Tag: Regulatory Impact

The Law of demand asserts that, all else being equal, as the price of a good or service rises, the quantity demanded typically decreases, and as the price falls, the quantity demanded increases. While this law is generally valid in most market situations, there are certain exceptions where the demand curve does not follow this standard behavior.

1. Giffen Goods

Giffen goods are a class of inferior goods that do not follow the law of demand. These goods typically see an increase in quantity demanded as their price rises and a decrease in quantity demanded when their price falls. This counter-intuitive phenomenon occurs because the income effect outweighs the substitution effect. Giffen goods are usually staple items that make up a large portion of the consumer’s budget, such as bread or rice in impoverished regions.

When the price of a Giffen good rises, consumers’ real income effectively decreases, causing them to buy more of the good despite its higher price, because they can no longer afford the more expensive alternatives. A classic example is the situation in some developing countries where, if the price of rice rises, poor consumers may cut back on other foods but buy more rice because it is still their most affordable option.

2. Veblen Goods

Veblen goods are a category of goods for which demand increases as the price rises, contradicting the law of demand. These are typically luxury goods or status-symbol items, such as designer clothing, high-end cars, or expensive watches. The higher price of these goods actually makes them more desirable because consumers perceive them as exclusive, prestigious, or a status symbol. The desire to signal wealth and status to others causes demand to rise when the price increases. Essentially, consumers view these goods as more valuable because they are expensive, which is why the law of demand does not hold in this case.

For example, as the price of a luxury brand like Rolex increases, some consumers might perceive the watch as more prestigious and, therefore, may desire it more, increasing the quantity demanded.

3. Speculative Bubbles

In certain markets, particularly in asset markets like real estate, stocks, or commodities, the law of demand may not apply due to speculative bubbles. A speculative bubble occurs when the price of an asset rises due to excessive demand driven by the belief that prices will continue to rise in the future. In such cases, an increase in price may actually lead to an increase in demand, as consumers or investors expect to profit from future price increases. People are willing to buy at higher prices with the expectation of selling at even higher prices later.

For example, during a housing bubble, rising home prices may cause more buyers to enter the market, as they believe the prices will continue to climb, and they want to secure a home before they become even more expensive.

4. Essential Goods (Necessities)

For essential goods or necessities, such as basic food items, healthcare, and utilities, the law of demand may not hold strongly, particularly for low-income consumers. When the price of these goods rises, consumers might not reduce their quantity demanded as expected because these goods are vital for survival. As these goods are non-substitutable and necessary for day-to-day living, consumers may continue to purchase them, even at higher prices, to meet their basic needs.

For example, if the price of basic medications increases, people with chronic conditions may still buy the medicine because it is necessary for their health, leading to inelastic demand, where the quantity demanded doesn’t change much with price fluctuations.

5. Price Expectations

In certain circumstances, future price expectations can cause an increase in demand when prices rise. If consumers expect that prices will increase further in the future, they may choose to purchase more of a good or service now, even if the price has already increased. This is particularly common with durable goods like cars or electronics. The expectation of future price hikes leads consumers to buy more at current prices to avoid higher costs later, thereby causing an increase in demand.

For instance, if a consumer expects gasoline prices to rise sharply in the near future, they might fill up their tanks even if the price has already increased, leading to higher demand at the higher price.

6. Dynamic Pricing and Popularity

In some markets, particularly those involving dynamic pricing, demand might increase when the price increases due to a boost in the perceived value of the product. This is often the case with concert tickets, airline tickets, or hotel bookings, where prices increase as the event or service gets closer. Higher prices in these cases may increase demand, as consumers perceive the product or event as being more exclusive or in limited supply.

For example, tickets for a popular concert may become more expensive as the date approaches, and this increase in price could actually spur demand as consumers want to secure tickets before they are sold out.

7. Psychological Pricing

Psychological pricing is another factor where demand may increase despite higher prices. This happens when products are priced in a way that creates a perception of greater value, such as pricing an item at $9.99 instead of $10. This small price difference can make the product seem like a better deal, encouraging consumers to buy more, even though the price has increased slightly. This behavior exploits consumer psychology and is often used in retail and marketing strategies.

Business is an organized entity that engages in the production, distribution, and sale of goods or services to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers, typically with the aim of earning profit. It involves activities like planning, marketing, finance, and operations management. Businesses operate within a dynamic environment influenced by economic, social, technological, and legal factors. They can take various forms, including sole proprietorships, partnerships, corporations, and cooperatives. Successful businesses align their goals with market demands, adapt to changes, and focus on creating value for stakeholders, including customers, employees, and investors, while maintaining ethical and sustainable practices.

Functions of Business:

• Production or Operations

This function involves the creation of goods or services to satisfy customer needs. It includes resource management, production planning, quality control, and ensuring efficient operations. The goal is to optimize resource use while maintaining high-quality outputs, ensuring timely delivery to the market.

• Marketing

Marketing focuses on identifying, understanding, and satisfying customer needs. It includes activities such as market research, product development, advertising, pricing, and sales promotion. A strong marketing function builds brand awareness, attracts customers, and drives sales, ensuring the business remains competitive.

• Finance and Accounting

The finance function ensures the availability and management of funds necessary for the business’s operations and growth. It involves budgeting, financial planning, investment decisions, and monitoring cash flow. Accounting provides accurate financial records, compliance with regulations, and insights into profitability and cost management.

• Human Resource Management (HRM)

HRM focuses on recruiting, training, and retaining employees who contribute to the business’s success. It encompasses talent acquisition, performance management, employee welfare, and compliance with labor laws. This function ensures that the workforce is skilled, motivated, and aligned with organizational goals.

• Sales

Sales is the revenue-generating function of a business. It involves direct interactions with customers, building relationships, and closing deals. The sales team plays a critical role in understanding customer needs, providing solutions, and ensuring a steady flow of income for the business.

• Research and Development (R&D)

R&D drives innovation by developing new products, improving existing ones, and exploring better processes. It ensures the business stays relevant in a competitive market by addressing evolving customer demands and technological advancements. This function supports growth and adaptability.

• Customer Service

Delivering exceptional customer service enhances satisfaction and loyalty. This function handles inquiries, resolves complaints, and ensures a positive experience for customers. Effective customer service builds trust, strengthens brand reputation, and fosters long-term relationships.

Objectives of Business:

• Profit Maximization

Profit is the lifeblood of any business, essential for survival and growth. A primary objective of a business is to generate adequate profit by optimizing costs, improving efficiency, and increasing revenues. This allows the business to sustain itself, expand operations, and provide returns to stakeholders.

