Tag: Public Relations

In any purchase decision, multiple roles are played by individuals, even if the final purchase involves only one person. These roles help marketers understand who to target during different stages of the buying process. The five key roles are: Initiator, Influencer, Decider, Buyer, and User.

1. Initiator

The initiator is the person who first recognizes a need or problem and starts the buying process by suggesting a purchase. This individual plays a critical role in triggering the entire decision-making process. For instance, in a family setting, a child may act as the initiator by expressing a desire for a new video game console. In a business scenario, an employee may suggest purchasing new software to improve productivity.

Marketers need to identify initiators because they are key in creating demand. Advertising that highlights common problems or needs can effectively target initiators by making them aware of potential solutions.

2. Influencer

The influencer is the person who provides information or opinions that affect the buying decision. Influencers may have expertise or credibility that others rely on during the decision-making process. In a family, parents often act as influencers by advising on the quality, price, and brand of a product. In a corporate environment, technical experts or consultants may influence the choice of products or services.

Influencers play a crucial role in shaping perceptions and preferences. Marketers often target influencers by using strategies such as influencer marketing, testimonials, expert endorsements, and word-of-mouth promotion. Ensuring that influencers have positive experiences with a product can significantly increase its acceptance.

3. Decider

The decider is the individual who has the final authority to choose whether to buy a product or not. In many cases, the decider is the head of the family or the manager in an organization. For example, even if a child initiates the need for a toy and influences the parents, the decision to buy it may ultimately lie with the parent who controls the finances.

In business markets, the decider might be a senior executive who approves significant purchases after evaluating the recommendations made by subordinates. Marketers need to understand who the decider is and develop strategies aimed at convincing them, such as providing clear information about the product’s benefits, cost-effectiveness, and return on investment.

4. Buyer

The buyer is the person who physically purchases the product. This role involves activities like visiting the store, negotiating with vendors, and making payments. In many cases, the buyer may also be the decider, but not always. For instance, a parent might be the buyer purchasing groceries for the household, although other family members may have influenced or decided what should be bought.

Marketers should focus on making the buying experience as smooth as possible for buyers by ensuring product availability, offering promotions, and simplifying the payment process. Loyalty programs and incentives can also encourage repeat purchases.

5. User

The user is the individual who consumes or uses the product or service. Users may or may not be involved in the decision-making or buying process. For example, in a family, children might be the primary users of snacks or toys, while parents are the ones who buy and decide on the product. Similarly, in a company, employees use office supplies or equipment, although a procurement team handles the buying.

Since the user’s satisfaction ultimately determines the success of a product, marketers must focus on user experience and gather feedback to improve offerings. Ensuring that users have a positive experience leads to repeat purchases, customer loyalty, and positive word-of-mouth.

Interrelation of Roles in Buying Decisions:

In real-world scenarios, the roles of initiator, influencer, decider, buyer, and user often overlap. A single person may play multiple roles, or different individuals may assume each role. For instance, in a family:

• The child may be the initiator and influencer.
• The parent may act as the decider and buyer.
• The child is the ultimate user.

In a business-to-business (B2B) context:

• An employee may initiate the need for a new tool.
• A manager might influence the decision by recommending brands.
• The procurement officer handles the actual purchase.
• The employee uses the product.

Marketers need to understand the interplay of these roles to design targeted campaigns at various stages of the buying process.

The SERVQUAL model, developed by Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry, is a widely used framework for assessing and improving service quality. It focuses on understanding the gap between customer expectations and their perceptions of the actual service delivered. SERVQUAL evaluates service quality across five dimensions: Tangibles, Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance, and Empathy. This model provides businesses with actionable insights to enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty.

Key Dimensions of the SERVQUAL Model

• Tangibles

This dimension refers to the physical aspects of a service, such as the appearance of facilities, equipment, personnel, and communication materials. Customers often associate the quality of service with visual elements. Modern, clean, and well-maintained physical facilities create a positive first impression. For instance, in the hospitality industry, the cleanliness of hotel rooms and the design of lobbies are critical tangible aspects.

Importance: Tangibles influence customer perceptions and enhance the overall service experience.

• Reliability

Reliability measures the ability of a service provider to deliver consistent and dependable service. Customers expect businesses to fulfill promises, whether related to delivery time, product quality, or support services. For example, an e-commerce company that guarantees next-day delivery must ensure timely fulfillment.

Importance: Reliability builds trust and long-term relationships with customers.

• Responsiveness

This dimension evaluates how promptly and effectively a business responds to customer inquiries, complaints, or requests. Customers value quick and courteous responses, whether through customer service representatives, email, or chat support. For example, airlines addressing flight delays promptly and offering solutions demonstrate high responsiveness.

Importance: Responsiveness fosters a sense of importance and care, improving customer satisfaction.

• Assurance

Assurance involves the knowledge, competence, and courtesy of employees and their ability to instill confidence in customers. This dimension is particularly significant in industries like healthcare, banking, and education, where customers seek trust and security. For instance, a knowledgeable bank representative who explains financial products clearly can boost customer confidence.

Importance: Assurance enhances trust and reduces perceived risks.

• Empathy

Empathy assesses the extent to which service providers understand and care about the individual needs of their customers. Personalized services, attentive listening, and addressing specific concerns are hallmarks of empathy. In retail, a salesperson who recommends products based on a customer’s unique preferences demonstrates empathy.

Importance: Empathy fosters emotional connections, encouraging customer loyalty.

Gap Model of Service Quality:

The SERVQUAL framework identifies five key gaps that can impact service quality:

1. Gap 1: Knowledge Gap

   The difference between customer expectations and the management’s understanding of those expectations. This often arises from inadequate market research or customer feedback.

   Solution: Conduct regular surveys and focus groups to understand customer needs.

2. Gap 2: Policy Gap

   The gap between management’s perception of customer expectations and the service standards they set. Poorly designed policies can lead to a mismatch between expectations and service delivery.

   Solution: Align service standards with customer expectations.

3. Gap 3: Delivery Gap

   The difference between established service standards and actual service delivery. This can occur due to inadequate employee training, poor resource allocation, or lack of motivation.

   Solution: Invest in employee training and improve operational processes.

4. Gap 4: Communication Gap

   The gap between promised service (through advertising or promotional materials) and what is actually delivered. Overpromising can lead to customer dissatisfaction.

   Solution: Ensure honest and realistic marketing communication.

