW
Data Query Language: Where clause, Order by, Group by VIEW
DCL commands: Grant, Revoke VIEW
TCL Commands: Commit, Roll Back, Save point VIEW
Aggregate Functions, Relational Algebra VIEW

 

Unit 5 Data Visualization Using Tableau {Book}
Introduction to Dimensions and measures VIEW VIEW
Types of Charts, (Pie Chart, Column Chart, Line Chart, Bar Chart, Area Chart, Scatter Chart, Bubble Chart, Stock Chart)
Basic understanding in Dashboard and Storyboard VIEW

Management Accounting Bangalore University BBA 4th Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Introduction to Management Accounting {Book}
Management Accounting Meaning Definition, Nature and Scope VIEW
Objectives of Management Accounting VIEW
Limitations of Management Accounting VIEW
Tools & Techniques of Management Accounting VIEW
Role of Management Accountant VIEW
Relationship between Financial Accounting and Management Accounting VIEW
Relationship between Cost Accounting and Management Accounting VIEW
Analysis of Financial Statements
Types of Analysis VIEW
Methods of Financial Analysis VIEW VIEW VIEW VIEW VIEW
Problems on Comparative Statement analysis VIEW
Common Size Statement analysis VIEW
Trend Analysis VIEW

 

Unit 2 Ratio Analysis {Book}
Meaning and Definition of Ratio, Uses & Limitations VIEW
Classification of Ratios VIEW
Meaning and Types of Ratio Analysis VIEW
Calculation of Liquidity Ratios VIEW
Profitability Ratios VIEW
Solvency Ratios VIEW
Preparation of Trading Account VIEW
Preparation of Profit & Loss Account VIEW
Preparation of Balance Sheet VIEW

 

Unit 3 Fund Flow Analysis {Book}
Meaning and Concept of Fund flow analysis VIEW
Meaning and Definition of Fund Flow Statement VIEW
Uses and Limitations of Fund Flow Statement VIEW
Differences between Cash Flow Statement and Fund Flow Statement VIEW
Procedure for preparation of Fund Flow Statement VIEW
Statement of changes in Working Capital VIEW
Statement of Funds from Operations VIEW
Statement of Sources and Applications of Funds VIEW

 

Unit 4 Cash Flow Analysis {Book}
Meaning and Definition of Cash Flow Statement VIEW
Differences between Cash Flow Statement and Fund Flow Statement VIEW
Uses of Cash Flow Statement VIEW
Limitations of Cash Flow Statement VIEW
Concept of Cash and Cash Equivalents VIEW
Provisions of Ind AS-7 (old AS 3) VIEW
Procedure for preparation of Cash Flow Statement, Investing, Operating, Financing Activities VIEW
Preparation of Cash Flow Statement according to Ind AS-7 VIEW

 

Unit 5 Budgeting & Budgetary Control {Book}
Budgetary Control Introduction, Meaning, Objectives VIEW VIEW
Budget and Budgetary Control, Classifications of Budgets VIEW
Functional Budgets VIEW
Flexible Budgets VIEW
Budget administration VIEW
Zero base budgeting VIEW

Rural Marketing Bangalore University BBA 3rd Semester NEP Notes

Unit 1 Introduction to Rural Marketing {Book}
Meaning of Market and Marketing, Nature and Scope of Rural marketing VIEW
Rural vs Urban markets VIEW
Classification of Rural markets VIEW
Rural marketing environment VIEW
Rise of rural consumerism VIEW VIEW

 

Unit 2 Rural Consumer Behaviour {Book}
Consumer buying Behaviour in rural markets VIEW
Factors affecting Rural consumer behavior VIEW
Rural Market segmentation VIEW
Bases for segmenting rural consumer markets VIEW

 

Unit 3 Rural Product and Pricing Strategy {Book}
Rural product, Rural Product classification VIEW VIEW
Rural product life cycle VIEW VIEW
Product life cycle strategies in rural markets VIEW
New product Development in rural markets VIEW
Branding for rural markets VIEW VIEW
Pricing for rural markets: Factors and Strategies VIEW

 

Unit 4 Rural Distribution and Communication Strategy {Book}
Wholesale and Retailing in the rural market VIEW
Rural mobile traders VIEW
rural distribution models: VIEW
FMCG companies, Durable companies, Service organizations VIEW
Emerging distribution models VIEW
Trends in Rural Marketing:
Digitizing rural India VIEW
Online marketing reach in the rural market VIEW
Recent trends in Packing, Labelling, Grading VIEW VIEW VIEW
Transporting VIEW VIEW
Order processing VIEW VIEW
Payment methods VIEW VIEW VIEW
Storage and warehousing VIEW VIEW
Corporate Farming VIEW

Artificial Intelligence Bangalore University BBA 3rd Semester NEP Notes

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