• Customer Satisfaction

Meeting and exceeding customer expectations is crucial for long-term success. Businesses aim to deliver high-quality products or services that cater to customer needs. Satisfied customers build loyalty, enhance brand reputation, and contribute to sustainable growth.

• Market Leadership

Achieving a dominant position in the market is a strategic objective for many businesses. This involves increasing market share, building a strong brand, and innovating to stay ahead of competitors. Market leadership strengthens bargaining power and ensures resilience in a competitive landscape.

• Innovation and Growth

Innovation drives progress and helps businesses adapt to changing environments. Developing new products, processes, or business models fosters growth and opens up new markets. This objective ensures relevance and competitiveness in dynamic industries.

• Employee Welfare

Businesses depend on motivated and skilled employees. Ensuring employee satisfaction through fair compensation, opportunities for growth, and a positive work environment is a vital objective. Happy employees contribute to productivity, creativity, and a positive corporate culture.

• Social Responsibility

Modern businesses recognize their responsibility toward society. Objectives like reducing environmental impact, supporting community development, and adhering to ethical practices are essential. Socially responsible businesses build trust and goodwill, which enhance their reputation and long-term viability.

• Sustainability

Sustainability ensures the business can thrive without depleting resources or causing harm to the environment. Long-term objectives focus on balancing economic goals with environmental and social stewardship, securing the future for both the business and society.

Supply refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to offer for sale in the market at various prices over a specific period of time. It is a fundamental concept in economics that reflects the relationship between price and the quantity supplied. Generally, supply increases with rising prices because higher prices provide greater incentives for producers to produce more, while supply decreases when prices fall.

Determinants of Supply:

Supply is influenced by several factors, known as the determinants of supply. These factors determine the quantity of goods or services that producers are willing to offer in the market at various price levels. Understanding these determinants is crucial for analyzing market dynamics and predicting changes in supply.

1. Price of the Good

The price of a good is the most significant determinant of supply. As prices increase, producers are incentivized to supply more of the good to maximize profits, and vice versa. This direct relationship between price and supply is the basis of the law of supply.

2. Cost of Production

The cost of production, including raw materials, labor, and overheads, directly affects supply. Lower production costs enable producers to supply more at the same price, while higher costs reduce supply. For example, a decrease in the price of raw materials allows firms to produce goods more economically, increasing supply.

3. Technology

Advancements in technology enhance production efficiency and reduce costs, leading to an increase in supply. Technological innovations enable faster and higher-quality production, often at lower costs. For instance, automation in manufacturing industries has significantly boosted supply.

4. Government Policies

Policies such as taxes, subsidies, and regulations impact supply.

• • Taxes increase production costs, reducing supply.
  • Subsidies lower costs, encouraging producers to supply more.

Regulations, such as environmental laws or safety standards, may restrict supply by imposing additional compliance costs.

5. Prices of Related Goods

If producers can switch between products, the prices of related goods affect supply. For example, if the price of corn rises, farmers might allocate more resources to grow corn instead of wheat, reducing the supply of wheat.

6. Number of Producers

An increase in the number of producers in a market typically increases overall supply. Conversely, if firms exit the market due to losses or other factors, supply decreases.

7. Expectations of Future Prices

If producers expect prices to rise in the future, they may withhold current supply, reducing it temporarily. Conversely, if prices are expected to fall, producers may increase supply to sell before the price drops.

8. Natural and External Factors

Events like natural disasters, climate conditions, and global crises can disrupt production and affect supply. For example, droughts reduce the supply of agricultural products, while favorable weather conditions boost it.

Law of Supply:

Law of Supply is a fundamental principle in economics that describes the relationship between the price of a good or service and the quantity supplied, assuming all other factors remain constant (ceteris paribus). It states that as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied also increases, and conversely, as the price decreases, the quantity supplied decreases. This positive correlation arises because higher prices provide greater incentives for producers to increase production to maximize profits.

Key Assumptions of the Law of Supply

• Ceteris Paribus Condition

Other factors affecting supply, such as technology, production costs, or government policies, remain constant.

• Rational Behavior of Producers

Producers aim to maximize their profits by supplying more at higher prices.

• No Change in Market Conditions

Market conditions like consumer preferences, competition, or input prices are stable.

Explanation with Example

Suppose the price of oranges increases from $2 to $4 per kilogram:

• At $2 per kilogram, farmers supply 500 kilograms.
• When the price rises to $4 per kilogram, farmers supply 1,000 kilograms.

This increase in supply reflects producers’ willingness to produce more at higher prices due to higher profit margins.

Graphical Representation

The supply curve, typically upward-sloping, illustrates the law of supply.

• X-axis: Quantity supplied
• Y-axis: Price of the good

The curve shows that as price increases, quantity supplied rises, demonstrating a direct relationship.

Exceptions to the Law of Supply

• Perishable Goods

Producers may sell all their stock, irrespective of price, to avoid spoilage.

• Future Expectations

If producers expect prices to rise, they might withhold supply temporarily.

• Fixed Supply Situations

In cases like antiques or natural resources, the supply cannot increase regardless of price.

• Market Constraints

Producers may face resource or capacity limits, preventing them from increasing supply.

Importance of the Law of Supply:

• Pricing Decisions

Helps businesses determine pricing strategies based on supply responsiveness.

• Market Equilibrium

Works with the law of demand to establish equilibrium price and quantity in the market.

• Policy Formulation

Guides governments in crafting policies like subsidies or price controls.

Joint Stock company is a voluntary association formed for the purpose of carrying on some business. Legally, it is an artificial person and having a distinctive name and a common seal. Lord Justice Lindley of England has defined joint-stock company as “an association of many persons who contribute money or moneys’ worth to a common stock and employ it for a common purpose.

The common stock so contributed is denoted in money and is the capital of the company. The persons who contribute it or to whom it belongs are members. The proportion of capital to which each member is entitled is his share.”

The term “joint stock company” has been defined by the Companies Act in India as a company limited by shares having a permanent paid-up or nominal share capital of fixed amount divided into shares, also of fixed amount held and transferable as stock, and formed on the principle of having in its members only the holders of those shares or stock and other persons.”

The important features of a joint stock company are the following – an artificial person created by law, with a distinctive name, a common seal, a common capital with limited liability, and with a perpetual succession. An analysis of the above definition reveals many distinctive features of joint-stock company, which distinguish it from other forms of business organization.

Features of Joint Stock Company

1. Separate Legal Entity

A joint stock company has a separate legal existence apart from the persons composing it. It can own property and sue in a court of law. A shareholder being an entity distinct from that of a company can sue the company and be sued by it whereas a partnership organization or a sole proprietor has no such legal existence in the eye of the law, separately from the persons composing it. Hence there can’t be a contract between a partner and the firm whereas there can be a contract between a shareholder and a company.

