Tag: INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Lucknow University BBA Notes

Internet Architecture

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The internet is a complex and decentralized network of interconnected computers, servers, and devices that allows for the exchange of information and communication between users and machines all around the world. The architecture of the internet is the underlying design and organization of this network, including the protocols, standards, and technologies that enable its functionality. In this article, we will discuss the architecture of the internet, its history, and its current state.

History of the Internet Architecture:

The internet architecture can be traced back to the 1960s when the US Department of Defense developed the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) as a means of communication for researchers and scientists across the country. ARPANET used packet switching, a method of transmitting digital data in small units or packets, to enable more efficient and reliable communication between computers.

Over time, ARPANET evolved into the internet, a global network of interconnected computers and devices that allowed for the exchange of information and communication on a much larger scale. The development of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s further expanded the capabilities of the internet, allowing users to access and share information through web browsers and hypertext links.

The architecture of the internet has continued to evolve and adapt to changing technology and user needs. Today, the internet is a vast and complex network of interconnected devices and systems, with many different protocols and standards that enable its functionality.

Key Components of the Internet Architecture:

The architecture of the internet is composed of several key components that work together to enable communication and information exchange between users and devices. These components include:

  1. Endpoints: These are the devices that are connected to the internet, such as computers, smartphones, servers, and other devices. Endpoints communicate with each other through the network.
  2. Transmission Media: These are the physical channels through which data is transmitted over the network, including copper wires, fiber optic cables, and wireless communication channels.
  3. Protocols: These are the rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted and received over the network. Protocols include the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which is used to transfer data over the internet.
  4. Network Infrastructure: This includes the routers, switches, and other networking devices that are used to connect endpoints and transmit data over the network.
  5. Domain Name System (DNS): This is the system that translates domain names into IP addresses, which are used to identify and locate devices on the internet.
  6. Web Servers: These are the servers that host websites and web applications, allowing users to access and interact with content on the web.
  7. Clients: These are the software applications that users use to interact with web servers and access content on the web, including web browsers, email clients, and other applications.

Current State of the Internet Architecture:

The architecture of the internet has evolved significantly since its early days, and today it is a complex and decentralized network that spans the globe. The internet has enabled unprecedented levels of communication and information exchange, and has become an essential part of modern society.

One of the key challenges facing the internet architecture today is the increasing demand for bandwidth and network capacity. As more and more devices and services are connected to the internet, the network must be able to handle the increased traffic and data transfer demands. This has led to the development of new technologies such as 5G wireless networks and high-speed fiber optic connections.

Another challenge facing the internet architecture is the need to balance security and privacy with openness and accessibility. The internet has enabled the free flow of information and communication, but it has also created new opportunities for cyberattacks, data breaches, and other security threats. As a result, there is a growing need for robust security measures and privacy protections to ensure that the internet remains safe and secure for all users.

Lucknow University BBA Notes

Basic structure of an HTML document, basic text formatting, links, images, tables, frames, form and introduction to CSS

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The basic structure of an HTML document has already been explained in the previous answer. Here, we will go through some basic HTML elements and how to use them.

Basic Text Formatting

HTML provides a set of tags to format text. Some of the commonly used tags for formatting text are:

  • <b>: Bold text
  • <i>: Italic text
  • <u>: Underline text
  • <em>: Emphasized text
  • <strong>: Strong text

<p>This is <b>bold</b>, <i>italic</i>, <u>underline</u>, <em>emphasized</em>, and <strong>strong</strong> text.</p>

Links

Links are used to connect one web page to another. The <a> tag is used to create links. The href attribute is used to specify the destination of the link. Here is an example:

<a href=”http://www.example.com”>This is a link to example.com</a>

Images

Images can be displayed on web pages using the <img> tag. The src attribute is used to specify the location of the image file. Here is an example:

<img src=”image.jpg” alt=”An image”>

The alt attribute provides alternative text for screen readers and search engines.

Tables

Tables can be used to display data in rows and columns. The <table> tag is used to create a table. The <tr> tag is used to create a row, and the <td> tag is used to create a cell in the row. Here is an example:

<table>

            <tr>

                        <td>Row 1, Column 1</td>

                        <td>Row 1, Column 2</td>

            </tr>

            <tr>

                        <td>Row 2, Column 1</td>

                        <td>Row 2, Column 2</td>

            </tr>

</table>

Frames

Frames are used to divide a web page into multiple sections, each with its own content. The <frame> tag is used to create a frame. Here is an example:

<frameset cols=”25%, 75%”>

            <frame src=”menu.html”>

            <frame src=”content.html”>

</frameset>

The cols attribute specifies the size of each frame.

