Tag: Double Entry

Measurement

A financial asset or financial liability is measured initially at fair value. Subsequent measurement depends on the category of financial instrument. Some categories are measured at amortised cost, and some at fair value. In limited circumstances other measurement bases apply, for example, certain financial guarantee contracts.

The following are measured at amortised cost:

• Held to maturity investments—non-derivative financial assets that the entity has the positive intention and ability to hold to maturity;
• loans and receivables—non-derivative financial assets with fixed or determinable payments that are not quoted in an active market; and
• Financial liabilities that are not carried at fair value through profit or loss or otherwise required to be measured in accordance with another measurement basis.

The following are measured at fair value:

• Financial assets and financial liabilities held for trading—this category includes derivatives not designated as hedging instruments and financial assets and financial liabilities that the entity has designated for measurement at fair value. All changes in fair value are reported in profit or loss.
• Available for sale financial assets—all financial assets that do not fall within one of the other categories. These are measured at fair value. Unrealised changes in fair value are reported in other comprehensive income. Realised changes in fair value (from sale or impairment) are reported in profit or loss at the time of realisation.

Initial measurement

Initially, financial assets and liabilities should be measured at fair value (including transaction costs, for assets and liabilities not measured at fair value through profit or loss). [IAS 39.43]

Measurement subsequent to initial recognition

Subsequently, financial assets and liabilities (including derivatives) should be measured at fair value, with the following exceptions: [IAS 39.46-47]

• Loans and receivables, held-to-maturity investments, and non-derivative financial liabilities should be measured at amortised cost using the effective interest method.
• Investments in equity instruments with no reliable fair value measurement (and derivatives indexed to such equity instruments) should be measured at cost.
• Financial assets and liabilities that are designated as a hedged item or hedging instrument are subject to measurement under the hedge accounting requirements of the IAS 39.
• Financial liabilities that arise when a transfer of a financial asset does not qualify for derecognition, or that are accounted for using the continuing-involvement method, are subject to particular measurement requirements.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction. [IAS 39.9] IAS 39 provides a hierarchy to be used in determining the fair value for a financial instrument: [IAS 39 Appendix A, paragraphs AG69-82]

• Quoted market prices in an active market are the best evidence of fair value and should be used, where they exist, to measure the financial instrument.
• If a market for a financial instrument is not active, an entity establishes fair value by using a valuation technique that makes maximum use of market inputs and includes recent arm’s length market transactions, reference to the current fair value of another instrument that is substantially the same, discounted cash flow analysis, and option pricing models. An acceptable valuation technique incorporates all factors that market participants would consider in setting a price and is consistent with accepted economic methodologies for pricing financial instruments.
• If there is no active market for an equity instrument and the range of reasonable fair values is significant and these estimates cannot be made reliably, then an entity must measure the equity instrument at cost less impairment.

Amortised cost is calculated using the effective interest method. The effective interest rate is the rate that exactly discounts estimated future cash payments or receipts through the expected life of the financial instrument to the net carrying amount of the financial asset or liability. Financial assets that are not carried at fair value though profit and loss is subject to an impairment test. If expected life cannot be determined reliably, then the contractual life is used.

IAS 39 fair value option

IAS 39 permits entities to designate, at the time of acquisition or issuance, any financial asset or financial liability to be measured at fair value, with value changes recognised in profit or loss. This option is available even if the financial asset or financial liability would ordinarily, by its nature, be measured at amortised cost but only if fair value can be reliably measured.

In June 2005 the IASB issued its amendment to IAS 39 to restrict the use of the option to designate any financial asset or any financial liability to be measured at fair value through profit and loss (the fair value option). The revisions limit the use of the option to those financial instruments that meet certain conditions: [IAS 39.9]

• The fair value option designation eliminates or significantly reduces an accounting mismatch, or
• A group of financial assets, financial liabilities or both is managed and its performance is evaluated on a fair value basis by entity’s management.

IAS 39 available for sale option for loans and receivables

IAS 39 permits entities to designate, at the time of acquisition, any loan or receivable as available for sale, in which case it is measured at fair value with changes in fair value recognised in equity.

Impairment

A financial asset or group of assets is impaired, and impairment losses are recognised, only if there is objective evidence as a result of one or more events that occurred after the initial recognition of the asset. An entity is required to assess at each balance sheet date whether there is any objective evidence of impairment. If any such evidence exists, the entity is required to do a detailed impairment calculation to determine whether an impairment loss should be recognised. [IAS 39.58] The amount of the loss is measured as the difference between the asset’s carrying amount and the present value of estimated cash flows discounted at the financial asset’s original effective interest rate. [IAS 39.63]

Assets that are individually assessed and for which no impairment exists are grouped with financial assets with similar credit risk statistics and collectively assessed for impairment. [IAS 39.64]

If, in a subsequent period, the amount of the impairment loss relating to a financial asset carried at amortised cost or a debt instrument carried as available-for-sale decreases due to an event occurring after the impairment was originally recognised, the previously recognised impairment loss is reversed through profit or loss. Impairments relating to investments in available-for-sale equity instruments are not reversed through profit or loss. [IAS 39.65]

Scope

This Standard shall be applied in accounting for all leases other than:

(a) Leases to explore for or use minerals, oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources; and

(b) Licensing agreements for such items as motion picture films, video recordings, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyrights.