2. Perpetuity

A joint-stock company has the characteristic of perpetuity unlike a partnership or a sole trading concern. Once, a company is formed, it continues for an unlimited period until it is formally liquidated. The maxim “men may come and men go but I go on forever” applies in the case of the company. But a sole trading concern comes to an end with the death of a sole trader, and in the case of partnership, death, retirement, or insolvency of any member of the partnership would dissolve the firm.

3. Limited Liability

In the case of joint-stock company the liability of members is normally limited by guarantee or by the shares he has taken. If a member has already paid the complete amount due on his shares, he is not further liable towards the debts of the company. But in the case of sole proprietorship and partnership, the liability is unlimited and in the case of the latter, it is also both joint and several.

4. Number of Members

In the case of public limited company the maximum number of members is unlimited, the minimum being seven. In the case of a private limited company, the maximum is two. But the number of partners in a partnership cannot exceed ten in the case of business and twenty in other lines of business.

5. Separation of Ownership from Management

In the case of partnership, partners are not only the owners of the business but they take part its management also. Every member of a partnership firm is an agent of the firm and also of the other members. In the case of joint-stock company, the shareholders are the owners while the management is entrusted to a board of directors, who are separate from shareholders.

6. Transferability of Shares

The shareholder of a company can transfer his shares to others without consulting other shareholders, whereas in a partnership a partner cannot transfer his share without the consent of all the other partners.

7. Rigidity of Objects

In the case of partnership, the scope of its business can be changed at any time with the consent of all the partners, whereas a joint stock company cannot do any business not already included in the object clause of the Memorandum of Association of the company. A change in the object clause under condition laid down in the Companies Act is essential for making any alteration in the scope of the business.

8. Financial Resources

On account of liability and diffusion of ownership in joint company organization, there is a great scope for mobilizing a large capital. But in the case of partnership or sole proprietorship, because of the limited number of members, the resources at their command are limited.

9. Statutory Regulation

A company has to comply with numerous and varied statutory requirements. It has to submit a number of returns to the government, whereas partnership and sole proprietorship are free from much State control and statutory regulations. Further in the case of the company, accounts must be audited by a charted accountant but it is not compulsory in the case of partnership and sole proprietorship.

Advantages of Joint Stock Company

1. Financial Strength

The joint stock company can raise a large amount of capital by issuing shares and debentures to the public. There is no limit to the number of shareholders in a company. (However, in a private company the membership cannot exceed 50.) The capital of the company is divided into numerous parts of small value called shares and this attracts even the person with limited resources.

Further, anyone can purchase the shares and leave the responsibility of management to the body of persons called directors. Again, as the shares are freely transferred by selling it in the stock market, this works as an added attraction to the investors. Because of this, the joint stock form of organization is well adopted for raising amounts of capital.

2. Limited Liability

One important factor which attracts the investors to subscribe is the principle of limited liability. According to this a shareholder’s liability is limited only to the extent of the face value of the shares held by him and his personal properties are not affected. This form of organization is a great attraction to persons who do not want to take much risk in other forms of organization that do not enjoy the benefit of limited liability.

3. Benefits of Large Scale Organization

As the size of a company is large, the economies of large-scale organization and production are secured. Due to this, the cost of production will be less and the society is in a position to get its requirements at a lesser price.

4. Scope for Expansion

As there is no limit to the number of persons in a company, there is a great scope for expansion of the business. A company, which is making good profits, can create big reserves which can be used for the expansion of the company. In addition, the availability of managerial talent in the company facilitates the expansion of the business.

5. Stability

A company is a legal entity and enjoys perpetual succession which means the retirement or death of a shareholder cannot affect the company Even the change in the management or the owner or disputes over the ownership of shares or stock cannot affect the continuity of a company. The companies are well suited for business, which require a long period to establish and consolidate.

6. Transferability of Shares

One special feature of company is that shares are freely transferable from one person to another without the knowledge of the shareholders. The existence of stock exchanges where shares and debentures are sold and purchased has facilitated as good as cash as they can be sold at any time and there is an added attraction to the investors.

7. Efficient Management

In company organizations, the agents of production are effectively combined and also there is scope for increased efficiency of direction and management. The most efficient persons may be chosen as directors and if found indifferent, they may be changed in the next meeting. Normally, as the directors have a great stake in the business, in the interest of the company, and in their own interest, they have to be very efficient.

8. Higher Profit

As a large capital is invested in companies, it would be possible for them to use the expensive machinery and up-to-date equipment resulting in greater production, reduced cost, and higher profit. The progress of industries and commerce of the nation.

9. Diffused Risk

In this form of organization, the risk is reduced for each shareholder, because it is diffused and spread over several shareholders of the company. This is an advantage from the individual investor’s point of view.

10. Bolder Management

In this form of organization, as the persons who manage the company have relatively smaller financial stake, they can become adventurous. There are many industries, which would not have come into existence if people had been unduly cautious.

Starting of a new enterprise needs an adventurous spirit and in case of joint-stock company because of its limited liability and smaller financial stake of the persons, who manage it, people can become adventurous and thus start new enterprises.

11. Social Benefit

The company form of organization has encouraged the habit of saving and investment among the public. It has also indirectly helped the growth of financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies by providing avenues to invest their funds. Further, as companies cannot be managed by all the shareholders who are large in number, it has to employ professional managerial personnel and this has helped the development of management as a profession.

Disadvantages of Joint-Stock Company

1. Formation is Difficult

The formation of a company involves a long-drawn-out complex procedure. For formation many provisions of the Companies Act are be complied with. Large amount of money have to be spent in order to fulfill the preliminaries. Further, in many cases government sanction is required. These difficulties discourage many persons from starting companies.

2. Fraudulent Management

Many a time unscrupulous promoters by presenting the prospectus as a rosy picture manage to get capital from the public. This results in companies being started and managed by incapable and fraudulent hands.

3. Concentration of Control in Few Hands

In theory, democratic principles are followed in the management of companies, but in practice it is nothing but oligarchy of managing director and directors leading to concentration of control in a few hands. The shareholders have no say in the affairs of the company.

As they are spread throughout the country, very few care to attend the meetings and those who do not attend, normally give proxies in favor of managing director or directors. All these facilitate the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few persons.

4. Encourages Speculation

This form of organization encourages speculation on the stock exchange. Usually the value of the company’s share depends on the dividends declared and reputation of the company, which can be manipulated. This may encourage the managing director and directors to manipulate the shares on the stock exchange in their own interest to the detriment of the majority of shareholders.