Forms

Forms are used to collect input from users. The <form> tag is used to create a form. Input fields such as text boxes, radio buttons, and checkboxes are defined using various input tags. Here is an example:

<form action=”submit.php” method=”post”>

            <label for=”name”>Name:</label>

            <input type=”text” id=”name” name=”name”>

            <br>

            <label for=”email”>Email:</label>

            <input type=”email” id=”email” name=”email”>

            <br>

            <label for=”message”>Message:</label>

            <textarea id=”message” name=”message”></textarea>

            <br>

            <input type=”submit” value=”Submit”>

</form>

The action attribute specifies the URL to which the form data will be sent. The method attribute specifies the HTTP method to use (usually post or get). The label tag provides a label for each input field.

Introduction to CSS

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is used to style and layout HTML elements. CSS provides a way to define the visual presentation of HTML elements, such as font size, color,

Lucknow University BBA Notes

Building and hosting your website: choosing an ISP

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Building and hosting a website requires several steps, including choosing a domain name, designing the website, and selecting a hosting service. An ISP, or Internet Service Provider, is a company that provides internet access and other related services to customers. When choosing an ISP for website hosting, there are several factors to consider:

  1. Reliability: The ISP should have a good reputation for uptime and reliability, as website downtime can result in lost revenue and frustrated customers.
  2. Speed: The ISP should provide fast internet connectivity, as slow page load times can result in a poor user experience and lower search engine rankings.
  3. Security: The ISP should have robust security measures in place to protect against hacking and data breaches.
  4. Customer Support: The ISP should offer good customer support, including technical support, as website issues can be complex and time-sensitive.
  5. Price: The ISP’s pricing should be competitive and transparent, with no hidden fees or charges.

When evaluating ISPs for website hosting, it is also important to consider the type of hosting service that best suits your needs.

Some common types of hosting services include:

  1. Shared Hosting: This type of hosting involves sharing a server with multiple other websites. Shared hosting is typically less expensive than other types of hosting but may have slower performance and less customization options.
  2. Dedicated Hosting: This type of hosting involves having a dedicated server for your website. Dedicated hosting provides better performance and more customization options but is typically more expensive.
  3. Cloud Hosting: This type of hosting involves hosting your website on a network of servers in the cloud. Cloud hosting provides scalability, flexibility, and better uptime but may have higher costs.

Ultimately, the choice of ISP and hosting service will depend on the specific needs and requirements of your website. It is important to thoroughly research and evaluate ISPs and hosting services before making a decision, to ensure that you select the best option for your website and business.

Lucknow University BBA Notes

Web page design using HTML and CSS: Overview of HTML

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HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, is the standard markup language used to create web pages. HTML provides a set of elements and tags that define the structure and content of a web page. When a web page is loaded in a browser, the browser interprets the HTML code and displays the content according to the structure defined in the code.

HTML is comprised of a series of tags, which are enclosed in angled brackets (< >). Tags are used to define elements such as headings, paragraphs, links, images, and forms. Each tag has a specific purpose and attributes that can be used to provide additional information about the element.

Here is an example of a basic HTML document structure:

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<title>My Web Page</title>

 </head>

<body>

 <h1>Welcome to My Web Page</h1>

 <p>This is a paragraph of text.

</p> <img src=”image.jpg” alt=”An image”>

 <a href=”https://www.example.com”>This is a link</a>

</body>

</html>

In this example, the <!DOCTYPE html> declaration specifies the version of HTML being used. The html tag defines the beginning and end of the HTML document. The head tag contains meta information about the document, such as the page title, which is defined using the title tag. The body tag contains the visible content of the page, such as headings, paragraphs, images, and links.

Some common HTML tags and elements include:

  • <h1> – <h6>: Headings, with <h1> being the largest and most important.
  • <p>: Paragraphs of text.
  • <a>: Links to other web pages or resources.
  • <img>: Images, with the src attribute specifying the image file and the alt attribute providing alternative text for screen readers and search engines.
  • <ul>: Unordered lists, with each list item defined using the <li>
  • <ol>: Ordered lists, with each list item defined using the <li>
  • <form>: Forms for user input, with input fields such as text boxes, radio buttons, and checkboxes defined using various input tags.

HTML provides the foundation for creating web pages, but it is typically combined with CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) for styling and layout. CSS provides a way to define the visual presentation of HTML elements, such as font size, color, and positioning. Together, HTML and CSS form the backbone of modern web page design.

Bangalore University B.com Notes / Bangalore University BBA Notes / Lucknow University BBA Notes

Push vs. Pull Strategy

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Push Marketing Strategy

A push promotional strategy is a marketing strategy that sees companies take its products to its consumers. The goal of this strategy is to get the product directly in front of the customers, in the form of trade shows and point of sale displays. These are the most common push promotion strategies used today:

  • Direct selling to customers in showrooms
  • Point of Sale (POS) displays
  • Trade show promotions
  • Package or display design

Push marketing strategies are commonly used to gain and increase product exposure. Push marketing relies mainly upon traditional avenues of advertising/marketing, such as a series of television ads or a series of direct mail pieces. Again, a primary goal is simply making as many consumers as possible aware of the product and its benefits. “Push” refers to the fact that the company that sells the product is continually pushing it into the potential customer’s purview, their field of vision, so to speak.