However, this Standard shall not be applied as the basis of measurement for:

(a) Property held by lessees that is accounted for as investment property (see Ind AS 40 Investment Property);

(b) Investment property provided by lessors under operating leases (see Ind AS 40 Investment Property);

(c) Biological assets held by lessees under finance leases (see Ind AS 41 Agriculture1); or

(d) Biological assets provided by lessors under operating leases (see AS 41 Agriculture).

This Standard applies to agreements that transfer the right to use assets even though substantial services by the lessor may be called for in connection with the operation or maintenance of such assets. This Standard does not apply to agreements that are contracts for services that do not transfer the right to use assets from one contracting party to the other.

A non-cancellable lease is a lease that is cancellable only:

(a) Upon the occurrence of some remote contingency;

(b) With the permission of the lessor;

(c) If the lessee enters into a new lease for the same or an equivalent asset with the same lessor; or

(d) Upon payment by the lessee of such an additional amount that, at inception of the lease, continuation of the lease is reasonably certain.

The inception of the lease is the earlier of the date of the lease agreement and the date of commitment by the parties to the principal provisions of the lease. As at this date:

(a) A lease is classified as either an operating or a finance lease; and

(b) In the case of a finance lease, the amounts to be recognised at the commencement of the lease term are determined.

The commencement of the lease term is the date from which the lessee is entitled to exercise its right to use the leased asset. It is the date of initial recognition of the lease (ie the recognition of the assets, liabilities, income or expenses resulting from the lease, as appropriate).

The lease term is the non-cancellable period for which the lessee has contracted to lease the asset together with any further terms for which the lessee has the option to continue to lease the asset, with or without further payment, when at the inception of the lease it is reasonably certain that the lessee will exercise the option.

Minimum lease payments are the payments over the lease term that the lessee is or can be required to make, excluding contingent rent, costs for services and taxes to be paid by and reimbursed to the lessor, together with:

(a) For a lessee, any amounts guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to the lessee;

(b) For a lessor, any residual value guaranteed to the lessor by:

(i) The lessee;

(ii) A party related to the lessee; or

(iii) A third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of discharging the obligations under the guarantee.

However, if the lessee has an option to purchase the asset at a price that is expected to be sufficiently lower than fair value at the date the option becomes exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the inception of the lease, that the option will be exercised, the minimum lease payments comprise the minimum payments payable over the lease term to the expected date of exercise of this purchase option and the payment required to exercise it.

Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.

Economic life is either:

(a) The period over which an asset is expected to be economically usable by one or more users; or

(b) The number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by one or more users.

Useful life is the estimated remaining period, from the commencement of the lease term, without limitation by the lease term, over which the economic benefits embodied in the asset are expected to be consumed by the entity.

Guaranteed residual value is:

(a) for a lessee, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to the lessee (the amount of the guarantee being the maximum amount that could, in any event, become payable); and

(b) For a lessor, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee or by a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of discharging the obligations under the guarantee.

Unguaranteed residual value is that portion of the residual value of the leased asset, the realisation of which by the lessor is not assured or is guaranteed solely by a party related to the lessor.

Initial direct costs are incremental costs that are directly attributable to negotiating and arranging a lease, except for such costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer lessors.

Gross investment in the lease is the aggregate of:

(a) The minimum lease payments receivable by the lessor under a finance lease, and

(b) Any unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor.

Net investment in the lease is the gross investment in the lease discounted at the interest rate implicit in the lease.

Unearned finance income is the difference between:

(a) The gross investment in the lease, and

(b) The net investment in the lease.

The interest rate implicit in the lease is the discount rate that, at the inception of the lease, causes the aggregate present value of (a) the minimum lease payments and (b) the unguaranteed residual value to be equal to the sum of (i) the fair value of the leased asset and (ii) any initial direct costs of the lessor.

The lessees incremental borrowing rate of interest is the rate of interest the lessee would have to pay on a similar lease or, if that is not determinable, the rate that, at the inception of the lease, the lessee would incur to borrow over a similar term, and with a similar security, the funds necessary to purchase the asset.

Contingent rent is that portion of the lease payments that is not fixed in amount but is based on the future amount of a factor that changes other than with the passage of time (eg percentage of future sales, amount of future use, future price indices, and future market rates of interest).

A lease agreement or commitment may include a provision to adjust the lease payments for changes in the construction or acquisition cost of the leased property or for changes in some other measure of cost or value, such as general price levels, or in the lessors costs of financing the lease, during the period between the inception of the lease and the commencement of the lease term. If so, the effect of any such changes shall be deemed to have taken place at the inception of the lease for the purposes of this Standard.

The definition of a lease includes contracts for the hire of an asset that contain a provision giving the hirer an option to acquire title to the asset upon the fulfilment of agreed conditions. These contracts are sometimes known as hire purchase contracts.

Termination benefits arise when an employee is terminated by the employer or when an employee accepts the employer’s offer of benefits in exchange of termination of employment. This is different to post-employment benefits. Classic example of termination benefits is retrenchment compensation where the employee has no option to accept the termination. Voluntary Retirement Scheme is also an example of termination benefits where the employees are due a compensation and in return accept early retirement.

Termination Benefits are to be recognised on the earlier date of when the company can no longer withdraw the offer of the termination benefits, or when the company recognises costs for restructuring which involves the payment of termination benefits. For instance, a company may face debt restructuring and accordingly, several employees would have to be laid off, and the termination benefits would be recognised.