5. Lacks Initiative and Motivation

As there is indirect delegated management in the company form of organization, there is no initiative and motivation. The paid officials who manage the company have no personal interest and this leads to inefficiency and waste.

6. Conflict of Interest

There is a conflict of interest between persons who are at the helm of affairs of company and shareholders. Many times dishonest persons at the top succeed in cleverly misleading and cheating the shareholders. Again there is a clash of interest between the shareholders.

Again there is a clash of interest between the preference shareholders and equity shareholders. While the preference shareholders want the creation of large reserves out of profits, the equity shareholders are interested in distributing the entire profit by way of dividends.

7. Excessive Government Control

A company form of organization is very much controlled by the government and it has to observe many provisions of the different regulations of the government. Again, heavy penalty is imposed for the non-observance of the provisions of the Acts. Companies spend much of their precious time in complying with the provisions and the statutory rules.

8. Lack of Prompt Decision

The prompt decisions which are possible in case of other organizations such as sole-trading organization and partnership are not possible in a company form of organization. Owing to the difficulty of getting the requisite quorum and the presence of diverse interests, which may lead to disagreement, prompt decision cannot be taken.

9. Monopolistic Control

There is a great possibility for companies to form combination or amalgamate with a view to getting monopolistic control. This is very harmful to the other producers and businessmen in the same line and also to the consumers.

Law of Returns to Scale explains the relationship between the proportional increase in all inputs and the resulting change in output in the long run, when all factors of production are variable.

On the basis of these possibilities, law of returns can be classified into three categories:

• Increasing returns to scale
• Constant returns to scale
• Diminishing returns to scale

1. Increasing Returns to Scale

If the proportional change in the output of an organization is greater than the proportional change in inputs, the production is said to reflect increasing returns to scale. For example, to produce a particular product, if the quantity of inputs is doubled and the increase in output is more than double, it is said to be an increasing returns to scale. When there is an increase in the scale of production, the average cost per unit produced is lower. This is because at this stage an organization enjoys high economies of scale.

Figure-1 shows the increasing returns to scale:

In Figure-1, a movement from a to b indicates that the amount of input is doubled. Now, the combination of inputs has reached to 2K+2L from 1K+1L. However, the output has Increased from 10 to 25 (150% increase), which is more than double. Similarly, when input changes from 2K-H2L to 3K + 3L, then output changes from 25 to 50(100% increase), which is greater than change in input. This shows increasing returns to scale.

There a number of factors responsible for increasing returns to scale.

Some of the factors are as follows:

(i) Technical and managerial indivisibility:

Implies that there are certain inputs, such as machines and human resource, used for the production process are available in a fixed amount. These inputs cannot be divided to suit different level of production. For example, an organization cannot use the half of the turbine for small scale of production.

Similarly, the organization cannot use half of a manager to achieve small scale of production. Due to this technical and managerial indivisibility, an organization needs to employ the minimum quantity of machines and managers even in case the level of production is much less than their capacity of producing output. Therefore, when there is increase in inputs, there is exponential increase in the level of output.

(ii) Specialization:

Implies that high degree of specialization of man and machinery helps in increasing the scale of production. The use of specialized labor and machinery helps in increasing the productivity of labor and capital per unit. This results in increasing returns to scale.

(iii) Concept of Dimensions:

Refers to the relation of increasing returns to scale to the concept of dimensions. According to the concept of dimensions, if the length and breadth of a room increases, then its area gets more than doubled.

For example, length of a room increases from 15 to 30 and breadth increases from 10 to 20. This implies that length and breadth of room get doubled. In such a case, the area of room increases from 150 (15*10) to 600 (30*20), which is more than doubled.

2. Constant Returns to Scale

The production is said to generate constant returns to scale when the proportionate change in input is equal to the proportionate change in output. For example, when inputs are doubled, so output should also be doubled, then it is a case of constant returns to scale.

Figure-2 shows the constant returns to scale:

In Figure-2, when there is a movement from a to b, it indicates that input is doubled. Now, when the combination of inputs has reached to 2K+2L from IK+IL, then the output has increased from 10 to 20.

Similarly, when input changes from 2Kt2L to 3K + 3L, then output changes from 20 to 30, which is equal to the change in input. This shows constant returns to scale. In constant returns to scale, inputs are divisible and production function is homogeneous.

3. Diminishing Returns to Scale

Diminishing returns to scale refers to a situation when the proportionate change in output is less than the proportionate change in input. For example, when capital and labor is doubled but the output generated is less than doubled, the returns to scale would be termed as diminishing returns to scale.

Figure 3 shows the diminishing returns to scale:

In Figure-3, when the combination of labor and capital moves from point a to point b, it indicates that input is doubled. At point a, the combination of input is 1k+1L and at point b, the combination becomes 2K+2L.

However, the output has increased from 10 to 18, which is less than change in the amount of input. Similarly, when input changes from 2K+2L to 3K + 3L, then output changes from 18 to 24, which is less than change in input. This shows the diminishing returns to scale.

Diminishing returns to scale is due to diseconomies of scale, which arises because of the managerial inefficiency. Generally, managerial inefficiency takes place in large-scale organizations. Another cause of diminishing returns to scale is limited natural resources. For example, a coal mining organization can increase the number of mining plants, but cannot increase output due to limited coal reserves.

Definitely, if there is any change in supply, demand or both the market equilibrium would change. Let’s recollect the factors that induce changes in demand and supply:

Shift in Demand

The demand for a product changes due to an alteration in any of the following factors:

• Price of complementary goods
• Price of substitute goods
• Income
• Tastes and preferences
• An expectation of change in the price in future
• Population

Shift in Supply

The supply of product changes due to an alteration in any of the following factors:

• Prices of factors of production
• Prices of other goods
• State of technology
• Taxation policy
• An expectation of change in price in future
• Goals of the firm
• Number of firms

Now let us study individually how market equilibrium changes when only demand changes, only supply changes and when both demand and supply change.

When only Demand Changes

A change in demand can be recorded as either an increase or a decrease. Note that in this case there is a shift in the demand curve.

(i) Increase in Demand

When there is an increase in demand, with no change in supply, the demand curve tends to shift rightwards. As the demand increases, a condition of excess demand occurs at the old equilibrium price. This leads to an increase in competition among the buyers, which in turn pushes up the price.

• Shifts in Demand and Supply
• Equilibrium, Excess Demand and Supply

Of course, as price increases, it serves as an incentive for suppliers to increase supply and also leads to a fall in demand. It is important to realize that these processes continue to operate until a new equilibrium is established. Effectively, there is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity.