Although virtually every company seeks to establish and nurture relationships with its customers or clients, push marketing is more concerned with gaining an immediate sale than with fostering relationships that create brand loyalty. Establishing a brand identity and building a loyal customer base falls more under the heading of “pull marketing.” Therefore, it is quite commonplace to see a company utilizing both push marketing and pull marketing to create a more complete, overarching marketing strategy with maximum effectiveness in terms of expanding the company’s market share and increasing revenues and profitability.

Push marketing methods are:

  • Display advertising across devices i.e. publishers media buyer, network media buy, behavioral marketing
  • Social Marketing i.e. Facebook, Instagram, Linkedin, Twitter.
  • Video marketing i.e. Youtube, Facebook, Tik Tok…
  • Content Marketing i.e. blogging, an advertorial on publishers’ site, contest

Helpful

  • When releasing new products.
  • During holidays, or seasonal events.
  • When launching a new business or website without a reputation.
  • For sales and temporary promotional campaigns.
  • When expanding to a new niche.
  • To generate cash-flow or sales quickly.
  • To help clear out product stock before the end of a season.
  • To help promote brand recognition when competing against a dominant competitor.

Advantages:

  • The ability to establish a sales channel.
  • Able to forecast and predict demand.
  • Create product exposure, demand, and consumer awareness about a product.

Disadvantages

  • Poor negotiating power with retailers and distributors; the producers are the ones asking retailers to stock their products, and the product may be a new one and, therefore, not yet established as a profitable item for retailers to stock.
  • It requires an active sales team that is able to work/network actively with retailers and distributors.
  • Product may be new, it may be difficult to accurately forecast demand.
  • Initial marketing efforts are likely to be expensive, and because they are more focused on securing a one-time purchase than on building customer relationships and loyalty, the results may be short-lived.

Pull Strategy

A pull promotional strategy also called a pull marketing strategy, is the opposite of a push strategy. Instead of directly attempting to get products in front of customers, a pull strategy aims to get the customers to come to the product.

A pull strategy is all about getting the customer to come to you. There are six widely used pull marketing strategies employed today:

  • Word-of-mouth referrals
  • Advertising and mass media production
  • Customer relationship management
  • Sales promotions and discounts
  • Social media coverage
  • Email marketing

Pull marketing is often the primary business strategy for companies looking to:

  • Maintain dominance in a specific niche or industry
  • Build a return customer base or improve loyalty
  • Ensure long-term business growth
  • To promote brand recognition with customer engagement and visibility
  • Increase social media traffic as well as social media sharing
  • Grow traffic to their site across organic, referral, and social segments
  • Improve sales and revenue affordably, without an expensive ad budget
  • Engage with customers before they know what they want, at the top of their shopping funnel.

Advantages

  • Stronger bargaining power with retailers and distributors.
  • Able to establish direct contact with consumers and build consumer loyalty.
  • Focuses on creating brand equity and product value.
  • Consumers are actively seeking out the product, which removes much of the pressure of conducting outbound marketing.
  • Can be used to test a product’s acceptance in the market and obtain consumer feedback on the product.

Disadvantages

  • Usually works effectively only when there is high brand loyalty.
  • Requires creating a high demand for a product, which can be difficult in a highly competitive marketplace landscape.
  • Lead time is long, as consumers are comparing alternatives before making a purchase.
  • Requires strong marketing efforts to convince consumers to actively seek out the product (they may, instead, just decide to settle for whatever similar product a retailer has in stock, rather than insisting on getting your product).

Types:

Advertisements

Content advertising

Since needs and wants can motivate a customer to make a purchase, creating an answer for customer demands is an important part of pull marketing strategies. Content advertising specifically focuses on how a product could meet consumer demand. For example, around a holiday like Thanksgiving, a kitchen appliance company may advertise a new line of oven mittens due to a higher number of people cooking and baking.

Pay-per-click advertising

Also called paid advertising, pay-per-click advertising shows customers products based on their search questions and customer data, such as demographic, occupation or age. For example, a college student may see an advertisement for a new laptop after searching for affordable laptops online. Paid advertisements can appear on social media, webpages or videos. While paid advertising can cost more than other methods of advertising, it can be effective in targeting specific customers for your pull marketing strategy.

Outbound advertising

Outbound advertising is a marketing tactic that involves contacting customers via email or phone call concerning a product that may interest them. This kind of advertising could reach potential customers who have either already interacted with the company or who haven’t shown interest at all. For example, a company may send a promotional email about a new line of products to previous customers. Companies may also offer recent customers a discount for a future purchase. Keeping customers loyal and continuously gaining more customers can help a pull marketing strategy increase profits.

SEO

Search engine optimization (SEO) refers to when companies adjust their webpages to include popular keywords in order to rank higher in search results. High-ranking search results can further a company’s exposure to customers, which may lead to increased sales and more new customers. By adjusting a website to include specific search questions, a business can match a customer’s potential questions with products that answer them. For example, a shower company can optimize its blog to appear more often when users search for new showerheads. As a result, users may become interested in the company’s product.

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