Termination benefits are employee benefits provided in exchange for the termination of an employee’s employment as a result of either:

• An entity’s decision to terminate an employee’s employment before the normal retirement date; or
• An employee’s decision to accept an offer of benefits in exchange for

An entity shall recognize a liability and expense for termination benefits at the earlier of the following dates: The termination of

• When the entity can no longer withdraw the offer of those benefits; and
• When the entity recognises costs for a restructuring that is within the scope of Ind AS 37 and involves the payment of termination benefits

It does not cover an employee’s voluntary termination or mandatory retirement. It is generally a lump sum payment and also includes:

• Enhancement of post-employment benefits (through benefit plan).
• Salary to be paid until the end of a specified notice period.

Recognition

An employer should recognize termination benefits as a liability and as an expense at the earlier of the following dates:

• The employer can no longer withdraw the offer for those benefits. The employer recognizes restructuring cost per Ind AS 37 and involves payment of termination benefits

Measurement

Termination Benefits are measured based on the criteria considering if they are an enhancement to post-employment benefits. If they are an enhancement to post-employment benefits (for instance payable after retirement), then they are accounted as per Defined Contribution Plan or Defined Benefit Plan, as the case maybe. If they are not an enhancement to post-employment benefits, based on whether the termination benefits are expected to be settled within 12months they are accounted as either Short Term Employee Benefits (for cases when the settlement is within 12 months) or Other Long Term Employee Benefits (for other cases).

• Measure the termination benefits on initial recognition and recognize subsequent changes with the nature of employee benefit.
• Analyze if the benefits are an enhancement of post-employment benefits or short-term employee benefits or long-term employee benefits.

The term ‘financial analysis’, also known as analysis and interpretation of financial statements’, refers to the process of determining financial strengths and weaknesses of the firm by establishing strategic relationship between the items of the balance sheet, profit and loss account and other operative data.

“Analyzing financial statements,” according to Metcalf and Titard, “is a process of evaluating the relationship between component parts of a financial statement to obtain a better understanding of a firm’s position and performance.”

The term ‘financial statement analysis’ includes both ‘analysis’, and ‘interpretation’. A distinction should, therefore, be made between the two terms. While the term ‘analysis’ is used to mean the simplification of financial data by methodical classification of the data given in the financial statements, ‘interpretation’ means, ‘explaining the meaning and significance of the data so simplified.’

Objectives

• Assessing the current position & operational efficiency: Examining the current profitability & operational efficiency of the enterprise so that the financial health of the company can be determined. For long-term decision making, assets & liabilities of the company are reviewed. Analysis helps in finding out the earning capacity & operating performance of the company.
• Reviewing the performance of a company over the past periods: To predict the future prospects of the company, past performance is analyzed. Past performance is analyzed by reviewing the trend of past sales, profitability, cash flows, return on investment, debt-equity structure and operating expenses, etc.
• Predicting growth & profitability prospects: The top management is concerned with future prospects of the company. Financial analysis helps them in reviewing the investment alternatives for judging the earning potential of the enterprise. With the help of financial statement analysis, assessment and prediction of the bankruptcy and probability of business failure can be done.
• Loan Decision by Financial Institutions and Banks: Financial analysis helps the financial institutions, loan agencies & banks to decide whether a loan can be given to the company or not. It helps them in determining the credit risk, deciding the terms and conditions of a loan if sanctioned, interest rate, and maturity date etc.

Nature:

(i) To assess the earning capacity or profitability of the firm.

(ii) To assess the operational efficiency and managerial effectiveness.

(iii) To assess the short term as well as long term solvency position of the firm.

(iv) To identify the reasons for change in profitability and financial position of the firm.

(v) To make inter-firm comparison.

(vi) To make forecasts about future prospects of the firm.

(vii) To assess the progress of the firm over a period of time.

(viii) To help in decision making and control.

(ix) To guide or determine the dividend action.

(x) To provide important information for granting credit.

Scope

• Analyze financial ratios to assess profitability, solvency, working capital management, liquidity, and operating effectiveness.
• Compare current performance with historical conditions using trend analysis.
• Compare with peer companies or industry averages to find out how well companies are performing.

Advantages

The Ability to Detect Patterns

Financial statements reveal how much a company earns per year in sales. The sales may fluctuate, but financial planners should be able to identify a pattern over years of sales figures. For example, the company may have a pattern of increased sales when a new product is released. The sales may drop after a year or so of being on the market. This is beneficial, as it shows potential and sales patterns so executives know to expect a drop in sales.

A Chance to Budget Outline

Another advantage of using financial statements for future planning and decision making is that they show the company’s budgets. The budgets reveal how much wiggle room the company has to spend on launching products, developing marketing campaigns or expanding the current office size. Knowing how much money is available for planning and decision making ensures that the company does not spend more than expected.

Limitation

Financial analysis is a powerful mechanism of determining financial strengths and weaknesses of a firm. But, the analysis is based on the information available in the financial statements. Thus, the financial analysis suffers from serious inherent limitations of financial statements.

The financial analyst has also to be careful about the impact of price level changes, window-dressing of financial statements, changes in accounting policies of a firm, accounting concepts and conventions, and personal judgment, etc.

Some of the important limitations of financial analysis are, however, summed up as below:

(i) It is only a study of interim reports

(ii) Financial analysis is based upon only monetary information and non-monetary factors are ignored.

(iii) It does not consider changes in price levels.