(ii) Decrease in Demand

Under conditions of a decrease in demand, with no change in supply, the demand curve shifts towards left. When demand decreases, a condition of excess supply is built at the old equilibrium level. This leads to an increase in competition among the sellers to sell their produce, which obviously decreases the price.

Now as for price decreases, more consumers start demanding the good or service. Observably, this decrease in price leads to a fall in supply and a rise in demand. This counter mechanism continues until the conditions of excess supply are wiped out at the old equilibrium level and a new equilibrium is established. Effectively, there is a decrease in both the equilibrium price and quantity.

When only Supply Changes

A change in supply can be noted as either an increase or a decrease. Note that in this case there is a shift in the supply curve.

(i) Increase in Supply

When supply increases, accompanied by no change in demand, the supply curve shift towards the right. When supply increases, a condition of excess supply arises at the old equilibrium level. This induces competition among the sellers to sell their supply, which in turn decreases the price.

This decrease in price, in turn, leads to a fall in supply and a rise in demand. These processes operate until a new equilibrium level is attained. Lastly, such conditions are marked by a decrease in price and an increase in quantity.

(ii) Decrease in Supply

When the supply decreases, accompanied by no change in demand, there is a leftward shift of the supply curve. As supply decreases, a condition of excess demand is created at the old equilibrium level. Effectively there is increased competition among the buyers, which obviously leads to a rise in the price.

An increase in price is accompanied by a decrease in demand and an increase in supply. This continues until a new equilibrium level is attained. Further, there is a rise in equilibrium price but a fall in equilibrium quantity.

When both Demand and Supply Change

Generally, the market situation is more complex than the above-mentioned cases. That means, generally, supply and demand do not change in an individual manner. There is a simultaneous change in both entities. This gives birth to four cases:

• Both demand and supply decrease
• Both demand and supply increase
• Demand decreases but supply increases
• Demand increases but supply decreases

(i) Both Demand and Supply Decrease

The final market conditions can be determined only by a deduction of the magnitude of the decrease in both demand and supply. In fact, both the demand and supply curve shift towards the left. Essentially, there is a need to compare their magnitudes. Such conditions are better analyzed by dividing this case further into three:

The decrease in demand = decrease in supply

When the magnitudes of the decrease in both demand and supply are equal, it leads to a proportionate shift of both demand and supply curve. Consequently, the equilibrium price remains the same but there is a decrease in the equilibrium quantity.

The decrease in demand > decrease in supply

When the decrease in demand is greater than the decrease in supply, the demand curve shifts more towards left relative to the supply curve. Effectively, there is a fall in both equilibrium quantity and price.

The decrease in demand < decrease in supply

In a case in which the decrease in demand is smaller than the decrease in supply, the leftward shift of the demand curve is less than the leftward shift of the supply curve. Notably, there is a rise in equilibrium price accompanied by a fall in equilibrium quantity.

(ii) Both Demand and Supply Increase

In such a condition both demand and supply shift rightwards. So, in order to study changes in market equilibrium, we need to compare the increase in both entities and then conclude accordingly. Such a condition is further studied better with the help of the following three cases:

The increase in demand = increase in supply

If the increase in both demand and supply is exactly equal, there occurs a proportionate shift in the demand and supply curve. Consequently, the equilibrium price remains the same. However, the equilibrium quantity rises.

The increase in demand > increase in supply

In such a case, the right shift of the demand curve is more relative to that of the supply curve. Effectively, both equilibrium price and quantity tend to increase.

The increase in demand < increase in supply

When the increase is demand is less than the increase in supply, the right shift of the demand curve is less than the right shift of supply curve. In this case, the equilibrium price falls whereas the equilibrium quantity rises.

(iii) Demand Decreases but Supply Increases

This condition translates to the fact that the demand curve shifts leftwards whereas the supply curve shifts rightwards. As they move in opposite directions, the final market conditions are deduced by pointing out the magnitude of their shifts. Here, three cases further arise which are as follows:

The decrease in demand = increase in supply

In this case, although the two curves move in opposite directions, the magnitudes of their shifts is effectively the same. As a result, the equilibrium quantity remains the same but the equilibrium price falls.

The decrease in demand > increase in supply

When the decrease in demand is greater than the increase in supply, the relative shift of demand curve is proportionately more than the supply curve. Effectively, both the equilibrium quantity and price fall.

The decrease in demand < increase in supply

Here, the leftward shift of the demand curve is less than the rightward shift of the supply curve. It is important to realize, that the equilibrium quantity rises whereas the equilibrium price falls.

(iv) Demand Increases but Supply Decreases

Similar to the aforementioned condition, here also the demand and supply curve moves in the opposite directions. However, the demand curve shift towards the right(indicating an increase in demand) and the supply curve shift towards left(indicating a decrease in supply). Further, this is studied with the help of the following three cases:

Increase in demand = decrease in supply

When the increase in demand is equal to the decrease in supply, the shifts in both supply and demand curves are proportionately equal. Effectively, the equilibrium quantity remains the same however the equilibrium price rises.

Increase in demand > decrease in supply

In this case, the right shift of the demand curve is proportionately more than the leftward shift of the supply curve. Hence, both equilibrium quantity and price rise.

Increase in demand < decrease in supply

If the increase in demand is less than the decrease in supply, the shift of the demand curve tends to be less than that of the supply curve. Effectively, equilibrium quantity falls whereas the equilibrium price rises.

Demand theory is a principle relating to the relationship between consumer demand for goods and services and their prices. Demand theory forms the basis for the demand curve, which relates consumer desire to the amount of goods available. As more of a good or service is available, demand drops and so does the equilibrium price.

Demand is the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to buy at a given price in a given time period. People demand goods and services in an economy to satisfy their wants, such as food, healthcare, clothing, entertainment, shelter, etc. The demand for a product at a certain price reflects the satisfaction that an individual expects from consuming the product. This level of satisfaction is referred to as utility and it differs from consumer to consumer. The demand for a good or service depends on two factors:

(1) Its utility to satisfy a want or need.

(2) The consumer’s ability to pay for the good or service. In effect, real demand is when the readiness to satisfy a want is backed up by the individual’s ability and willingness to pay.

Built into demand are factors such as consumer preferences, tastes, choices, etc. Evaluating demand in an economy is, therefore, one of the most important decision-making variables that a business must analyze if it is to survive and grow in a competitive market. The market system is governed by the laws of supply and demand, which determine the prices of goods and services. When supply equals demand, prices are said to be in a state of equilibrium. When demand is higher than supply, prices increase to reflect scarcity. Conversely, when demand is lower than supply, prices fall due to the surplus.

