Reconciliation of Financial accounts and Cost accounting

Reconciliation of financial accounts and cost accounts refers to the process of matching and comparing the data recorded in the financial accounting system with that in the cost accounting system. While financial accounts focus on preparing financial statements for external reporting, cost accounts are designed to provide detailed cost information for internal management purposes. Since these systems may use different methods and principles, reconciliation is essential to ensure accuracy, identify discrepancies, and provide a unified view of financial and operational performance.

Need for Reconciliation:

  • Differences in Objectives

Financial accounting aims at reporting an organization’s financial position and performance to external stakeholders, adhering to standardized rules like Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Cost accounting, on the other hand, focuses on internal decision-making, cost control, and efficiency improvements.

  • Variations in Treatment of Costs

Financial accounting categorizes costs into fixed, variable, and mixed costs for reporting purposes. Cost accounting uses classifications like direct and indirect costs, product costs, and period costs for analysis and control.

  • Separate Sets of Books

Often, organizations maintain separate records for financial and cost accounting, leading to differences that necessitate reconciliation.

  • Compliance and Accuracy

Reconciling financial and cost accounts ensures compliance with statutory requirements, eliminates errors, and provides reliable data for stakeholders.

Causes of Discrepancies:

  • Valuation of Inventory

Financial accounts typically value inventory using methods like FIFO, LIFO, or weighted average. Cost accounts may use different valuation bases, such as standard cost or marginal cost.

  • Depreciation Methods

Financial accounts might use straight-line or reducing-balance methods for depreciation, whereas cost accounts may allocate depreciation based on machine hours or production units.

  • Overhead Allocation

Overheads are distributed differently in financial and cost accounts. Financial accounts allocate actual overheads, while cost accounts often use predetermined overhead rates.

  • Inclusion of Non-Cost Items

Financial accounts include items such as interest, dividends, and abnormal losses or gains. Cost accounts exclude these as they are not directly related to production or operations.

  • Treatment of Profits

Cost accounts may calculate profit differently, excluding certain incomes or allocating costs differently than financial accounts.

Steps in Reconciliation:

  1. Preparation of Cost and Financial Statements
    Gather the financial profit and loss account and the cost accounting profit statement to begin the reconciliation process.
  2. Identify Variances
    Examine differences in treatment of costs, incomes, overheads, and inventory valuation between the two systems.
  3. Categorize Discrepancies
    Classify discrepancies as either:

    • Additions: Costs or expenses recorded in financial accounts but not in cost accounts.
    • Deductions: Costs or expenses recorded in cost accounts but not in financial accounts.
  4. Reconcile Profits
    Adjust the profit reported in cost accounts by adding or subtracting the variances identified to arrive at the financial profit figure.
  5. Prepare a Reconciliation Statement
    Create a structured statement showing the adjustments made to reconcile the cost accounts profit with the financial accounts profit.

Format of Reconciliation Statement

Particulars Amount
Profit as per Cost Accounts XXXX
Add: Items in Financial Accounts only
– Income not recorded in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Overheads undercharged in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Abnormal Gains XXXX
Total Additions XXXX
Less: Items in Cost Accounts only
– Overheads overcharged in Cost Accounts XXXX
– Non-cost Items (e.g., interest) XXXX
– Abnormal Losses XXXX
Total Deductions XXXX
Adjusted Profit as per Financial Accounts XXXX

Benefits of Reconciliation

  • Accuracy in Reporting

Ensures that both cost and financial data are aligned, enhancing the reliability of financial statements.

  • Enhanced Decision-Making

Reconciled data provides management with a clear understanding of cost structures, enabling better strategic decisions.

  • Error Detection

Identifies discrepancies, errors, or omissions in either set of accounts, ensuring that they are rectified promptly.

  • Regulatory Compliance

Supports compliance with statutory requirements by aligning cost and financial data for audit and reporting purposes.

  • Improved Efficiency

Streamlines processes by identifying inefficiencies in cost allocation and financial reporting.

Challenges in Reconciliation

  • Complexity in Large Organizations

Reconciling data in large firms with numerous transactions and cost centers can be time-consuming and complex.

  • Variability in Accounting Policies

Differences in policies, such as depreciation or inventory valuation, can complicate the reconciliation process.