(iv) As the financial statements are prepared on the basis of a going concern, it does not give exact position. Thus accounting concepts and conventions cause a serious limitation to financial analysis.

(v) Changes in accounting procedure by a firm may often make financial analysis misleading.

(vi) Analysis is only a means and not an end in itself. The analyst has to make interpretation and draw his own conclusions. Different people may interpret the same analysis in different ways.

Stages of financial statement analysis

Determine the purpose of the analysis. You need to determine what questions you want to answer through the study. The objective identifies the approach, tools, data sources, and format that you use to present the results.

• Collecting data. You then gather the necessary information. For example, to analyze a company’s historical performance, you might only need to use financial statements. When you want to examine more comprehensively, for example, valuing the company’s stock price, you need data such as economic and industry reports.
• Processing data. You need to convert financial data into useful statistics such as financial ratios or growth percentages. The more in-depth analysis may require not only descriptive statistics but also inferential statistics such as regression.
• Interpret statistics. To conclude, you might not only analyze historically but also compare with peer companies or industry averages.

Investment account is an account opened for the purpose of the investment. Further, if the number of investment is large, a separate account for each investment should be opened.

Accounting entry on the purchase of any investments are given as hereunder:

On purchase of investment	Investment A/c          Dr. To Cash/Bank A/c (Being Investment made) Note: Investment account is inclusive of purchase expenses like stamp duty, Commission, and brokerage.
On Sale of investments	Cash/Bank A/c        Dr. To Investment A/c (Being Investment made) Note: Investment account will be credited with net realized value of investment.
Interest and dividend account	Cash/Bank/Investment A/c          Dr. To Dividend/Interest A/c (Being Interest/dividend received on investments) Note: Investments account will be credited in case, interest/dividend accrue and cash/bank account will be debited (in case) with net realized value of investment.

Inflation Accounting is a financial reporting method used to adjust financial statements for the effects of inflation. In traditional accounting, historical costs are recorded without considering changes in the value of money over time. However, during inflationary periods, the purchasing power of money decreases, making such records misleading. Inflation accounting corrects this by restating assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses in terms of current price levels. This provides a more accurate financial picture, especially for long-term assets and profitability. Two common methods are the Current Purchasing Power (CPP) method and the Current Cost Accounting (CCA) method. Inflation accounting helps stakeholders make better decisions by reflecting the real value of financial data under changing economic conditions.

Importance of Inflation Accounting:

• Provides Realistic Financial Position

Inflation accounting helps present a true and fair view of a company’s financial position by adjusting the values of assets and liabilities according to current price levels. In times of inflation, historical cost-based accounting may undervalue assets and overstate profits. Inflation accounting reflects the actual worth of fixed assets, inventory, and other items, enabling better assessment of the company’s net worth. It provides stakeholders with more reliable financial information, especially in economies where inflation significantly distorts the real financial condition of businesses.

• Ensures Accurate Profit Measurement

One of the most important benefits of inflation accounting is that it ensures accurate measurement of profits. Under historical cost accounting, profits may be overstated during inflationary periods because revenues are recorded at current prices while costs are based on outdated values. This leads to inflated profit figures and potentially incorrect tax liabilities or dividend declarations. Inflation accounting adjusts costs to current levels, ensuring a more realistic comparison between revenues and expenses, and helping businesses avoid distributing unreal profits that could erode capital.

• Improves Decision-Making for Management

Management relies on accurate financial data for effective planning, budgeting, and investment decisions. Inflation accounting provides financial statements that reflect the current economic reality, rather than outdated historical costs. This helps managers make better operational and strategic decisions, such as pricing, cost control, and resource allocation. By understanding the real value of profits, assets, and liabilities, management can take informed decisions that support long-term business sustainability and profitability, especially during periods of fluctuating inflation or rising costs.

• Protects Investor Interests

Investors depend on financial statements to assess the performance and financial health of a company. If accounting records ignore inflation, they may present an overly optimistic view, misleading investors about the company’s real profitability and value. Inflation accounting helps correct this by presenting more realistic figures. This transparency protects investors from making poor investment decisions and builds trust. It ensures they are aware of the actual earning capacity and asset base of a company, allowing better analysis of returns on investment.

• Facilitates Meaningful Financial Comparisons

Inflation distorts year-to-year financial comparisons when using historical cost accounting. For example, comparing profits or asset values over time becomes misleading if inflation is not accounted for. Inflation accounting standardizes financial data by adjusting figures to the same price level, which allows more meaningful comparisons between different accounting periods or between companies in the same industry. This helps analysts, investors, and regulators to accurately evaluate performance trends, business growth, and competitive position in an inflationary economic environment.

• Aids in Fair Taxation and Dividend Policy

Inflation accounting helps ensure fair taxation by avoiding taxes on inflated, non-real profits. When companies pay taxes based on overstated profits due to historical costs, they lose part of their real capital. Inflation-adjusted profits provide a more accurate basis for tax assessment. Similarly, it aids in setting a sound dividend policy by preventing the distribution of illusory profits. This protects the company’s reserves and ensures that dividends are paid only from genuine, inflation-adjusted earnings, safeguarding long-term financial stability.