5. Gap 5: Perception Gap

   The gap between customer expectations and their perceptions of the actual service received. This results from discrepancies in service quality at different touchpoints.

   Solution: Consistently monitor and address service quality issues.

Applications of the SERVQUAL Model:

• Customer Feedback

The SERVQUAL model helps organizations systematically gather and analyze customer feedback on service quality, enabling targeted improvements.

• Benchmarking

Businesses use SERVQUAL to benchmark their service quality against competitors or industry standards, identifying areas where they excel or lag.

• Employee Training

The insights from SERVQUAL highlight specific areas where employees need training, such as communication skills or technical knowledge.

• Service Redesign

By identifying gaps, the SERVQUAL model guides businesses in redesigning their service processes for better alignment with customer expectations.

Advantages of the SERVQUAL Model:

• Comprehensive Evaluation: It provides a detailed assessment of service quality across multiple dimensions.
• Customer-Centric: Focuses on customer expectations and perceptions, making it highly relevant for enhancing satisfaction.
• Actionable Insights: Identifies specific areas for improvement, enabling targeted interventions.
• Versatility: Applicable across various industries, from healthcare to retail.

Challenges and Limitations:

• Subjectivity in Perceptions: Customer perceptions of service quality can vary widely, making it difficult to generalize results.
• Dynamic Expectations: Customer expectations evolve over time, requiring continuous updates to the model.
• Resource-Intensive: Implementing the SERVQUAL model requires significant investment in surveys, data analysis, and staff training.

• Focus on Gaps: While useful, the model emphasizes identifying gaps rather than exploring strengths.

Advertising is a strategic communication process used by businesses and organizations to promote products, services, or ideas to a target audience. It involves delivering persuasive messages through various media channels such as television, radio, print, digital platforms, and social media. The primary objective of advertising is to increase brand awareness, generate demand, and influence consumer behavior. Effective advertising not only highlights the unique features and benefits of a product but also creates an emotional connection with the audience. By consistently reinforcing a brand’s value proposition, advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions and driving market growth.

Objectives of Advertising:

• Building Brand Awareness:

Advertising helps create and enhance brand awareness by exposing the target audience to the brand’s name, logo, and key messages. It aims to make the brand recognizable and memorable, increasing its presence in the market.

• Generating Interest and Desire:

Effective advertising captures the attention of consumers and generates interest in the advertised product or service. It communicates the unique features, benefits, and value propositions, creating a desire to own or experience the offering.

• Influencing Consumer Behavior:

Advertising aims to influence consumer behavior by encouraging them to take specific actions, such as making a purchase, visiting a store, or requesting more information. It can create a sense of urgency or highlight limited-time offers to prompt immediate action.

• Shaping Brand Perception:

Advertising plays a significant role in shaping consumer perceptions of a brand. It can position the brand as high-quality, innovative, reliable, or socially responsible, depending on the desired brand image.

• Enhancing Customer Loyalty:

Advertising can strengthen customer loyalty by reminding existing customers of the brand’s value, reinforcing positive associations, and promoting customer engagement initiatives, such as loyalty programs or exclusive offers.

Types of Advertising:

• Print Advertising:

Print advertising includes advertisements published in newspapers, magazines, brochures, flyers, or direct mail. It offers a tangible medium to convey messages and can target specific geographic locations or niche audiences.

• Broadcast Advertising:

Broadcast advertising includes television and radio commercials. It allows for visual and audio storytelling, reaching a wide audience and creating a strong impact through sound, visuals, and motion.

• Online Advertising:

Online advertising encompasses various forms, including display ads, search engine advertising, social media advertising, video ads, and native advertising. It leverages the internet’s reach and targeting capabilities to reach specific audiences based on demographics, interests, or online behavior.

• Outdoor Advertising:

Outdoor advertising refers to ads displayed in outdoor locations, such as billboards, transit shelters, digital signage, or vehicle wraps. It offers high visibility and exposure to a broad audience.

• Mobile Advertising:

Mobile advertising targets consumers on their mobile devices through mobile apps, mobile websites, or SMS marketing. It capitalizes on the widespread use of smartphones and allows for personalized and location-based targeting.

• Social Media Advertising:

Social media advertising utilizes platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, or LinkedIn to deliver targeted ads to specific user segments. It allows for precise audience targeting based on demographic, interests, and online behavior.

• Guerilla Advertising:

Guerilla advertising involves unconventional and creative marketing tactics that surprise and engage consumers in unexpected ways. It often takes place in public spaces and relies on creativity and innovation to stand out.

Elements of Effective Advertising:

• Target Audience:

Understanding the target audience is essential for developing effective advertising. Define the target audience’s demographics, psychographics, behaviors, and preferences to tailor the message and choose the appropriate advertising channels.

• Unique Selling Proposition (USP):

USP is the unique benefit or advantage that sets the product or service apart from competitors. It should be clearly communicated in the advertising message to differentiate the brand and create a competitive edge.

• Creative Message:

The creative message is the core content of the advertisement. It should be compelling, memorable, and relevant to the target audience. The message should align with the brand’s positioning and effectively communicate the key benefits or features of the product or service.

• Visual and Verbal Elements:

Visual elements such as images, colors, fonts, and layout play a crucial role in capturing attention and conveying the message. Verbal elements, including headlines, taglines, slogans, or jingles, should be concise, impactful, and easy to remember.

• Call-to-Action (CTA):

A strong and clear call-to-action is essential in advertising. The CTA prompts the audience to take a specific action, such as visiting a website, making a purchase, or contacting the company. It should be persuasive, time-bound, and easy to follow.

• Branding:

Advertising should reinforce the brand identity by incorporating consistent branding elements, such as the logo, brand colors, and brand voice. Consistent branding helps build brand recognition, trust, and familiarity among the target audience.

• Emotional Appeal:

Effective advertising often taps into consumers’ emotions to create a connection and resonance. Emotional appeals can evoke joy, humor, excitement, nostalgia, or empathy, depending on the brand and the desired response.

• Media Selection:

Choosing the right media channels to reach the target audience is crucial. Consider factors such as reach, frequency, cost, targeting capabilities, and the media habits of the target audience. A well-planned media strategy ensures the message reaches the intended audience effectively.

Process of Creating Effective Advertisements:

• Research and Planning:

Conduct market research to understand the target audience, competitors, market trends, and consumer insights. Set clear advertising objectives and develop a comprehensive advertising plan that outlines the target audience, key messages, media channels, and budget allocation.