  • Resource-Intensive Process

Requires skilled personnel and dedicated resources, which might be a constraint for smaller businesses.

Hire Purchase Agreement, Meaning, Features, Laws, Merits, Demerits, Duties of the Parties

Hire purchase agreement is a legal contract between a buyer (hirer) and a seller (or finance company), where the buyer agrees to pay for an asset in installments over a period of time while having the right to use the asset immediately. However, ownership of the asset remains with the seller or financier until the final payment is made. Only after completing all scheduled payments does the buyer gain full ownership.

This system is commonly used to finance expensive assets such as vehicles, machinery, appliances, or equipment that individuals or businesses cannot afford to pay for upfront. Typically, the agreement starts with a down payment (usually a percentage of the asset’s price), followed by regular monthly or periodic installments that cover the remaining balance plus interest.

Hire purchase agreements usually include terms on payment schedule, interest rates, penalties for missed payments, maintenance responsibilities, insurance requirements, and repossession rights. If the buyer defaults, the seller has the right to repossess the asset, and previous payments may be forfeited.

This financing method is popular because it allows buyers to use the asset while paying for it over time, improving cash flow flexibility. However, it comes with higher overall costs due to added interest and administrative fees, and buyers face the risk of losing the asset if they default before completing all payments. Despite these drawbacks, hire purchase agreements remain a widely used method for structured asset financing.

Features of Hire Purchase Agreement:

  • Installment-Based Payment System

A key feature of a hire purchase agreement is its installment payment structure, where the buyer pays the total price of the asset over several periodic payments. This helps buyers spread the cost over time, making expensive assets more affordable without requiring a large upfront payment. Each installment usually includes both a principal and interest component. This system improves cash flow, making it easier for businesses or individuals to acquire assets they couldn’t pay for in a single lump sum.

  • Ownership Transfers After Final Payment

Under a hire purchase agreement, ownership of the asset does not pass to the buyer at the start. Instead, the seller or finance company retains ownership until all installments have been paid in full. Only after completing the final payment does the legal title transfer to the buyer. This distinguishes hire purchase from credit sales or outright purchases. Until ownership transfers, the buyer is essentially a hirer, even though they have full possession and use of the asset during the payment period.

  • Right to Use the Asset Immediately

Although ownership remains with the seller, the buyer in a hire purchase agreement has the immediate right to use the asset once the contract is signed and the initial down payment is made. This feature is crucial for businesses that need machinery, vehicles, or equipment to generate income while paying for it over time. This arrangement allows the hirer to benefit from the asset’s utility even before completing the payment schedule, helping them increase productivity or meet personal needs right away.

  • Down Payment Requirement

Hire purchase agreements usually require the buyer to make an initial down payment, typically a fixed percentage of the asset’s price. This upfront payment reduces the amount to be financed and serves as a commitment from the buyer. The remaining balance is then paid in regular installments over the agreed period. The down payment helps reduce the lender’s risk and gives the buyer immediate access to the asset, even though full ownership will only come after all payments are completed.

  • Inclusion of Interest Charges

The installment payments under a hire purchase agreement typically include not just the principal amount but also interest charges. These charges compensate the seller or finance company for providing the buyer with extended payment terms. The interest rate is usually specified in the agreement and depends on market rates, the buyer’s creditworthiness, and the asset’s value. This feature means that, over time, the total cost of the asset through hire purchase is higher than its cash price, reflecting the cost of credit.

  • Default and Repossession Rights

An important feature of hire purchase is the seller’s right to repossess the asset if the buyer defaults on installment payments. Since ownership remains with the seller during the contract period, failure to meet payment obligations allows the seller to reclaim the asset without legal proceedings. This protects the seller’s interest but poses a risk for the buyer, who may lose both the asset and the money already paid. This clause is usually outlined clearly in the agreement’s terms and conditions.

  • Flexibility in Contract Terms

Hire purchase agreements often offer flexible terms regarding the payment schedule, contract length, and down payment percentage. Buyers and sellers can negotiate these elements to suit their financial capabilities and needs. For example, some agreements may allow larger installments over a shorter term, while others may stretch smaller payments over a longer period. This flexibility makes hire purchase an attractive financing option for both individuals and businesses seeking customized payment plans based on their cash flow.