Role of Inflation Accounting:

• Maintains Capital Integrity

Inflation accounting helps businesses maintain the real value of their capital by adjusting financial statements for price-level changes. In traditional accounting, inflation can erode capital when profits are overstated and distributed as dividends. By reflecting current values, inflation accounting ensures that only genuine profits are shown, allowing companies to retain sufficient earnings to replace assets and sustain operations. This protects the integrity of capital, enabling firms to continue functioning effectively without drawing on capital reserves under the illusion of inflated profits.

• Improves Financial Reporting Accuracy

A key role of inflation accounting is enhancing the accuracy and relevance of financial reports. In times of inflation, traditional accounting methods understate asset values and distort profit figures. Inflation accounting corrects this by restating all key financial elements—assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses—at current prices. This makes financial statements more realistic and useful for all stakeholders, including investors, managers, and regulators. Accurate financial reporting is essential for maintaining transparency, making informed decisions, and complying with regulatory and disclosure requirements in a changing economic environment.

• Supports Efficient Resource Allocation

Inflation accounting plays a critical role in the efficient allocation of business resources. It provides management with reliable data that reflects the true cost and value of assets and operations. This helps managers allocate funds and resources based on current economic conditions, ensuring that investments are made wisely and costs are controlled effectively. Without inflation-adjusted information, resource allocation decisions may be based on outdated values, leading to inefficiencies and financial losses. Accurate data enables better forecasting, budgeting, and capital expenditure planning.

• Strengthens Investor and Stakeholder Confidence

Inflation accounting builds confidence among investors, lenders, and other stakeholders by providing a realistic picture of a company’s financial performance and position. When financial statements reflect actual economic values, stakeholders can make well-informed decisions about investing, lending, or maintaining business relationships. It eliminates the risk of being misled by inflated profits or undervalued assets. Transparent reporting using inflation-adjusted figures fosters trust, reduces investment risks, and enhances a company’s reputation in the financial market, especially in economies experiencing high or volatile inflation rates.

• Aids Government Policy and Regulation

Accurate financial data generated through inflation accounting supports better policymaking and regulation. Governments rely on corporate financial statements to design tax policies, economic strategies, and regulations. If companies report inflated profits due to historical cost accounting, it can lead to unfair tax burdens or poor economic assessments. Inflation accounting provides more reliable macroeconomic data, helping policymakers create balanced tax laws, incentives, and economic policies. This ensures businesses are taxed fairly and encourages economic stability by reflecting the true financial landscape.

• Facilitates Long-Term Financial Planning

Inflation accounting supports long-term financial planning by providing a realistic assessment of future costs and revenues. By adjusting for inflation, companies can forecast financial needs more accurately, plan for asset replacement, and set long-term goals. It helps in developing sustainable growth strategies by considering the real impact of inflation on profitability, liquidity, and solvency. Without this, plans based on distorted historical data may fail. Thus, inflation accounting becomes essential for businesses aiming to survive and grow in dynamic, inflation-prone environments.

Objectives of Inflation Accounting:

• To Present a True Financial Position

The primary objective of inflation accounting is to present the true and fair financial position of a business by adjusting financial statements to reflect current price levels. Traditional accounting records assets and liabilities at historical costs, which becomes misleading during inflation. By using inflation-adjusted figures, the company’s balance sheet and profit statements reflect the real economic value of its resources. This helps users of financial statements, such as investors, creditors, and analysts, better understand the company’s actual worth and financial health in an inflationary environment.

• To Prevent Overstatement of Profits

Inflation accounting aims to prevent the overstatement of profits that often results from comparing current revenues with outdated costs. When businesses operate under traditional accounting, profits may appear higher due to inflation eroding the real value of money, leading to excessive tax payments or inappropriate dividend declarations. By aligning revenues with current costs, inflation accounting ensures profits are measured more accurately. This allows businesses to make sustainable financial decisions and avoid depleting their capital by distributing unreal or paper profits.

• To Protect Capital and Ensure Capital Maintenance

Another critical objective of inflation accounting is to safeguard the real value of a company’s capital. During inflation, asset replacement costs rise, and if profits are overstated and distributed, businesses may not have enough resources to replace those assets. Inflation accounting adjusts asset values and depreciation to reflect current prices, ensuring that sufficient profits are retained to maintain operational capacity. This helps businesses preserve their capital base and continue production and service delivery without facing capital erosion or liquidity challenges.

• To Provide Relevant and Timely Financial Information

Inflation accounting strives to deliver relevant and timely financial information that reflects the current economic situation. Stakeholders need financial data that is up to date and reflects the real purchasing power of money. Inflation-adjusted statements improve the quality of financial information by removing distortions caused by price-level changes. This enables better decision-making by management, investors, and policymakers. Accurate, inflation-aware financial reports are particularly useful for planning, budgeting, investment evaluation, and economic analysis in times of rising or fluctuating inflation.

• To Ensure Fair Taxation and Dividend Policy

One of the objectives of inflation accounting is to support fair taxation and appropriate dividend policies. Traditional accounting may result in companies paying taxes on inflated profits, which are not truly earned. Similarly, dividends may be paid from unreal profits, weakening the business financially. Inflation accounting provides a clearer picture of actual earnings, helping businesses to avoid excessive tax liabilities and ensuring that dividends are declared only from real, retained profits. This leads to financial sustainability and compliance with equitable fiscal policies.