• Creative Development:

Develop creative concepts and ideas that align with the advertising objectives and resonate with the target audience. This includes designing visual elements, crafting compelling copy, and integrating the brand identity into the advertisement.

• Message Testing:

Test the advertisement with a sample of the target audience to gather feedback and assess its effectiveness. Use focus groups, surveys, or other research methods to gauge audience response, understand comprehension, and identify areas for improvement.

• Media Buying and Execution:

Based on the advertising plan, select the appropriate media channels and negotiate media placements. Execute the advertising campaign according to the planned schedule, ensuring the creative elements are adapted to fit each media channel.

• Monitoring and Evaluation:

Continuously monitor the performance of the advertising campaign by tracking key metrics such as reach, frequency, engagement, and conversions. Evaluate the effectiveness of the campaign against the set objectives and make adjustments as necessary.

• Post-Campaign Analysis:

Conduct a post-campaign analysis to review the overall effectiveness of the advertising efforts. Analyze the results, including sales data, consumer feedback, and brand metrics, to assess the return on investment and identify insights for future advertising campaigns.

Marketing Channels, also known as distribution channels, are pathways through which a product or service travels from the manufacturer to the end consumer. The effectiveness of these channels is critical for reaching target markets, enhancing customer satisfaction, and driving sales. There are several types of marketing channels, each serving a distinct function in the distribution process.

1. Direct Marketing Channels

A direct marketing channel involves the manufacturer or producer selling products directly to the end consumer without intermediaries. This channel is commonly used in industries where companies want to maintain full control over their products, customer interaction, and pricing. It offers the advantage of higher margins, as there are no intermediaries to take a commission.

Examples:

• Retail Stores: Companies like Apple and Nike sell directly to customers through their branded retail outlets or online stores.
• E-Commerce Websites: Brands can also sell directly through their own websites, cutting out the middleman and engaging customers directly.
• Direct Mail: Companies send promotional material or product catalogs directly to potential customers via mail.

Advantages:

• Direct control over the customer experience.
• Higher profit margins.
• Direct customer feedback, which can improve product and service offerings.

Disadvantages:

• High initial setup costs.
• Requires substantial investment in logistics and infrastructure.

2. Indirect Marketing Channels

An indirect marketing channel involves one or more intermediaries between the manufacturer and the end consumer. These intermediaries could be wholesalers, distributors, retailers, or agents who assist in moving the product to market. Indirect channels are more common when a company does not want to deal with the complexities of direct selling and prefers to outsource distribution to specialized intermediaries.

Examples:

• Retail Distribution: Products are sold through retail outlets like supermarkets, department stores, or specialty stores.
• Wholesale Distribution: Manufacturers sell products to wholesalers, who then distribute the products to retailers or other resellers.
• Agent-Based Channels: A company uses agents or brokers who manage sales and product distribution on behalf of the manufacturer, often seen in industries like real estate or insurance.

Advantages:

• Broad market reach with minimal investment.
• The expertise of intermediaries in distribution and logistics.
• Less burden on the manufacturer to handle customer service and retail operations.

Disadvantages:

• Lower profit margins due to intermediaries taking a commission.
• Less control over branding, marketing, and customer experience.

3. Dual or Hybrid Marketing Channels

A hybrid or dual marketing channel combines both direct and indirect marketing channels. This model allows businesses to sell their products through multiple channels, offering more flexibility and market coverage. Hybrid channels are increasingly popular as they enable businesses to maximize their reach and cater to diverse customer preferences.

Examples:

• Nike: Sells directly to consumers through its online store and physical retail outlets, but also distributes through third-party retailers.
• Dell: Initially adopted a direct selling model but later expanded to sell through retailers like Walmart and Best Buy in addition to their website.

Advantages:

• Flexibility to reach different customer segments.
• Increased market penetration by leveraging multiple distribution methods.
• Ability to adapt to changing market conditions.

Disadvantages:

• Complexity in managing multiple channels.
• Potential conflicts between direct and indirect channels (e.g., price competition).

4. Franchise Marketing Channels

Franchising is a form of distribution where a company (the franchisor) grants the right to another party (the franchisee) to sell its products or services. This arrangement involves a partnership between the franchisor and franchisee, where the franchisee benefits from using the franchisor’s established brand and business model, while the franchisor receives royalties and fees.

Examples:

• McDonald’s: One of the most iconic examples of a franchise system.
• Subway: Operates a global network of franchisees, each owning and operating an individual store under the Subway brand.

Advantages:

• Rapid expansion with minimal capital investment.
• Franchisees bring local market knowledge.
• Established brand recognition attracts customers.

Disadvantages:

• Less control over franchisee operations.
• Dependence on franchisee performance.

5. Vertical Marketing Channels

Vertical marketing channel is a distribution channel where all the participants (manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer) work together within a single, integrated system to achieve efficiency and control. These channels are organized in a way that all the channel members have a common interest, often with one member having control over the others. This collaboration leads to improved coordination and smoother operations.

Examples:

• Corporate Vertical Marketing: A company owns and controls all the stages of the supply chain, from manufacturing to retail. An example is Zara, which manages its own supply chain and stores.
• Contractual Vertical Marketing: Franchises or contractual agreements where businesses work under common objectives, such as McDonald’s or 7-Eleven.

Advantages:

• Enhanced coordination between channel members.
• Better control over pricing, marketing, and customer experience.
• Potential for economies of scale.

Disadvantages:

• High investment in control and ownership of the entire channel.
• Risk of conflict between channel members.

6. Horizontal Marketing Channels

In a horizontal marketing channel, businesses at the same level in the distribution chain collaborate to reach a larger market. These partnerships are typically formed between companies that offer complementary products or services. Horizontal marketing channels allow companies to share resources and increase their reach.

Examples:

• Co-Branding: Two companies collaborate to create a product that benefits both. An example is the partnership between Nike and Apple for a wearable fitness tracker.
• Retail Partnerships: A department store might partner with an online retailer like Amazon to sell its products.

Advantages:

• Access to new markets.
• Shared resources reduce costs.
• Increased brand exposure through collaboration.

Disadvantages:

• Potential for brand dilution if partnerships are not well aligned.
• Coordination challenges between businesses.

7. Direct Mail or Catalog Marketing Channels

In direct mail or catalog marketing, businesses send physical product catalogs, brochures, or promotional offers to potential customers via postal services. This traditional marketing channel allows businesses to target specific customer segments directly.