  • Responsibility for Maintenance and Insurance

Under most hire purchase agreements, the buyer is responsible for maintaining and insuring the asset, even though ownership has not yet transferred. This is because the buyer has possession and full use of the asset during the installment period. Any damage, loss, or deterioration is the buyer’s responsibility, and failing to maintain or insure the asset could result in additional penalties or breach of contract. This feature ensures that the asset retains its value for both parties until full payment.

Laws Governing Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Indian Hire Purchase Act, 1972

The Indian Hire Purchase Act, 1972, was designed to regulate hire purchase transactions across India. It aimed to define the rights and obligations of both owners (sellers) and hirers (buyers) under such agreements. Although the Act was enacted, it has not been brought into force and therefore does not apply in practice. Despite this, its provisions are often referenced for guidance, and many terms in hire purchase contracts align with its framework, ensuring fairness and clarity in these financial arrangements.

  • Indian Contract Act, 1872

Since the Hire Purchase Act, 1972, remains unenforced, most hire purchase agreements are governed under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. This Act outlines general principles of contracts, such as offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity to contract, and free consent. Hire purchase agreements, being legally binding contracts, must comply with these requirements. If any part of the agreement violates these general principles (e.g., is based on coercion or misrepresentation), the contract can be declared void or voidable under the Indian Contract Act.

  • Sale of Goods Act, 1930

The Sale of Goods Act, 1930, also indirectly applies to hire purchase agreements. Although a hire purchase is not an outright sale, the Act’s provisions regarding conditions, warranties, and transfer of ownership guide many aspects of these transactions. For instance, the Act clarifies when ownership passes from seller to buyer and what rights the buyer has regarding defective goods. Courts sometimes refer to the Sale of Goods Act when interpreting hire purchase disputes, particularly regarding the quality or fitness of goods.

  • Transfer of Property Act, 1882

The Transfer of Property Act, 1882, governs how property is transferred between parties in India. While this Act mainly applies to immovable property, certain principles related to the transfer of rights and title can also influence hire purchase arrangements. In hire purchase, ownership remains with the seller until the final payment. The Transfer of Property Act helps clarify when, legally, rights pass from one party to another, ensuring both parties understand their roles and the timing of ownership transfer.

  • Consumer Protection Act, 2019

The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, protects the rights of consumers involved in hire purchase agreements. Buyers, as consumers, can file complaints against unfair trade practices, defective products, or misleading information under this Act. If a hire purchase seller fails to provide goods of acceptable quality or misleads the buyer, the buyer can seek redressal through consumer forums. This Act strengthens the consumer’s position and ensures they receive fair treatment and protection, even though they do not yet own the asset.

Merits of Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Easy Access to Assets

Hire purchase agreements allow buyers to access expensive goods without paying the full price upfront. This system enables individuals and businesses to acquire machinery, vehicles, or equipment they might otherwise be unable to afford. By spreading payments over time, it reduces the financial burden, making assets accessible even to small businesses or low-income buyers. This boosts business operations, improves personal convenience, and allows users to benefit from the asset’s use before full ownership is secured.

  • Flexible Payment Terms

One major merit of hire purchase is the flexibility of its payment structure. Buyers can negotiate installment schedules that fit their income flow or business revenue. Whether through monthly, quarterly, or other periodic payments, this flexibility eases budgeting and financial planning. It prevents sudden cash outflows, helping businesses maintain liquidity and ensuring personal buyers avoid straining their finances. The structured, predictable payment plan also makes it easier for buyers to meet their obligations without undue stress.

  • Facilitates Business Growth

For businesses, hire purchase agreements play a vital role in growth and expansion. Companies can obtain essential machinery, vehicles, or technology immediately, putting them to productive use while paying gradually. This allows businesses to generate income from the hired assets even before completing the purchase. By enhancing production capacity or service delivery without exhausting capital reserves, businesses can invest in other areas, maintain working capital, and pursue expansion opportunities without waiting for full asset ownership.

  • Encourages Asset Use Before Ownership

Hire purchase agreements let the buyer use the asset while still paying for it, offering immediate benefits. Unlike outright purchases, where full payment is needed upfront, or rentals, where there’s no ownership transfer, hire purchase blends use with eventual ownership. This arrangement is especially useful for those needing immediate use of the asset but lacking sufficient funds. It provides users with the ability to enjoy the product, generate revenue, or meet needs while paying gradually.