• To Improve Comparability of Financial Statements

Inflation accounting enhances the comparability of financial statements over time and across companies. When statements are prepared using historical cost accounting, they become difficult to compare due to the varying impacts of inflation. By adjusting all figures to a constant price level, inflation accounting ensures consistency and comparability, making it easier for stakeholders to evaluate performance trends, conduct inter-firm analysis, and benchmark financial outcomes. This objective is particularly valuable for long-term investors, analysts, and regulators seeking to assess financial health over time.

Merits of Inflation Accounting:

• Reflects True Financial Position

Inflation accounting adjusts the value of assets and liabilities to reflect current prices, offering a more accurate picture of a company’s real worth. This avoids the misleading results of historical cost accounting during inflation.

• Accurate Profit Measurement

It provides a realistic measure of profits by matching current revenues with current costs, avoiding overstatement of profits that can occur when outdated costs are used.

• Protects Capital

By adjusting for inflation, businesses avoid distributing illusory profits as dividends. This ensures that capital is preserved for asset replacement and growth.

• Improved Decision Making

Management gets reliable and current data for planning, budgeting, and forecasting, enabling better strategic and operational decisions.

• Prevents Tax on Unreal Profits

Companies avoid paying taxes on inflated profits by showing real, inflation-adjusted earnings, which supports fair taxation.

• Enhances Investor Confidence

Investors and stakeholders receive transparent and realistic financial information, building trust and enabling informed investment decisions.

• Better Inter-Period Comparability

Adjusting accounts for inflation allows meaningful comparison of financial statements across different time periods.

Demerits of Inflation Accounting:

• Complexity in Implementation

Inflation accounting involves complex calculations and adjustments, making it difficult for many organizations to adopt and apply. It requires selecting appropriate price indices, updating the value of all assets, liabilities, and expenses, and reworking the entire accounting framework. Not all accountants are trained in this method, and the lack of uniform practices can lead to inconsistent application. This complexity often deters small and medium-sized businesses from using inflation accounting, despite its advantages in providing a realistic picture of financial performance and position.

• Lack of Universal Standards

There is no universally accepted or standardized method for inflation accounting, which can result in variations in how adjustments are made. Different countries and organizations may use different price indices or base years, leading to inconsistencies. The absence of global guidelines affects the comparability of financial statements across regions and industries. This lack of standardization reduces the reliability of inflation-adjusted data, making it difficult for stakeholders like investors and analysts to assess and compare financial health across different companies objectively and fairly.

• Resistance from Stakeholders

Inflation accounting may face resistance from various stakeholders, including investors, management, and regulators. Investors may be uncomfortable with reduced profits shown under inflation-adjusted statements, even if they are more accurate. Management may be reluctant to adopt the method due to reduced reported earnings, which could affect bonuses, performance evaluations, or share prices. Regulators and tax authorities may not recognize inflation-adjusted profits for official tax calculations. This resistance limits the widespread adoption and practical utility of inflation accounting, especially in countries with rigid accounting rules.

• Inapplicability in Stable Economies

In economies where inflation is low or stable, the benefits of inflation accounting may not justify its complexity and cost. Traditional historical cost accounting is often sufficient in such environments because the changes in purchasing power are minimal. Applying inflation accounting in these conditions could result in unnecessary adjustments that complicate financial reporting without adding significant value. Therefore, inflation accounting is more applicable in countries experiencing high inflation, and its relevance may diminish in stable or deflationary economic settings.

• Misinterpretation of Results

Users of financial statements who are unfamiliar with inflation accounting may misinterpret the adjusted figures. Lower profits, higher asset values, and revised depreciation may confuse stakeholders, especially if inflation-adjusted statements are not properly explained or disclosed. Investors might perceive lower reported profits as a sign of declining performance rather than a reflection of accurate cost matching. This misunderstanding can lead to incorrect judgments and decisions. Hence, clear communication and education are essential when using inflation-adjusted reports to avoid misinterpretation.

• Additional Cost and Effort

Inflation accounting increases administrative burden, as companies must maintain dual accounting systems—historical and inflation-adjusted. This demands more time, skilled personnel, and technology, which increases operational costs. Regular updates using price indices and continuous monitoring of economic conditions further add to the workload. For many small businesses with limited resources, the cost of implementing inflation accounting outweighs its benefits. This financial strain, combined with the need for specialized knowledge, can discourage businesses from adopting inflation accounting, despite its theoretical advantages.

Investment property is property (land or a building or part of a building or both) held (by the owner or by the lessee under a finance lease) to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both. [IAS 40.5]

Examples of investment property: [IAS 40.8]

• Land held for long-term capital appreciation
• Land held for a currently undetermined future use
• Building leased out under an operating lease
• Vacant building held to be leased out under an operating lease
• Property that is being constructed or developed for future use as investment property.

The following are not investment property and, therefore, are outside the scope of IAS 40: [IAS 40.5 and 40.9]

• Property held for use in the production or supply of goods or services or for administrative purposes
• Property held for sale in the ordinary course of business or in the process of construction of development for such sale (ias 2 inventories).
• Property being constructed or developed on behalf of third parties (ias 11 construction contracts).
• Owner-occupied property (ias 16 property, plant and equipment), including property held for future use as owner-occupied property, property held for future development and subsequent use as owner-occupied property, property occupied by employees and owner-occupied property awaiting disposal.
• Property leased to another entity under a finance lease.

Scope of Ind AS 40: Investment Property

1) Ind AS 40 should be applied in the recognition, measurement and disclosure of investment property.