The law of demand introduces an inverse relationship between price and demand for a good or service. It simply states that as the price of a commodity increases, demand decreases, provided other factors remain constant. Also, as the price decreases, demand increases. This relationship can be illustrated graphically using a tool known as the demand curve.

The demand curve has a negative slope as it charts downward from left to right to reflect the inverse relationship between the price of an item and the quantity demanded over a period of time. An expansion or contraction of demand occurs as a result of the income effect or substitution effect. When the price of a commodity falls, an individual can get the same level of satisfaction for less expenditure, provided it’s a normal good. In this case, the consumer can purchase more of the goods on a given budget. This is the income effect. The substitution effect is observed when consumers switch from more costly goods to substitutes that have fallen in price. As more people buy the good with the lower price, demand increases.

Sometimes, consumers buy more or less of a good or service due to factors other than price. This is referred to as a change in demand. A change in demand refers to a shift in the demand curve to the right or left following a change in consumers’ preferences, taste, income, etc. For example, a consumer who receives an income raise at work will have more disposable income to spend on goods in the markets, regardless of whether prices fall, leading to a shift to the right of the demand curve.

The law of demand is violated when dealing with Giffen or inferior goods. Giffen goods are inferior goods that people consume more of as prices rise, and vice versa. Since a Giffen good does not have easily available substitutes, the income effect dominates the substitution effect.

Demand theory is one of the core theories of microeconomics. It aims to answer basic questions about how badly people want things, and how demand is impacted by income levels and satisfaction (utility). Based on the perceived utility of goods and services by consumers, companies adjust the supply available and the prices charged.

Law of Demand

The law of demand is one of the most fundamental concepts in economics. It works with the law of supply to explain how market economies allocate resources and determine the prices of goods and services that we observe in everyday transactions. The law of demand states that quantity purchased varies inversely with price. In other words, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded. This occurs because of diminishing marginal utility. That is, consumers use the first units of an economic good they purchase to serve their most urgent needs first, and use each additional unit of the good to serve successively lower valued ends.

• The law of demand is a fundamental principle of economics which states that at a higher price consumers will demand a lower quantity of a good.
• Demand is derived from the law of diminishing marginal utility, the fact that consumers use economic goods to satisfy their most urgent needs first.
• A market demand curve expresses the sum of quantity demanded at each price across all consumers in the market.
• Changes in price can be reflected in movement along a demand curve, but do not by themselves increase or decrease demand.
• The shape and magnitude of demand shifts in response to changes in consumer preferences, incomes, or related economic goods, NOT to changes in price.

Understanding the Law of Demand

Economics involves the study of how people use limited means to satisfy unlimited wants. The law of demand focuses on those unlimited wants. Naturally, people prioritize more urgent wants and needs over less urgent ones in their economic behavior, and this carries over into how people choose among the limited means available to them. For any economic good, the first unit of that good that a consumer gets their hands on will tend to be put to use to satisfy the most urgent need the consumer has that that good can satisfy.

For example, consider a castaway on a desert island who obtains a six pack of bottled, fresh water washed up on shore. The first bottle will be used to satisfy the castaway’s most urgently felt need, most likely drinking water to avoid dying of thirst. The second bottle might be used for bathing to stave off disease, an urgent but less immediate need. The third bottle could be used for a less urgent need such as boiling some fish to have a hot meal, and on down to the last bottle, which the castaway uses for a relatively low priority like watering a small potted plant to keep him company on the island.

In our example, because each additional bottle of water is used for a successively less highly valued want or need by our castaway, we can say that the castaway values each additional bottle less than the one before. Similarly, when consumers purchase goods on the market each additional unit of any given good or service that they buy will be put to a less valued use than the one before, so we can say that they value each additional unit less and less. Because they value each additional unit of the good less, they are willing to pay less for it. So the more units of a good consumers buy, the less they are willing to pay in terms of the price.

By adding up all the units of a good that consumers are willing to buy at any given price we can describe a market demand curve, which is always downward-sloping, like the one shown in the chart below. Each point on the curve (A, B, C) reflects the quantity demanded (Q) at a given price (P). At point A, for example, the quantity demanded is low (Q1) and the price is high (P1). At higher prices, consumers demand less of the good, and at lower prices, they demand more.

Factors Affecting Demand

The shape and position of the demand curve can be impacted by several factors. Rising incomes tend to increase demand for normal economic goods, as people are willing to spend more. The availability of close substitute products that compete with a given economic good will tend to reduce demand for that good, since they can satisfy the same kinds of consumer wants and needs. Conversely, the availability of closely complementary goods will tend to increase demand for an economic good, because the use of two goods together can be even more valuable to consumers than using them separately, like peanut butter and jelly. Other factors such as future expectations, changes in background environmental conditions, or change in the actual or perceived quality of a good can change the demand curve, because they alter the pattern of consumer preferences for how the good can be used and how urgently it is needed.

Demand theory objectives

(1) Forecasting sales,

(2) Ma­nipulating demand,

(3) Appraising salesmen’s performance for setting their sales quotas, and

(4) Watching the trend of the company’s competi­tive position.

Of these the first two are most im­portant and the last two are ancillary to the main economic problem of planning for profit.

1. Forecasting Demand:

Forecasting refers to predicting the future level of sales on the basis of current and past trends. This is perhaps the most important use of demand stud­ies. True, sales forecast is the foundation for plan­ning all phases of the company’s operations. There­fore, purchasing and capital budget (expenditure) programmes are all based on the sales forecast.

2. Manipulating Demand:

Sales forecasting is most passive. Very few com­panies take full advantage of it as a technique for formulating business plans and policies. However, “management must recognize the degree to which sales are a result only of the external economic environment but also of the action of the company itself.

Sales volumes do differ, “depending upon how much money is spent on advertising, what price policy is adopted, what product improve­ments are made, how accurately salesmen and sales efforts are matched with potential sales in the various territories, and so forth”.

Often advertising is intended to change consumer tastes in a manner favourable to the advertiser’s product. The efforts of so-called ‘hidden persuaders’ are directed to ma­nipulate people’s ‘true’ wants. Thus sales forecasts should be used for estimating the consequences of other plans for adjusting prices, promotion and/or products.

Importance of Demand Analysis:

A business manager must have a background knowledge of demand because all other business de­cisions are largely based on it. For example, the amount of money to be spent on advertising and sales promotion, the number of sales-persons to be hired (or employed), the optimum size of the plant to be set up, and a host of other strategic business decisions largely depend on the level of demand.