Examples:

• IKEA: Sends catalogs to homes worldwide showcasing their latest furniture and home accessories.
• LL Bean: Famous for using direct mail catalogs to drive sales.

Advantages:

• Ability to target specific customer groups based on demographics and past purchasing behavior.
• Tangible materials can leave a lasting impression.

Disadvantages:

• High costs associated with printing and mailing.
• Limited interactivity and engagement compared to digital channels.

Green marketing refers to the practice of developing and promoting products or services based on their environmental benefits. It involves the process of marketing products that are presumed to be environmentally safe, produced sustainably, and often made using eco-friendly methods. The concept emerged in response to growing consumer awareness about environmental issues and the desire for sustainable development.

Green marketing not only helps companies position themselves as socially responsible but also meets the demand of a growing segment of environmentally conscious consumers. It includes activities such as using recyclable packaging, minimizing carbon footprints, adopting energy-efficient production processes, and reducing waste.

Features of Green Marketing:

• Eco-Friendly Products

Green marketing focuses on promoting products that are non-toxic, made from natural ingredients, and cause minimal harm to the environment. These products are designed to be biodegradable or recyclable.

• Sustainable Practices

Companies engaging in green marketing adopt sustainable practices in their operations, such as using renewable energy, reducing water consumption, and minimizing waste generation.

• Consumer-Centric Approach

Green marketing emphasizes educating consumers about the environmental impact of products and how their choices can contribute to sustainability. This approach builds trust and long-term customer loyalty.

• Compliance with Environmental Standards

Green marketing often involves adhering to national and international environmental regulations, such as ISO 14000 standards, which ensure that products and processes meet environmental criteria.

• Innovation and Continuous Improvement

To maintain a competitive edge, companies invest in R&D to develop innovative eco-friendly products and processes. This involves adopting new technologies and improving existing methods.

• Cost Implications

Green products often have higher production costs due to the use of sustainable materials and eco-friendly processes. However, these costs can be offset by premium pricing and increased customer loyalty.

• Long-Term Orientation

Green marketing focuses on long-term environmental and economic benefits rather than short-term profitability. This approach ensures sustainable business growth.

Golden Laws of Green Marketing

• Transparency

Companies must be honest about their green practices and claims. Greenwashing, or making false claims about environmental benefits, can damage brand reputation and lead to legal consequences.

• Consumer Value

Green products should provide real value to consumers, both in terms of functionality and environmental impact. Consumers are willing to pay a premium only if they perceive genuine benefits.

• Differentiation

To stand out in the market, companies must differentiate their products by highlighting unique eco-friendly features, such as reduced carbon emissions or biodegradable packaging.

• Sustainability

Green marketing strategies should be aligned with long-term sustainability goals. This includes using renewable resources, reducing waste, and minimizing environmental impact throughout the product lifecycle.

• Affordability

While green products may be priced higher than conventional ones, companies should strive to make them affordable for a broader consumer base through economies of scale and process optimization.

• Consistency

Companies must ensure consistency in their green marketing practices. It is essential that all aspects of the business—from production to distribution—reflect the brand’s commitment to sustainability.

• Partnerships and Collaboration

Companies should collaborate with stakeholders, including suppliers, NGOs, and governments, to promote sustainable practices and enhance the impact of their green marketing efforts.

Importance of Green Marketing:

• Environmental Protection

Green marketing promotes the use of eco-friendly products and sustainable practices, contributing to environmental conservation and reducing pollution.

• Meeting Consumer Demand

As awareness of environmental issues increases, more consumers prefer brands that demonstrate a commitment to sustainability. Green marketing helps companies meet this growing demand.

• Regulatory Compliance

Governments across the world are enforcing stricter environmental regulations. By adopting green marketing practices, companies can ensure compliance and avoid legal penalties.

• Brand Differentiation

Green marketing allows companies to differentiate themselves in a crowded marketplace. A strong commitment to sustainability can enhance brand image and attract a loyal customer base.

• Cost Savings

While initial investments in green practices may be high, companies can achieve long-term cost savings through energy efficiency, waste reduction, and improved resource management.

• Enhanced Investor Appeal

Companies with strong green credentials often attract socially responsible investors. Green marketing can help businesses secure funding from investors who prioritize sustainability.

• Long-Term Profitability

Green marketing ensures long-term profitability by building a sustainable business model. Companies that adopt eco-friendly practices are better positioned to adapt to future market and regulatory changes.

4P’s of Green Marketing

• Product

Green products are designed to minimize environmental impact. This involves using sustainable materials, eco-friendly packaging, and ensuring that the product is recyclable or biodegradable. Examples include energy-efficient appliances, organic food products, and electric vehicles.

• Price

Green products are often priced higher due to the cost of sustainable materials and production processes. However, consumers who value environmental responsibility are often willing to pay a premium for such products. Companies should also consider offering discounts or incentives for eco-friendly purchases.

• Place

The distribution of green products should be efficient to minimize the carbon footprint. Companies can adopt green logistics, such as using electric delivery vehicles and optimizing delivery routes. Additionally, businesses should partner with retailers that support sustainable practices.

• Promotion

Green marketing involves promoting products in a way that highlights their environmental benefits. Companies can use eco-labels, certifications, and transparent communication to build trust. Digital marketing, social media campaigns, and educational content can also be used to spread awareness about the brand’s green initiatives.

Challenges of Green Marketing

• High Costs

Developing and promoting eco-friendly products often involves high costs due to the use of sustainable materials, advanced technology, and adherence to environmental regulations. These costs may deter companies, especially small businesses, from adopting green marketing.

• Consumer Skepticism

Many consumers are skeptical of green claims due to instances of greenwashing, where companies falsely promote products as environmentally friendly. Building consumer trust requires consistent and transparent communication.

• Limited Market

Although the demand for green products is growing, it still represents a niche market. Many consumers prioritize cost and convenience over environmental concerns, making it challenging for companies to scale green products.

• Complex Regulations

Green marketing involves complying with various environmental regulations, which can be complex and vary across regions. Navigating this regulatory landscape requires significant effort and expertise.

• Supply Chain issues

Ensuring a green supply chain is a major challenge. Companies must source eco-friendly materials, work with sustainable suppliers, and adopt green logistics, which can be difficult to manage and costly.

• Competition from Non-Green Products

Green products often face stiff competition from conventional products that are cheaper and more readily available. Convincing consumers to switch to eco-friendly alternatives requires strong marketing efforts and value propositions.