2) This Standard doesn’t apply to:

a) Biological assets are also related to agricultural activity (see Ind AS 41 ‘Agriculture’ and Ind AS 16 ‘Property, Plant and Equipment).

b) Mineral rights and mineral reserves and minerals such as oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources.

Recognition in Ind AS 40 

General principle

An owned investment is property shall be recognized as an asset when, and only when:

a) Probably, the future economic benefits associated with the investment property will flow to the entity.

b) The expense of the investment property can be reliably measured.

This general principle is used to consider whether capitalization is appropriate both in respect of the cost incurred in a initially to acquire or construct an owned investment property. The costs incurred subsequently will be  add to, replace part of, or service a property.

An investment property which is hold by a lessee as a right-of-use asset shall be recognized following Ind AS 116.

Subsequent costs

Day-to-day servicing costs:

Under the recognition principle set out above, an entity does not recognize the costs of the day-to-day servicing of such property in the carrying amount of an investment property.

Rather, these costs are recognized in the profit or loss as incurred. Costs of daily servicing are primarily the cost of labour and consumables and might be including the cost of minor parts. The purpose of these expenditures can be often described as for the ‘repairs and maintenance of the property.

Replacement costs:

Parts of investment properties might have been acquired through replacement. Under the recognition principle, an entity recognizes costs incurred to mainly replace parts of original property in the carrying amount in investment property. if they meet the recognition criteria. The carrying value of those parts that are replaced is derecognized following the derecognition provisions of this Standard.

Measurement of Recognition

Measurement at recognition: General

An owned type investment property should be basically measured initially at its cost. Transaction costs are mainly included in the initial measurement.

Cost Inclusions:

The cost of a purchased investment property also comprises its purchase price and any of directly attributable expenditure. The professional fees for legal services, property transfer taxes and other transaction costs.

Cost Exclusions:

The cost of an investment property isn’t increased by:

a) Start-up costs cannot be necessary for bringing the property for the condition which is necessary. It is capable of been operating in the manner which the intended by management.

b) Operating losses which are incurred before the investment property is achieving the planned level of occupancy.

c) Abnormal value of wasted material, labor or other resources can be incurred in constructing or developing the property.

2) Deferred payments

If payment for an investment property is delay then its cost will be cash price equivalent. The distinction between this amount and the total payments can be recognized as interest expense throughout the credit.

Investment property acquired through exchange of another asset.

One or more investment properties might be acquired by exchange for a non-monetary asset.  Assets or any combination of monetary and or non-monetary assets. The cost of such an investment property can be measured at fair value unless:

a) The exchange transaction lacks commercial substance.

b) The fair value of nor the asset which is received nor the asset is given up is reliably measurable.

The acquired asset can be measured in this way, even if an entity cannot be immediately derecognizing the asset which is given up. If the acquired asset cannot be measured at fair value, its cost is measured at the carrying amount of the asset given up.

An entity can determine whether AS an exchange transaction has commercial substance by mainly considering the extent to which company future cash flows are expected to change due to the transaction. An exchange transaction can be commercial substance if:

a) The arrangement (risk, amount and timing) of the cash flows of the asset is received differs from the mainly in configuration of the cash flows of the asset transferred.

b) The entity mainly which is specific amount of the portion of the entity’s operations can be affected by the transaction changes resulting from the exchange.

c) The difference between (a) or (b) is significant which is relative to measuring a fair value of any assets exchanged.

To mainly determine whether you seen an exchange transaction has commercial substance. The which has entity-specific value of the portion of the entity’s operations affected by the transaction, as mentioned earlier, shall reflect the post-tax cash flows. The result of this analysis may be clear without an entity having to perform detailed calculations.

The fair value of any asset which can be reliably measurable if:

a) The fluctuation in the range of reasonable, fair value measurements cannot be significant for that asset.

b) The probabilities of the various can be estimated within the range can be reasonably assessed and used when measuring fair value.

Suppose the entity can measure reliably the fair value of either the asset received or the asset is given up. In case, the fair value of any asset which is given up mainly to used or to measure cost unless the fair value. The asset received is more clearly evident.

An investment property can be held by a lessee as a right-of-use asset should be measured initially at its cost following Ind AS 116.

MEASUREMENT AFTER RECOGNITION

Accounting Policy

An entity that shall adopt as its an accounting policy the cost model to all of its investment property.

Cost Model:

After initial recognition, an entity shall measure investment property:

(a) Following Ind AS 105, Non-current Assets which is Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations if it mainly meets any of the criteria. To be classified as a held for sale. It is included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale.

(b) Following Ind AS 116 if it is held by a lessee as a right-of-use asset and is not held for sale following Ind AS 105.

(c) Following the requirements in Ind AS 16 for cost model in all other cases.

Entities are required to measure the fair value of investment property for disclosure even though they must follow the cost model. An entity can be encouraged but is not required for measuring the fair value of an investment property.

Based on a valuation by any independent valuer mainly who holds a recognized and a relevant professional qualification. Recent experience in location and a category of the investment property being valued.

Procedure for Issuing an Accounting Standard

Broadly, the following procedure is adopted for formulating Accounting Standards:

(i) The ASB determines the broad areas in which Accounting Standards need to be formulated and the priority in regard to the selection thereof.

(ii) In the preparation of Accounting Standards, the ASB will be assisted by Study Groups constituted to consider specific subjects.

(iii) The draft of the proposed standard will normally include the following:

• Objective of the Standard,
• Scope of the Standard,
• Definitions of the terms used in the Standard,
• Recognition and measurement principles, wherever applicable,
• Presentation and disclosure requirements.