Why should a business firm invest time, effort and money to produce colour TV sets in a poor country like Chad or Burma, unless there is sufficient de­mand for it? A firm must be able to describe the fac­tors that cause households, governments or business firms to desire a particular product like a type­writer. It is in this context that an understanding of the theory of demand is really helpful to the practicing manager.

Demand theory is undoubtedly one of the man­ager’s essential tools in business planning both short run and long run. The objective of corporate planning is to identify new areas of investment.

In a dynamic world characterised by changes in tastes and preferences of buyers, technological change, migration of people from rural to urban areas, and so on, it is of paramount importance for the business manager to take into account prospective growth of demand in various market areas before taking any decision on new plant location (i.e., the place of birth decision of a business firm).

If demand is ex­pected to be stable, big sized plant may have to be set up. However, if demand is expected to fluctu­ate, flexible plants (possibly with lower average costs at the most likely rate of output) may be de­sirable.

A huge amount of capital may be required to carry inventories of finished goods. If demand is really responsive to advertising, there may be a strong rationale for heavy outlay on market devel­opment and sales promotion.

Demand considerations may directly and indi­rectly affect day-to-day financial, production and marketing decisions of the firm. Demand (sales) forecasts do provide some basis for projecting cash flows and net incomes periodically. Moreover, ex­pectations regarding the demand for a product do affect production scheduling and inventory plan­ning.

Again a business firm must take into account the probable reactions of rivals and buyers actu­al and potential before introducing changes in prices, advertising or product design. Therefore, for all these reasons, business managers can and should make good use of the various concepts and tech­niques of demand theory.

Co-operative Organization is an association of persons, usually of limited means, who have vol­untarily joined together to achieve a common eco­nomic end through the formation of a democrati­cally controlled organization, making equitable dis­tributions to the capital required, and accepting a fair share of risk and benefits of the undertaking.

The word ‘co-operation’ stands for the idea of living together and working together. Cooperation is a form of business organization the only sys­tem of voluntary organization suitable for poorer people. It is an organization wherein persons vol­untarily associate together as human beings on a basis of equality, for the promotion of economic in­terests of themselves.

Characteristics/Features of Cooperative Organization:

1. Voluntary Association

A cooperative so­ciety is a voluntary association of persons and not of capital. Any person can join a cooperative soci­ety of his free will and can leave it at any time. When he leaves, he can withdraw his capital from the so­ciety. He cannot transfer his share to another person.

The voluntary character of the cooperative as­sociation has two implications:

(i) None will be denied the right to become a member and

(ii) The cooperative society will not compete anybody to become a member.

2. Spirit of Cooperation

The spirit of coop­eration works under the motto, ‘each for all and all for each.’ This means that every member of a co­operative organization shall work in the general interest of the organization as a whole and not for his self-interest. Under cooperation, service is of supreme importance and self-interest is of second­ary importance.

3. Democratic Management

An individual member is considered not as a capitalist but as a human being and under cooperation, economic equality is fully ensured by a general rule—one man one vote. Whether one contributes 50 rupees or 100 rupees as share capital, all enjoy equal rights and equal duties. A person having only one share can even become the president of cooperative society.

4. Capital

Capital of a cooperative society is raised from members through share capital. Coop­eratives are formed by relatively poorer sections of society; share capital is usually very limited. Since it is a part of govt. policy to encourage coopera­tives, a cooperative society can increase its capital by taking loans from the State and Central Coop­erative Banks.

5. Fixed Return on Capital

In a cooperative organization, we do not have the dividend hunting element. In a consumers’ cooperative store, return on capital is fixed and it is usually not more than 12 p.c. per annum. The surplus profits are distrib­uted in the form of bonus but it is directly connected with the amount of purchases by the member in one year.

6. Cash Sale

In a cooperative organization “cash and carry system” is a universal feature. In the absence of adequate capital, grant of credit is not possible. Cash sales also avoided risk of loss due to bad debts and it could also encourage the habit of thrift among the members.

7. Moral Emphasis

A cooperative organization generally originates in the poorer section of population; hence more emphasis is laid on the de­velopment of moral character of the individual member. The absence of capital is compensated by honesty, integrity and loyalty. Under cooperation, honesty is regarded as the best security. Thus co­operation prepares a band of honest and selfless workers for the good of humanity.

8. Corporate Status

A cooperative associa­tion has to be registered under the separate legisla­tion—Cooperative Societies Act. Every society must have at least 10 members. Registration is desirable. It gives a separate legal status to all cooperative organizations just like a company. It also gives ex­emptions and privileges under the Act.

Types of Cooperatives Company:

1. Cooperative Credit Societies

Cooperative Credit Societies are voluntary associations of peo­ple with moderate means formed with the object of extending short-term financial accommodation to them and developing the habit of thrift among them.

Germany is the birth place of credit coopera­tion. Credit cooperation was born in the middle of the 19th century. Rural credit cooperative societies were started in the villages to solve the problem of agricultural finance.

The village societies were fed­erated into central cooperative banks and central cooperative banks federated into the apex of state cooperative banks. Thus rural cooperative finance has a federal structure like a pyramid. The primary society is the base. The central bank in the middle and the apex bank in the top of the structure. The members of the primary society are villagers.

In the similar manner urban cooperative credit societies were started in India. These urban coop­erative banks look after the financial needs of arti­sans and labour population of the towns. These urban cooperative banks are based on limited li­ability while the village cooperative societies are based on unlimited liability.

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural De­velopment (NABARD) has been established with an Authorised Capital of Rs. 500 crores. It will act as an Apex Agricultural Bank for disbursement of agricultural credit and for implementation of the programme of integrated rural development. It is jointly owned by the Central Govt. and the Reserve Bank of India.

2. Consumers’ Cooperative Societies

28 Rochedale Pioneers in Manchester in UK laid the foundation for the Consumers’ Cooperative Move­ment in 1844 and paved the way for a peaceful revo­lution. The Rochedale Pioneers who were mainly weavers, set an example by collective purchasing and distribution of consumer goods at bazar rates and for cash price and by declaration of bonus at the end of the year on the purchase made.

Their example has brought a revolution in the purchase and sale of consumer goods by eliminating profit motive and introducing in its place service motive. In India, consumers’ cooperatives have re­ceived impetus from the govt, attempts to check rise in prices of consumer goods.

3. Producers’ Cooperatives

It is said that the birth of Producers’ Cooperatives took place in France in the middle of 19th century. But it did not make satisfactory progress.

Producers’ Cooperatives, also known as indus­trial cooperatives, are voluntary associations of small producers formed with the object of elimi­nating the capitalist class from the system of in­dustrial production. These societies produce goods for meeting the requirements of consumers. Some­times their production may be sold to outsiders at a profit.