• Measurement of Impact

Measuring the actual environmental impact of green products and practices is challenging. Companies need reliable metrics and tools to assess and report their sustainability efforts, which requires expertise and resources.

E-business, or electronic business, refers to the practice of conducting business processes over the internet. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including buying and selling products or services, serving customers, collaborating with business partners, and conducting electronic transactions. e-business involves the entire business ecosystem, integrating internal and external processes.

E-business leverages digital technologies to enhance productivity, efficiency, and the customer experience. It covers a broad spectrum of applications such as supply chain management, customer relationship management (CRM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), online marketing, and more. The adoption of e-business allows companies to operate globally, reduce operational costs, and improve market responsiveness.

Features of E-Business

• Global Reach

One of the most significant advantages of e-business is its ability to reach a global audience. With the internet as its primary medium, businesses can expand beyond geographic boundaries and tap into international markets without the need for a physical presence. This helps businesses increase their customer base and revenue potential.

• Cost Efficiency

E-business reduces operational costs by minimizing the need for physical infrastructure, reducing paperwork, and automating business processes. For example, online platforms eliminate the need for physical stores, which significantly lowers overhead costs. Additionally, automated systems streamline inventory management, order processing, and customer support.

• 24/7 Availability

e-business operates around the clock. Customers can browse, place orders, and make inquiries at any time, increasing customer convenience and satisfaction. This continuous availability provides a competitive edge in terms of customer service and responsiveness.

• Personalization and Customization

E-business platforms can use data analytics and artificial intelligence to offer personalized experiences to customers. By tracking user behavior and preferences, businesses can recommend relevant products, customize marketing messages, and enhance customer engagement.

• Interactivity

E-business fosters direct interaction between businesses and customers. Through online channels such as websites, social media, chatbots, and email, businesses can engage with customers in real-time. This interactive capability helps build stronger relationships and improves customer loyalty.

• Integration with Business Processes

E-business is not limited to front-end operations; it integrates seamlessly with back-end processes, including supply chain management, finance, and human resources. By digitizing these processes, businesses can improve coordination, reduce errors, and enhance decision-making.

• Scalability

E-business models are highly scalable. Companies can easily increase or decrease their operations to meet market demand. Whether it’s expanding product offerings, adding new features, or reaching new markets, e-business allows for quick and cost-effective scalability.

Key Players in E-Business:

• E-Retailers (B2C Players)

E-retailers are businesses that sell products or services directly to consumers through online platforms. Popular examples include Amazon, Flipkart, Alibaba, and eBay. These platforms offer a wide range of products, competitive pricing, and customer-friendly return policies, making them highly popular among consumers.

• B2B Platforms

Business-to-business (B2B) platforms facilitate transactions between businesses. These platforms help companies source products, find suppliers, and manage bulk orders efficiently. Alibaba and IndiaMART are prominent examples of B2B platforms that enable businesses to connect and transact.

• Service Providers

Service providers in the e-business ecosystem offer services such as web hosting, payment gateways, cloud storage, and logistics. Examples include PayPal and Stripe for online payments, AWS (Amazon Web Services) for cloud services, and FedEx for logistics and shipping.

• Technology Enablers

Technology enablers are companies that provide the infrastructure and software necessary for e-business operations. This includes firms offering e-commerce platforms, website development tools, and digital marketing solutions. Shopify, WooCommerce, and Google (with its suite of advertising and analytics tools) are leading players in this category.

• Social Media Platforms

Social media platforms play a crucial role in marketing, customer engagement, and brand building for e-businesses. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Twitter allow businesses to reach a large audience, interact with customers, and drive traffic to their websites.

• Search Engines

Search engines such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo are integral to e-business success. They drive organic traffic to business websites through search engine optimization (SEO) and paid advertising. By appearing in top search results, businesses can increase visibility and attract more customers.

• Consumers

Consumers are at the core of the e-business ecosystem. They play a dual role as buyers and promoters. Satisfied customers often share their positive experiences through reviews and social media, contributing to word-of-mouth marketing. In addition, their feedback helps businesses improve products and services.

Challenges of E-Business:

• Cybersecurity Threats

One of the most significant challenges for e-businesses is ensuring the security of customer data and online transactions. E-business platforms are prime targets for cyberattacks, such as hacking, phishing, and ransomware. Ensuring robust cybersecurity measures, such as encryption, firewalls, and secure payment gateways, is essential but costly. A single breach can damage a company’s reputation and result in legal penalties.

• Lack of Personal Touch

Unlike traditional businesses where face-to-face interactions build trust, e-businesses operate in a digital environment where personal touch is minimal. This lack of direct interaction may lead to lower customer trust and loyalty, especially for high-value purchases or services that require personalized assistance.

• Technical issues and Downtime

E-business operations are heavily reliant on technology, including websites, apps, and servers. Technical glitches, server crashes, or slow load times can disrupt business operations and negatively affect customer experience. Regular maintenance, software updates, and ensuring high uptime are critical but require significant investment.

• Logistics and Delivery issues

For e-businesses that deal with physical products, efficient logistics and timely delivery are crucial. However, ensuring reliable shipping across various regions, managing inventory, and handling returns pose significant challenges. Factors such as delays, lost packages, and damaged goods can lead to customer dissatisfaction and increased operational costs.

• High Competition

The online business environment is highly competitive, with numerous players vying for customer attention. Large players like Amazon and Alibaba dominate the market, making it difficult for smaller businesses to compete on price, delivery speed, and product variety. Standing out in such a competitive space requires innovative marketing strategies and exceptional service.

• Legal and Regulatory Compliance

E-businesses must comply with various local and international regulations, such as data privacy laws (e.g., GDPR), taxation rules, and consumer protection acts. Navigating the complex legal landscape can be challenging, especially for businesses operating in multiple countries with differing regulations.

• Digital Divide and Accessibility issues

While internet penetration is increasing, there is still a significant digital divide in many parts of the world. Limited internet access and lack of digital literacy among certain populations restrict market reach. Moreover, ensuring that e-business platforms are accessible to users with disabilities requires additional investment in technology and design.

Personal Selling is a crucial component of the promotional mix that involves direct interaction between a salesperson and a potential customer. It is a highly personalized form of communication that allows for tailored product presentations, addressing customer needs and concerns, building relationships, and ultimately persuading customers to make a purchase. In this section, we will delve into the concept of personal selling, its objectives, process, techniques, and the skills required for effective personal selling.