(iv) The ASB will consider the preliminary draft prepared by the Study Group and if any revision of the draft is required on the basis of deliberations, the ASB will make the same.

(v) The Exposure Draft of the proposed Standard will be issued for comments by the members of the Institute and the public. The Exposure Draft will specifically be sent to specified bodies (as listed above), stock exchanges, and other interest groups, as appropriate.

(vi) After taking into consideration the comments received, the draft of the proposed Standard will be finalised by the ASB and submitted to the Council of the ICAI.

(vii) The Council of the ICAI will consider the final draft of the proposed Standard, and if found necessary, modify the same in consultation with the ASB. The Accounting Standard on the relevant subject will then be issued by the ICAI.

(viii) For a substantive revision of an Accounting Standard, the procedure followed for formulation of a new Accounting Standard, as detailed above, will be followed.

(ix) Subsequent to issuance of an Accounting Standard, some aspect(s) may require revision which are not substantive in nature. For this purpose, the ICAI may make limited revision to an Accounting Standard. The procedure followed for the limited revision will substantially be the same as that to be followed for formulation of an Accounting Standard, ensuring that sufficient opportunity is given to various interest groups and general public to react to the proposal for limited revision.

Compliance with the Accounting Standards:

While discharging their attest functions, it will be duty of the members of the Institute to ensure that the Accounting Standards are implemented in the presentation of financial statements covered by their audit reports.

In the event of any deviation from the Standards, it will also be their duty to make adequate disclosures in their reports so that the users of such statements may be aware of such deviations.

In the initial years, the Standards will be recommendatory in character and the Institute will give wide publicity among the users and educate members about the utility of Accounting Standards and the need for compliance with the above disclosure requirements. Once an awareness about these requirements Is ensured, steps will be taken, in course of time, to enforce compliance with the accounting standards.

The adoption of Accounting Standards in our country and disclosure of the extent to which they have not been observed will, over the years, have an important effect, with consequential improvement in the quality of presentation of financial statements.

Rights and Duties of a Pledger

Rights

• The pledger has a right to claim back the security pledged on repayment of the debt with interest and other charges.
• The pledger has a right to receive a reasonable notice in case the pledgee intends to sell the goods and in case he does not receive the notice he has a right to claim any damages that may result.
• In case of sale, the pledgor is entitled to receive from the pledgee any surplus that may remain with him after the debt is completely paid off.
• The pledgor has a right to claim any accruals to the goods pledged.
• If any loss is caused to the goods because of mishandling or negligence on the part of the pledgee, the pledgor has a right to claim the same.

Duties

• A pledgor must disclose to the pledgee any material faults or extraordinary risks in the goods to which the pledgee may be exposed.
• A pledgor is responsible to meet any extraordinary expenditure incurred by the pledgee for the preservation of the goods.
• Where the pledgee has exercised his right of sale of goods, any shortfall has to be made good by the pledgor.
• The pledgor is liable for any loss caused to the pledgee because of defects in his (pledgor’s) title the goods.

Rights and duties of a Pledgee

Essential Elements of the Pledge:

According to Section 172 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, the following conditions are to be satisfied to constitute a pledge.

a) Delivery of goods,

b) Such delivery of goods is as security for payment of debt and

c) The subject matter must be movable property.

 

a) Delivery of Goods: To constitute a pledge, there must be bailment of goods, that is the delivery of goods from one person (borrower in case of loan) to the another person (the person giving loan). Such delivery of the possession of the goods may be actual or constructive.

Rights of Pledgee:

Sections 173 to 176 deals about the rights of the pledgee.

• Right to retain the pledged goods.
• Right to recover extraordinary expenses from the pledger.
• Right to sue and sell the pledged property.

The account current is a detailed statement detailing the financial performance of an individual insurance agent’s business over a specified period. These statements form the basis for the reconciliation of accounts between the insurer and the agent. The account current is the basis for the paper trail as premiums paid by policyholders travel between insurance provider, agencies, and agents.

An account current lays out the financial components of an insurance agent’s business in detail. The statement is usually comprehensive in that it specifies premium and claim performance at the individual policy level. The accounting also typically shows summary transaction information as a record of balances owed. These balances are due either to the insurance agent or the insurer depending on the balance of claims paid, the premiums that are written, the premiums returned, and commissions.

Summary items on the account current may include gross premiums, agency commissions, the net payable amount on the current statement, and payments made or received between each submittal of the accounting.

Individual line item columns per policy may include the name of the agent underwriting the policy, the policy number, the name of the insured party, the date of policy underwriting, and the premium amount for the insurance policy. Other items include the percentage of an agent’s commission, the actual dollar amount of the commission, and the net amount due to the insurer for that specific policy.

Situations when account current is prepared are:

• A consignee of goods can also prepare an Account Current, if the latter is to settle the account at the end of the consignment & interest is chargeable on outstanding balance.
• It is prepared when frequent transactions regularly take place between two parties. An example is of a manufacturer who sells goods frequently to a merchant on credit and receives payments from him in instalments at different intervals and charges interest on the amount which remains outstanding.
• It is prepared when two or more persons are in joint venture and each co-venture is entitled to interest on their investment. Also, no separate set of book is maintained for it.
• An Account Current also is frequently prepared to set out the transactions taking place between a banker and his customer.