  • Boosts Credit Reputation

Successfully completing hire purchase agreements can help individuals and businesses build or improve their credit history. Timely payments signal financial responsibility to lenders, making it easier to secure future loans or credit lines. For businesses, a good credit reputation boosts investor confidence and facilitates access to larger financing options. This positive credit impact encourages responsible financial behavior, reinforcing good payment habits and expanding the buyer’s financial opportunities beyond the initial hire purchase arrangement.

  • Tax Benefits for Businesses

In many cases, businesses using hire purchase agreements may qualify for certain tax advantages. The interest portion of hire purchase payments is often considered a business expense, which can be deducted from taxable income. Additionally, depreciation on the asset may be claimed even while the asset is under hire purchase, depending on jurisdictional tax rules. These tax benefits reduce the overall financial cost of acquiring the asset, making hire purchase an economically attractive financing option.

  • Low Risk of Asset Loss

Unlike rental or lease agreements where missing payments may lead to immediate loss of use, hire purchase agreements typically allow the buyer more security. Although the seller retains ownership until full payment, the buyer’s right to use the asset is protected as long as they meet payment terms. This provides a sense of security, knowing that regular payments keep the asset in use and the buyer on the path to eventual ownership, minimizing sudden disruptions.

  • Supports Cash Flow Management

Hire purchase agreements help both individuals and businesses manage cash flow effectively. Instead of tying up large amounts of money in one purchase, buyers can allocate funds over time. This preserves cash reserves for other operational needs, emergencies, or investment opportunities. By balancing payments across periods, buyers avoid liquidity crises and maintain financial flexibility. This benefit is particularly critical for businesses that need to keep cash on hand for wages, raw materials, or unexpected costs.

  • Offers Ownership Incentive

Hire purchase agreements offer the added psychological incentive of eventual ownership. Unlike leases, where payments never lead to ownership, hire purchase installments build toward becoming the legal owner of the asset. This motivates buyers to keep up with payments, knowing the asset will eventually belong to them. The ownership promise encourages responsible financial planning and gives buyers a clear goal, adding value to the arrangement beyond mere use or temporary possession

Demerits of Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Higher Overall Cost

One of the biggest drawbacks of hire purchase agreements is the higher overall cost compared to outright purchases. While the installment system seems affordable, the inclusion of interest and administrative fees increases the total amount paid over time. Buyers often end up paying significantly more than the original price of the asset. For businesses, this added cost reduces profit margins, and for individuals, it can strain personal finances, especially if they fail to account for the true long-term expense.

  • Ownership Delay

In a hire purchase agreement, ownership of the asset remains with the seller until the final payment is made. This means the buyer does not have full legal rights over the asset during the installment period. As a result, they cannot resell or modify the asset without the seller’s permission. This delay in ownership can be frustrating, especially for businesses that want full control over their equipment or for individuals who may need to liquidate the asset quickly.

  • Risk of Repossession

A serious disadvantage of hire purchase is the risk of repossession. If the buyer fails to make payments on time, the seller has the right to seize the asset. This can result in significant financial and operational disruption, particularly for businesses relying on the asset for production or service delivery. Repossession not only leads to asset loss but also wastes the money already paid, causing both financial loss and reputational damage, especially if public repossession occurs.

  • Limited Flexibility

Hire purchase agreements are often rigid, with fixed payment schedules and terms that cannot be easily altered. If a buyer’s financial situation changes, such as reduced income or unexpected expenses, it can be difficult to renegotiate terms. This inflexibility can cause stress and increases the risk of default. Unlike leases, where termination may be easier, or loans, which sometimes offer refinancing, hire purchase agreements usually lock buyers into strict, long-term commitments with limited exit options.

  • Depreciation Risk

The buyer bears the risk of depreciation during the hire purchase period, even though they don’t yet own the asset. For example, vehicles or machinery can lose significant value over time due to wear, tear, or market changes. By the time full ownership is transferred, the asset may have depreciated heavily, reducing its resale value or usefulness. This can make hire purchase unattractive for rapidly depreciating assets, as buyers end up paying more for something that is worth less.