Personal selling can be defined as a face-to-face communication process between a salesperson and a prospective customer, with the goal of making a sale. Unlike other forms of promotion, personal selling offers direct interaction, enabling the salesperson to customize the sales message and adapt to the customer’s specific needs and preferences.

Primary Objectives of Personal Selling:

• Generating Sales:

The primary objective of personal selling is to generate sales by persuading potential customers to purchase a product or service. The salesperson uses their expertise and communication skills to showcase the features, benefits, and value of the offering, emphasizing how it meets the customer’s needs.

• Building Relationships:

Personal selling allows salespeople to establish and nurture relationships with customers. By understanding their needs, providing personalized attention, and offering ongoing support, salespeople can build trust, loyalty, and long-term relationships with customers.

• Providing Information and Education:

Salespeople play a crucial role in providing customers with detailed product or service information, addressing their questions and concerns, and educating them on how the offering can solve their problems or fulfill their desires. This information exchange helps customers make informed purchase decisions.

• Gathering Feedback:

Through personal interactions, salespeople can gather valuable feedback from customers. They can gain insights into customer preferences, market trends, competitors’ activities, and potential areas of improvement for the product or service. This feedback is valuable for refining marketing strategies and enhancing the offering.

• Market Research:

Salespeople are often at the front lines of customer interactions, making them a valuable source of market intelligence. They can collect information about customer preferences, competitor strategies, and market trends, which can be used for market research and analysis.

Personal Selling Process:

The personal selling process involves several sequential steps that guide salespeople in their interactions with customers. While the specific steps may vary depending on the sales methodology or organization, the general process includes the following stages:

• Prospecting:

The salesperson identifies potential customers or leads through various sources such as referrals, databases, networking, or market research. Prospecting involves evaluating the leads to determine their potential as qualified prospects.

• Pre-approach:

In the pre-approach stage, the salesperson gathers information about the prospect, such as their needs, preferences, and background. This research helps in tailoring the sales presentation and approach to address the prospect’s specific requirements.

• Approach:

The salesperson makes initial contact with the prospect. The approach should be professional, courteous, and engaging, aiming to capture the prospect’s attention and establish rapport.

• Needs Assessment:

In this stage, the salesperson engages in a conversation with the prospect to identify their needs, challenges, and goals. By asking open-ended questions and actively listening, the salesperson gains a deeper understanding of the prospect’s situation, which forms the basis for the subsequent stages.

• Presentation:

Based on the needs assessment, the salesperson designs a customized presentation that highlights the features, benefits, and value of the product or service. The presentation should focus on how the offering addresses the prospect’s specific needs and provides a solution to their challenges.

• Handling Objections:

Prospects may have concerns, objections, or doubts that need to be addressed. The salesperson should listen empathetically, clarify misunderstandings, provide additional information, and present compelling arguments to overcome objections. Handling objections requires active listening, empathy, product knowledge, and persuasive communication skills.

• Closing the Sale:

Once the prospect’s objections have been addressed, the salesperson moves towards closing the sale. This involves asking for the order or commitment from the prospect. Closing techniques may vary, including trial closes, assumptive closes, or offering incentives to prompt the prospect to make a buying decision.

• Follow-up and Relationship Building:

After the sale is closed, the salesperson follows up with the customer to ensure satisfaction, address any post-purchase concerns, and solidify the relationship. Effective follow-up helps in building customer loyalty, generating repeat business, and potentially obtaining referrals.

Techniques and Strategies in Personal Selling:

• Relationship Building:

Personal selling emphasizes building strong relationships with customers. This involves understanding their needs, maintaining regular communication, providing ongoing support, and demonstrating a genuine interest in their success.

• Consultative Selling:

Consultative selling focuses on being a trusted advisor to the customer. Salespeople actively listen, ask probing questions, and provide solutions that align with the customer’s needs. This approach positions the salesperson as a problem-solver rather than a mere product pusher.

• Solution Selling:

Solution selling involves identifying the customer’s pain points and offering customized solutions that address those specific challenges. It requires a deep understanding of the customer’s business, industry, and competitive landscape to provide value-added solutions.

• Relationship Marketing:

Salespeople can employ relationship marketing strategies to cultivate long-term customer relationships. This involves personalized interactions, loyalty programs, after-sales support, and ongoing communication to strengthen the bond between the customer and the salesperson.

• Team Selling:

In some cases, complex sales require a team-based approach. Salespeople work together, combining their expertise and skills to address various aspects of the customer’s needs. Team selling ensures comprehensive coverage and provides a seamless experience for the customer.

• Adaptive Selling:

Adaptive selling refers to the salesperson’s ability to adapt their selling style and approach to match the customer’s communication style, preferences, and decision-making process. This requires flexibility, active listening, and the ability to read and respond to the customer’s verbal and non-verbal cues.

Skills Required for Effective Personal Selling:

• Communication Skills:

Salespeople need strong verbal and written communication skills to effectively convey their messages, actively listen to customers, and articulate the value proposition of the product or service.

• Interpersonal Skills:

Building rapport, empathy, and trust are crucial in personal selling. Salespeople should be able to establish connections with customers, understand their perspectives, and navigate different personality types.

• Product Knowledge:

Salespeople must have in-depth knowledge of the product or service they are selling. This includes understanding its features, benefits, competitive advantages, and how it solves customer problems.

• Persuasion and Negotiation Skills:

Salespeople need the ability to persuade and influence customers, particularly in addressing objections and closing sales. Effective negotiation skills help in finding mutually beneficial outcomes and reaching agreement with customers.

• Problem-Solving Skills:

Salespeople should be adept at identifying customer problems or challenges and offering appropriate solutions. Problem-solving skills enable salespeople to customize their offerings and address unique customer needs effectively.

• Time Management and Organization:

Personal selling involves managing multiple prospects and leads simultaneously. Salespeople should have strong organizational skills to prioritize tasks, manage their time effectively, and follow up with prospects in a timely manner.

• Resilience and Perseverance:

Rejection is a common aspect of personal selling. Salespeople must possess the resilience to handle rejection, stay motivated, and persistently pursue new opportunities.

Ethical Considerations in Personal Selling:

Personal selling, like any other business activity, requires ethical conduct to build trust and maintain long-term relationships with customers.