There are two types of producers’ cooperatives. In the first type, producer-members produce indi­vidually and not as employees of the society. The society supplies raw materials, chemicals, tools and equipment’s to the members. The members are sup­posed to sell their individual products to the soci­ety.

In the second type of such societies, the member-producers are treated as employees of the soci­ety and are paid wages for their work.

4. Housing Cooperatives

Housing coopera­tives are formed by persons who are interested in making houses of their own. Such societies are formed mostly in urban areas. Through these soci­eties persons who want to have their own houses secure financial assistance.

5. Cooperative Farming Societies

The coop­erative farming societies are basically agricultural cooperatives formed for the purpose of achieving the benefits of large scale farming and maximizing agricultural output. Such societies are encouraged in India to overcome the difficulties of subdivision and fragmentation of holdings in the country.

Advantages of Cooperatives Company:

• Economical Operations:

The operation of a cooperative society is quite economical due to elimination of middlemen and the voluntary services provided by its members.

• Open Membership:

Membership in a cooperative organisation is open to all people having a common interest. A person can become a member at any time he likes and can leave the society at any time by returning his shares, without affecting its continuity.

• Easy to Form:

A cooperative society is a voluntary association and may be formed with a minimum of ten adult members. Its registration is very simple and can be done without much legal formalities.

• Democratic Management:

A cooperative society is managed in a democratic manner. It is based on the principle of ‘one man one vote’. All members have equal rights and can have a voice in its management.

• Limited Liability:

The liability of the members of a co-operative society is limited to the extent of capital contributed by them. They do not have to bear personal liability for the debts of the society.

• Government Patronage:

Government gives all kinds of help to co-operatives, such as loans at lower rates of interest and relief in taxation.

• Low Management Cost:

Some of the expenses of the management are saved by the voluntary services rendered by the members. They take active interest in the working of the society. So, the society is not required to spend large amount on managerial personnel.

• Stability:

A co-operative society has a separate legal existence. It is not affected by the death, insolvency, lunacy or permanent incapacity of any of its members. It has a fairly stable life and continues to exist for a long period.

• Mutual Co-Operation:

Cooperative societies promote the spirit of mutual understanding, self-help and self-government. They save weaker sections of the society from exploitation by the rich. The underlying principle of co-operation is “self-help through mutual help.”

• Economic Advantages:

Cooperative societies provide loans for productive purposes and financial assistance to farmers and other lower income earning people.

• Other Benefits:

Cooperative societies are exempted from paying registration fees and stamp duties in some states. These societies have priority over other creditors in realising its dues from the debtors and their shares cannot be decreed for the realisation of debts.

• No Speculation:

The share is always open to new members. The shares of co­operative society are not sold at the rates higher than their par values. Hence, it is free from evils of speculation in share values.

Disadvantages of Cooperatives Company:

• Over reliance on Government funds

Co-operative societies are not able to raise their own resources. Their sources of financing are limited and they depend on government funds. The funding and the amount of funds that would be released by the government are uncertain. Therefore, co-operatives are not able to plan their activities in the right manner.

• Limited funds

Co-operative societies have limited membership and are promoted by the weaker sections. The membership fees collected is low. Therefore, the funds available with the co-operatives are limited. The principle of one-man one-vote and limited dividends also reduce the enthusiasm of members. They cannot expand their activities beyond a particular level because of the limited financial resources.

• Benefit to Rural rich

Co-operatives have benefited the rural rich and not the rural poor. The rich people elect themselves to the managing committee and manage the affairs of the co-operatives for their own benefit.

The agricultural produce of the small farmers is just sufficient to fulfill the needs of their family. They do not have any surplus to market. The rich farmers with vast tracts of land, produce in surplus quantities and the services of co-operatives such as processing, grading, correct weighment and fair prices actually benefit them.

• Imposed by Government

In the Western countries, co-operative societies were voluntarily started by the weaker sections. The objective is to improve their economic status and protect themselves from exploitation by businessmen. But in India, the co-operative movement was initiated and established by the government. Wide participation of people is lacking. Therefore, the benefit of the co-operatives has still not reached many poorer sections.

• Lack of Managerial skills

Co-operative societies are managed by the managing committee elected by its members. The members of the managing committee may not have the required qualification, skill or experience. Since it has limited financial resources, its ability to compensate its employees is also limited. Therefore, it cannot employ the best talent.

• Inadequate Rural Credit

Co-operative societies give loans only for productive purposes and not for personal or family expenses. Therefore, the rural poor continue to depend on the money lenders for meeting expenses of marriage, medical care, social commitments etc. Co-operatives have not been successful in freeing the rural poor from the clutches of the money lenders.

• Government regulation

Co-operative societies are subject to excessive government regulation which affects their autonomy and flexibility. Adhering to various regulations takes up much of the management’s time and effort.

• Misuse of funds

If the members of the managing committee are corrupt, they can swindle the funds of the co-operative society. Many cooperative societies have faced financial troubles and closed down because of corruption and misuse of funds.

• Inefficiencies leading to losses

Co-operative societies operate with limited financial resources. Therefore, they cannot recruit the best talent, acquire latest technology or adopt modern management practices. They operate in the traditional mold which may not be suitable in the modern business environment and therefore suffer losses.

• Lack of Secrecy

Maintenance of business secrets is the key for the competitiveness of any business organization. But business secrets cannot be maintained in cooperatives because all members are aware of the activities of the enterprise. Further, reports and accounts have to be submitted to the Registrar of Co-operative Societies. Therefore, information relating to activities, revenues, members etc becomes public knowledge.

• Conflicts among members

Cooperative societies are based on the principles of co-operation and therefore harmony among members is important. But in practice, there might be internal politics, differences of opinions, quarrels etc. among members which may lead to disputes. Such disputes affect the functioning of the co-operative societies.

• Limited scope

Co-operative societies cannot be introduced in all industries. Their scope is limited to only certain areas of enterprise. Since the funds available are limited they cannot undertake large scale operations and is not suitable in industries requiring large investments.

• Lack of Accountability

Since the management is taken care of by the managing committee, no individual can be made accountable for in efficient performance. There is a tendency to shift responsibility among the members of the managing committee.

• Lack of Motivation

Members lack motivation to put in their whole hearted efforts for the success of the enterprise. It is because there is very little link between effort and reward. Co-operative societies distribute their surplus equitably to all members and not based on the efforts of members. Further there are legal restrictions regarding dividend and bonus that can be distributed to members.

• Low public confidence

Public confidence in the co-operative societies is low. The reason is, in many of the co-operatives there is political interference and domination. The members of the ruling party dictate terms and therefore the purpose for which cooperatives are formed is lost.