  • Impact on Credit Rating

Failure to meet payment obligations under a hire purchase agreement can harm the buyer’s credit rating. Missed or delayed payments are often reported to credit bureaus, affecting the buyer’s ability to secure future loans, credit cards, or financing. For businesses, poor credit ratings can reduce investor confidence and limit access to essential working capital. This long-term financial impact extends beyond the hire purchase arrangement, potentially affecting broader financial goals and opportunities.

  • Restriction on Usage

Some hire purchase agreements include clauses that restrict how the asset can be used during the payment period. For example, a vehicle under hire purchase may have limits on mileage or use in certain industries. Violating these restrictions can lead to penalties or termination of the agreement. Such usage limits reduce operational flexibility, especially for businesses that need to adapt quickly to changing circumstances. These constraints can make the arrangement less attractive compared to owning the asset outright.

  • Complex Documentation

Hire purchase agreements often involve complex legal documentation that may be difficult for buyers to fully understand without legal advice. Misunderstanding terms, such as penalty clauses, maintenance obligations, or insurance requirements, can lead to unexpected liabilities. Small businesses or individuals may find the process intimidating, increasing the risk of entering agreements that do not fully match their needs. Without professional guidance, buyers might overlook unfavorable terms, leading to financial or legal complications later.

  • Long-term Financial Commitment

Hire purchase agreements lock buyers into long-term financial commitments, which can become burdensome over time. Even if the asset’s usefulness declines or better options become available in the market, the buyer remains obligated to complete the payments. This reduces financial flexibility and can prevent buyers from upgrading equipment or switching to more cost-effective solutions. The long-term nature of these commitments requires careful financial planning, as unexpected downturns or challenges can make the arrangement a liability

Duties of the Parties in Hire Purchase Agreements:

  • Duties of the Seller: Delivery of Goods

The seller has the duty to deliver the agreed-upon goods to the buyer as specified in the hire purchase agreement. The goods must match the description, quality, and condition promised at the time of signing. Any delay or failure in delivery can breach the contract and expose the seller to legal action. The seller must also ensure the goods are suitable for the intended use, meeting all applicable warranties and standards set in the agreement.

  • Duties of the Seller: Maintain Ownership Until Full Payment

The seller retains ownership of the goods until the buyer has made all payments as per the agreement. It is the seller’s duty to safeguard their ownership rights by including clear clauses regarding payment defaults and repossession. While the buyer uses the goods, the seller cannot interfere unless there’s a breach. However, the seller must be prepared to reclaim the goods if the buyer defaults, following legal procedures and respecting the buyer’s partial payment rights.

  • Duties of the Seller: Provide Accurate Information

The seller must provide complete and truthful information about the goods, pricing, installment structure, interest rates, and any other costs involved. This ensures the buyer makes an informed decision. Misrepresentation or withholding important details may result in legal liabilities. The seller should also explain terms like maintenance responsibilities, insurance requirements, or usage restrictions. Transparency builds trust and ensures the buyer fully understands the financial and legal commitments they are entering.

  • Duties of the Seller: Ensure Legal Compliance

It is the seller’s duty to draft the hire purchase agreement in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. This includes complying with consumer protection laws, hire purchase acts, and financial disclosure requirements. The seller must ensure the agreement clearly outlines the rights and obligations of both parties, including what happens in case of default. Failure to comply with legal standards may result in penalties, invalid agreements, or reputational damage for the seller.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Timely Payment

The primary duty of the buyer is to make timely payments of installments as agreed in the hire purchase contract. Delays or defaults can result in penalties, additional charges, or even repossession of the goods. The buyer should keep track of payment dates and amounts, ensuring they meet their financial obligations without reminders. Consistent payment builds good credit standing and secures the path to full ownership, reducing the risk of legal action by the seller.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Care and Maintenance of Goods

The buyer is responsible for properly caring for and maintaining the goods while under the hire purchase agreement. Even though ownership has not yet transferred, the buyer must use the goods responsibly, ensuring they do not suffer unnecessary damage or neglect. Some agreements specify maintenance duties or require the buyer to follow manufacturer instructions. Negligence may result in penalties, cancellation of the agreement, or liability for repair costs.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Use Goods Within Agreed Terms

The buyer has a duty to use the goods only within the scope permitted by the hire purchase agreement. For example, a vehicle may have mileage restrictions or be prohibited from commercial use. Violating these terms can trigger penalties or breach the contract. The buyer must carefully read and understand all usage clauses to avoid misuse, ensuring they stay within the agreed conditions throughout the payment period.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Notify Seller of Issues

The buyer has the responsibility to promptly inform the seller of any defects, malfunctions, or issues with the goods. Early communication allows the seller to repair, replace, or address the problem under warranty or agreement terms. Ignoring issues or failing to report them can make the buyer liable for additional damages. This duty ensures that the buyer’s rights are protected while helping the seller maintain accountability over the goods.