• Honesty and Integrity:

Salespeople should always be honest in their interactions with customers. They should avoid making false claims or exaggerations about the product or service and provide accurate information to enable customers to make informed decisions.

• Transparency:

Salespeople should disclose any potential conflicts of interest, such as receiving commissions or incentives for selling certain products. Transparent communication builds trust and ensures that customers have all the relevant information to make a decision.

• Customer’s Best Interest:

Salespeople should prioritize the customer’s best interest over their own. They should recommend products or services that genuinely meet the customer’s needs, even if it means recommending a lower-priced option or referring them to a competitor.

• Confidentiality:

Salespeople should respect the confidentiality of customer information shared during the sales process. They should handle customer data securely and use it only for the intended purpose.

• Respect and Professionalism:

Salespeople should treat customers with respect, professionalism, and courtesy. They should avoid aggressive or manipulative tactics and ensure that customers feel valued and heard throughout the sales process.

• Compliance with Laws and Regulations:

Salespeople should adhere to all applicable laws and regulations governing personal selling, including consumer protection laws, privacy regulations, and advertising standards.

• Ethical Sales Practices:

Salespeople should avoid engaging in unethical practices, such as high-pressure selling, bait-and-switch techniques, or misleading advertising. They should focus on building trust and long-term relationships rather than short-term gains.

Consumer behavior refers to the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations select, purchase, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires. It encompasses the psychological, social, and emotional factors that influence buying decisions. Understanding consumer behavior helps businesses develop effective marketing strategies, improve customer engagement, and enhance product offerings. It involves analyzing factors like personal preferences, cultural influences, social norms, and purchasing patterns. By comprehending what motivates consumers, companies can anticipate market trends, meet customer expectations, and create value-driven solutions that foster loyalty and long-term success.

Nature of Consumer Behaviour:

• Complex Process

Consumer behavior is a complex process involving multiple psychological and social factors that influence decision-making. Consumers do not simply purchase products; they go through several stages, including need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post-purchase behavior. The complexity arises due to varying individual preferences, motivations, cultural influences, and situational factors, making it challenging for businesses to predict consumer actions accurately.

• Influenced by Various Factors

Consumer behavior is influenced by personal, psychological, social, and cultural factors. Personal factors include age, gender, and lifestyle, while psychological factors involve perception, learning, and attitudes. Social influences like family, reference groups, and social class also play a role. Additionally, cultural factors such as values, traditions, and societal norms shape consumer preferences and buying decisions.

• Dynamic in Nature

Consumer behavior is dynamic and constantly evolving due to changes in personal preferences, technology, lifestyle, and market trends. New products, innovations, and marketing strategies influence consumer preferences over time. Additionally, external factors like economic conditions and societal shifts can alter consumer priorities, making it essential for businesses to stay updated and adapt to changing consumer needs.

• Goal-Oriented

Consumers exhibit goal-oriented behavior, meaning their purchasing decisions are driven by the desire to fulfill specific needs or achieve certain outcomes. These needs may be functional, emotional, or symbolic. For instance, a consumer may buy a product for its practical utility, to gain emotional satisfaction, or to express social status. Understanding these goals helps marketers design better value propositions.

• Varies Across Individuals

Consumer behavior varies greatly from person to person due to differences in personality, preferences, and socio-economic background. While some consumers may prioritize price, others might focus on quality, brand reputation, or convenience. This variability necessitates market segmentation and personalized marketing approaches to cater to different consumer groups effectively.

• Involves Decision-Making

Consumer behavior involves a decision-making process where consumers evaluate various alternatives before making a final purchase. This process includes identifying needs, gathering information, comparing options, and making choices. Post-purchase evaluation, where consumers assess whether their expectations were met, is also a critical aspect. Businesses need to understand this process to influence decision-making positively.

• Reflects Social Influence

Consumer behavior often reflects the influence of social factors such as family, friends, peer groups, and society at large. People tend to seek social acceptance and approval in their purchasing decisions. Word-of-mouth recommendations, social media, and online reviews have a significant impact on consumer behavior, making social influence a critical element in marketing strategies.

• Varies by Product Type

Consumer behavior differs depending on the type of product or service being purchased. For high-involvement products like cars or electronics, consumers spend more time researching and comparing options. In contrast, low-involvement products like daily essentials involve quick decision-making. Understanding this distinction helps businesses tailor their marketing efforts to suit different product categories.

• Influenced by Perception

Perception plays a significant role in consumer behavior, as individuals form subjective opinions about products and brands based on how they interpret information. Factors such as advertising, packaging, branding, and word-of-mouth shape consumer perceptions. Even if two products offer similar value, consumers may choose the one they perceive as superior due to effective marketing.

• Leads to Customer Satisfaction

The ultimate goal of consumer behavior is to achieve customer satisfaction. When consumers feel that a product or service meets or exceeds their expectations, they experience satisfaction, leading to brand loyalty and repeat purchases. Conversely, dissatisfaction can result in negative reviews and lost customers. Understanding consumer behavior allows businesses to create offerings that maximize satisfaction and long-term relationships.

Challenges of Consumer Behaviour:

• Complexity of Consumer Needs

Consumers have diverse and complex needs that vary across individuals and situations. A single product may cater to different needs for different people. For instance, one consumer may buy a car for luxury, while another buys it for utility. Understanding and predicting these multifaceted needs is a significant challenge for marketers aiming to create products that satisfy varying consumer expectations.

• Rapidly Changing Preferences

Consumer preferences evolve rapidly due to factors like technological advancements, societal trends, and exposure to global cultures. What is popular today may become obsolete tomorrow. Keeping up with these changing preferences requires businesses to be highly adaptable and continuously innovate to meet new demands. Failing to do so can result in losing relevance in the market.

• Influence of Social and Cultural Factors

Social and cultural factors greatly influence consumer behavior. These factors differ significantly across regions, making it challenging for global businesses to design universally appealing marketing strategies. For example, a product that is successful in one country may not resonate in another due to cultural differences. Understanding and respecting these nuances is critical for market success.

• Impact of Psychological Factors

Consumer behavior is heavily influenced by psychological elements such as perception, motivation, attitudes, and beliefs. These factors are subjective and vary widely among individuals, making it difficult for marketers to generalize behaviors. Additionally, psychological factors are often subconscious, further complicating efforts to predict or influence consumer actions.