  • Duties of the Buyer: Arrange for Insurance

In many hire purchase agreements, the buyer is required to insure the goods against theft, damage, or loss. This duty protects both the buyer’s use and the seller’s ownership interests. The buyer must ensure the insurance policy meets the minimum requirements specified in the agreement and remains active for the entire payment period. Failure to insure the goods can result in breach of contract, financial liability, or loss of use if damage occurs.

Completing the accounting cycle measures Business income

One of the most significant accounting concepts is “Concept of Income”. Similarly, measurement of a business income is also an important function of an accountant.

In General term, payment received in lieu of services or goods are called income, for example, salary received by any employee is his income. There may be different type of incomes like Gross income, Net income, National Income, and Personal income, but we are here more concerned for a business income. Surplus revenue over expenses incurred is called as “Business Income.”

Objectives of Net Income

Following are the important objectives of a net income:

  • Historical income figure is the base for future projections.
  • Ascertainment of a net income is necessary to give portion of profit to employees.
  • To evaluate the activities, which give higher return on scarce resources are preferred. It helps to increase the wealth of a firm.
  • Ascertainment of a net income is helpful for paying dividends to the shareholders of any company.
  • Return of income on capital employed, gives an idea of overall efficiency of a business.

Definition of Income

The most authentic definition is given by the American Accounting Association as −

“The realized net income of an enterprise measures its effectiveness as an operative unit and is the change in its net assets arising out of a (a) the excess or deficiency of revenue compared with related expired cost, and (b) other gains or losses to the enterprise from sales, exchange or other conversion of assets:”.

According to the American Accounting Association, to be as business income, income should be realized. For example, to be a business income, only appreciation in value of assets of a company is not enough, for this, asset has really been disposed of.

Accounting Period

For the measurement of any income concerns, instead of a point of time, a span of time is required. Creditors, investors, owners, and government, all of them require systematic accounting reports at regular and proper intervals. The maximum interval between reports is one year, as it helps a businessman to take any corrective action.

An accounting period concept is directly related to matching concept and realization concept; in the absence of any of them, we could not measure income of the concerns. On the basis of matching concept, expenses should be determined in a particular accounting period (usually a year) and matched with the revenue (based on realization concept) and the result will be income or loss of the accounting period.

Accounting Concept and Income Measurement

The measurement of accounting income is the subject to several accounting concepts and conventions. Impact of accounting concepts and convention on measurement of the accounting income is given below −

Conservatism

Where an income of one period may be shifted to another period for the measurement of income is called as ‘conservatism approach.’

According to the convention of conservatism, the policy of playing safe is followed while determining a business income and an accountant seeks to ensure that the reported profit is not over stated. Measurement of a stock at cost or market price, whichever is less is one of the important examples as applied to measurement of income. But it must be insured that providing excessive depreciation or excessive provisions for a doubt full debt or excessive reserve should not be there.

Consistency

According to this concept, the principle of consistency should be followed in accounting practice. For example, in the treatment of assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses to insure the comparison of accounting results of one period with another period.

Therefore, the accounting profession and the corporate laws of most of the counties require that financial statement must be made out on the basis that the figures stated are consistent with those of the preceding year.

Entity Concept

Proprietor and business are the two separate and different entities according to the entity concept. For example, an interest on capital is business expenditure, but for a proprietor, it is an income. Thus, we cannot treat a business income as personal income or vice-versa.

Going Concern Concept

According to this concept, it is assumed that business will continue for a long time. Thus, charging depreciation on a Fixed Asset is based on this concept.

Accrual Concept

According to this concept, an income must be recognized in the period in which it was realized and costs must be matched with the revenue of that period.

Accounting Period

It is desirable to adopt a calendar year or natural business year to know the results of business.

Computation of Business Income

To compute business income, following are the two methods:

Balance Sheet Approach

Comparison of the closing values (Assets minus outsider’s liabilities) of a firm with the values at the beginning of that accounting period is called as Balance Sheet approach. In above value, an addition to capital will be subtracted and addition of drawings will be added while computing the business income of a firm. Since, income is calculated with the help of Balance Sheet hence called as Balance Sheet approach.

Transaction Approach

Transactions are mostly related to production or the purchase of goods and the sale of goods and all these transactions directly or indirectly related to the revenue or to the cost. Therefore, surplus collection of the revenue by selling goods, spent over for production or purchasing the goods is the measure of income. This system is widely followed by the enterprises where double entry system adopted.

Measurement of Business Income

There are following two factors which are helpful in the estimation of an income:

  • Revenues: Sale of goods and rendering of services are the way to generate revenue. Therefore, it can be defined as consideration, recovered by the business for rendering services and goods to its customers.
  • Expenses: An expense is an expired cost. We can say the cost that have been consumed in a process of producing revenue are the expired cost. Expenses tell us how assets are decreased as a result of the services performed by a business.

Measurement of Revenue

Measurement of the revenue is based on an accrual concept. Accounting period, in which revenue earned, is the period of revenue accrues. Therefore, a receipt of cash and revenue earned are the two different things. We can say that revenue is earned only when it is actually realized and not necessarily, when it is received.

Measurement of Expenses

  • In case of delivery of goods to its customers is a direct identification with the revenue.
  • Rent and office salaries are an indirect association with the revenue.

There are four types of events (given below) that need proper consideration about as an expense of a given period and expenditure and cash payment made in connection with those items:

  • Expenditure, which are expenses of the current year.
  • Some expenditure, which are made prior to this period and has become expense of the current year.
  • Expenditure, which is made this year, becomes expense in the next accounting periods. For example, purchase of fixed assets and depreciation in next up-coming years.
  • Expense of this year, which will be paid in next accounting years. For example, outstanding expenses.

Matching Concept

It is a problem of recognition of revenue during the year and allocation of expired cost to the period.

Recognition of Revenue

Most frequent criteria, which are used in recognition of the revenue are as follows:

  • Point of Sale: Transfer of ownership title to a buyer is point of sale, in case of sale of commodity.
  • Receipt of Payment: Criteria of cash basis is widely used by the attorneys, physicians, and other professionals in which revenue is considered to be earned at the time of collection of cash.
  • Instalment Method: Instalment method is widely used in retail trading specially in consumer durables. In this system, revenue earned is treated in the same manner as is used in any other credit sale.
  • Gold Mines: The accounting period in which gold is mined is the period of revenue earned.
  • Contracts: Degree of contract completion, especially in long term construction contracts is based on percentage of completion of a contract in a single accounting year. It is based on total estimated life of the contract.

Allocation of Costs

Matching of expired revenue and expired costs on a periodic time basis is the satisfactory basis of allocation of cost as stated earlier.

Measurement of Costs

Measurement of costs can be determined by:

  • Historical Costs: To determine periodic net income and financial status, historical cost is important. Historical cost actually means outflow of cash or cash equivalents for goods and services acquired.
  • Replacement Costs: Replacing any asset at the current market price is called as replacement cost.

Basis of Measurement of Income

Following are the two significant basis of measurement of income:

  • Accrual Basis: In an accrual basis accounting, incomes are recognized in a company’s books at the time when revenue is actually earned (however, not essentially received) and expenses is recorded when liabilities are incurred (however, not essentially paid for). Further, expenses are compared with revenues on the income statement when the expenses expire or title has been transferred to the buyer, and not at the time when the expenses are paid.
  • Cash Basis: In a cash basis accounting, revenues and expenses are recognized at the time of physical cash is actually received or paid out.

Change in the Basis of Accounting

We have to pass adjustment entries whenever accounting records change from cash basis to accrual basis or vice versa specially in respect of the prepaid expenses, outstanding expenses, accrued income, income received in advance, bad debts & provisions, depreciation, and stock in trade.

Features of Accounting Income

  • Matching revenue with related cost or expenses is a matter of accounting income.
  • Accounting income is based on an accounting period concept.
  • Expenses are measured in terms of a historical cost and determination of expenses is based on a cost concept.
  • It is based on a realization principal.
  • Revenue items are considered to ascertain a correct accounting income.
error: Content is protected !!