• Information Overload

In today’s digital age, consumers are bombarded with information from multiple sources, including advertisements, social media, and peer reviews. This information overload makes it harder for businesses to capture and retain consumer attention. Moreover, consumers may struggle to process all the information, leading to unpredictable buying behavior.

• Increasing Consumer Expectations

With the availability of numerous alternatives and personalized offerings, consumer expectations have risen significantly. Modern consumers demand high-quality products, exceptional service, and unique experiences. Meeting these elevated expectations requires businesses to continuously improve their offerings, which can be resource-intensive and difficult to sustain.

• Influence of Technology

Technology has transformed how consumers interact with businesses. From online shopping to social media engagement, digital platforms have created new avenues for consumer behavior. However, this has also increased the complexity of tracking and understanding consumer preferences across multiple channels. Businesses must invest in advanced analytics to gain insights into online consumer behavior.

• Brand Loyalty vs. Switching Behavior

Building brand loyalty is a key objective for businesses, but it has become more challenging due to increased competition and abundant choices. Consumers can easily switch to competitors if they find better value elsewhere. Marketers must constantly engage consumers and deliver superior value to retain loyalty while addressing switching behavior effectively.

• Ethical and Sustainable Consumption

Modern consumers are increasingly concerned about ethical and sustainable practices. They prefer brands that prioritize environmental and social responsibility. Businesses face the challenge of aligning their operations with these values while maintaining profitability. Additionally, they must communicate their efforts effectively to gain consumer trust.

• Difficulty in Segmenting Markets

Effective market segmentation is essential for targeted marketing, but it is not always easy to implement. Consumer behavior can vary within segments due to individual differences, making it hard to identify homogeneous groups. Moreover, segments may overlap, requiring businesses to adopt complex, multi-segment strategies for better targeting.

Consumer behaviour refers to the study of how individuals, groups, or organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants. It involves understanding the decision-making process of consumers, including psychological, social, and economic influences. Businesses analyze consumer behaviour to identify patterns and preferences, enabling them to develop effective marketing strategies. Factors such as cultural background, personal preferences, lifestyle, and economic conditions shape consumer behaviour. By gaining insights into consumer actions and motivations, marketers can better meet customer expectations and enhance customer satisfaction.

1. Cultural Factors

Consumer behavior is deeply influenced by cultural factors such as: buyer culture, subculture, and social class.

(a) Culture

Basically, culture is the part of every society and is the important cause of person wants and behavior. The influence of culture on buying behavior varies from country to country therefore marketers have to be very careful in analyzing the culture of different groups, regions or even countries.

(b) Subculture

Each culture contains different subcultures such as religions, nationalities, geographic regions, racial groups etc. Marketers can use these groups by segmenting the market into various small portions. For example marketers can design products according to the needs of a particular geographic group.

(c) Social Class

Every society possesses some form of social class which is important to the marketers because the buying behavior of people in a given social class is similar. In this way marketing activities could be tailored according to different social classes. Here we should note that social class is not only determined by income but there are various other factors as well such as: wealth, education, occupation etc.

2. Social Factors

Social factors also impact the buying behavior of consumers. The important social factors are: reference groups, family, role and status.

(a) Reference Groups

Reference groups have potential in forming a person attitude or behavior. The impact of reference groups varies across products and brands. For example if the product is visible such as dress, shoes, car etc then the influence of reference groups will be high. Reference groups also include opinion leader (a person who influences other because of his special skill, knowledge or other characteristics).

(b) Family

Buyer behavior is strongly influenced by the member of a family. Therefore marketers are trying to find the roles and influence of the husband, wife and children. If the buying decision of a particular product is influenced by wife then the marketers will try to target the women in their advertisement. Here we should note that buying roles change with change in consumer lifestyles.

(c) Roles and Status

Each person possesses different roles and status in the society depending upon the groups, clubs, family, organization etc. to which he belongs. For example a woman is working in an organization as finance manager. Now she is playing two roles, one of finance manager and other of mother. Therefore her buying decisions will be influenced by her role and status.

3. Personal Factors

Personal factors can also affect the consumer behavior. Some of the important personal factors that influence the buying behavior are: lifestyle, economic situation, occupation, age, personality and self concept.

(a) Age

Age and life-cycle have potential impact on the consumer buying behavior. It is obvious that the consumers change the purchase of goods and services with the passage of time. Family life-cycle consists of different stages such young singles, married couples, unmarried couples etc which help marketers to develop appropriate products for each stage.

(b) Occupation

The occupation of a person has significant impact on his buying behavior. For example a marketing manager of an organization will try to purchase business suits, whereas a low level worker in the same organization will purchase rugged work clothes.

(c) Economic Situation

Consumer economic situation has great influence on his buying behavior. If the income and savings of a customer is high then he will purchase more expensive products. On the other hand, a person with low income and savings will purchase inexpensive products.

(d) Lifestyle

Lifestyle of customers is another import factor affecting the consumer buying behavior. Lifestyle refers to the way a person lives in a society and is expressed by the things in his/her surroundings. It is determined by customer interests, opinions, activities etc and shapes his whole pattern of acting and interacting in the world.

(e) Personality

Personality changes from person to person, time to time and place to place. Therefore it can greatly influence the buying behavior of customers. Actually, Personality is not what one wears; rather it is the totality of behavior of a man in different circumstances. It has different characteristics such as: dominance, aggressiveness, self-confidence etc which can be useful to determine the consumer behavior for particular product or service.

4. Psychological Factors

There are four important psychological factors affecting the consumer buying behavior. These are: perception, motivation, learning, beliefs and attitudes.

(a) Motivation

The level of motivation also affects the buying behavior of customers. Every person has different needs such as physiological needs, biological needs, social needs etc. The nature of the needs is that, some of them are most pressing while others are least pressing. Therefore a need becomes a motive when it is more pressing to direct the person to seek satisfaction.

(b) Perception

Selecting, organizing and interpreting information in a way to produce a meaningful experience of the world is called perception. There are three different perceptual processes which are selective attention, selective distortion and selective retention. In case of selective attention, marketers try to attract the customer attention. Whereas, in case of selective distortion, customers try to interpret the information in a way that will support what the customers already believe. Similarly, in case of selective retention, marketers try to retain information that supports their beliefs.

(c) Beliefs and Attitudes

Customer possesses specific belief and attitude towards various products. Since such beliefs and attitudes make up brand image and affect consumer buying behavior therefore marketers are interested in them. Marketers can change the beliefs and attitudes of customers by launching special campaigns in this regard.