Tag: Portfolio Management

Dividend policy is a strategic decision made by a company regarding the amount and frequency of dividend payments to its shareholders. The determinants of dividend policy are influenced by a combination of internal and external factors. The determinants of dividend policy are multifaceted and involve a careful balance between the financial needs of the company, the expectations of shareholders, and external factors such as regulatory requirements and market conditions. Decisions related to dividend policy should align with the company’s strategic goals, financial health, and the preferences of its investors. As such, these determinants may evolve over time based on changes in the business environment and the company’s lifecycle stage.

1. Profitability:

The profitability of a company is a fundamental determinant of its dividend policy. Companies with consistent and high profits are more likely to pay dividends.

• Significance: Profitability provides the financial resources needed to fund dividend payments.

2. Earnings Stability:

Companies with stable and predictable earnings are more likely to adopt a consistent dividend policy. Earnings stability reduces the uncertainty associated with dividend payments.

• Significance: Stable earnings provide a reliable basis for sustaining regular dividend payouts.

3. Cash Flow:

The availability of cash flow is crucial for dividend payments. Even profitable companies may face challenges if their cash flow is insufficient.

• Significance: Cash flow ensures that a company has the liquidity needed to meet its dividend obligations.

4. Financial Leverage:

The level of financial leverage (debt) can influence dividend policy. Companies with higher debt levels may choose to distribute more profits to shareholders through dividends to reduce financial risk.

• Significance: Financial leverage impacts the balance between debt service obligations and dividend payments.

5. Investment Opportunities:

Companies with growth prospects and significant investment opportunities may retain more earnings to fund internal projects rather than distributing them as dividends.

• Significance: Prioritizing reinvestment supports future growth but may result in lower dividend payouts.

6. Company’s Life Cycle:

The stage of a company’s life cycle (e.g., growth, maturity, decline) influences its dividend policy. Growth-oriented companies may reinvest more, while mature companies may distribute higher dividends.

• Significance: Different life cycle stages have varying capital allocation needs and investor expectations.

7. Tax Considerations:

Tax implications, both for the company and its shareholders, play a role in determining dividend policy. In some jurisdictions, dividend income may be taxed differently than capital gains.

• Significance: Tax-efficient dividend policies aim to maximize shareholder returns while minimizing tax burdens.

8. Legal Restrictions:

Legal constraints, such as regulatory requirements or debt covenants, can impact a company’s ability to pay dividends. Some industries or regions may have specific regulations governing dividend payments.

• Significance: Companies must comply with legal restrictions to avoid regulatory penalties or breaches of contractual agreements.

9. Shareholder Preferences:

The preferences of existing shareholders can influence dividend policy. Some investors, such as income-focused or retired individuals, may prefer regular dividend income.

• Significance: Aligning dividend policies with shareholder preferences can contribute to investor satisfaction and loyalty.

10. Market Conditions:

Economic and market conditions, including interest rates and inflation, can impact dividend policy. Companies may adjust dividends based on prevailing economic factors.

• Significance: Adapting to economic conditions helps companies maintain financial flexibility and stability.

11. Dividend History and Tradition:

A company’s past dividend history and industry traditions can influence its current dividend policy. Companies may seek to maintain or change established dividend practices.

• Significance: Consistency or changes in dividend policy can affect investor expectations and perceptions.

12. Management’s Views and Attitudes:

Management’s views on the role of dividends in overall corporate strategy, their attitude toward risk, and their belief in retaining earnings for growth can impact dividend decisions.

• Significance: Management philosophy shapes the company’s approach to balancing dividend payments and retained earnings.

Features

• Legal Restrictions:

Legal provisions relating to dividends as laid down in sections 93,205,205A, 206 and 207 of the Companies Act, 1956 are significant because they lay down a framework within which dividend policy is formulated.

These provisions require that dividend can be paid only out of current profits or past profits after providing for depreciation or out of the moneys provided by Government for the payment of dividends in pursuance of a guarantee given by the Government.

The Companies (Transfer of Profits to Reserves) Rules, 1975 require a company providing more than ten per cent dividend to transfer certain percentage of the current year’s profits to reserves. Companies Act, further, provides that dividends cannot be paid out of capital, because it will amount to reduction of capital adversely affecting the security of its creditors.

• Magnitude and Trend of Earnings:

The amount and trend of earnings is an important aspect of dividend policy. It is rather the starting point of the dividend policy. As dividends can be paid only out of present or past year’s profits, earnings of a company fix the upper limits on dividends.

The dividends should, generally, be paid out of current year’s earnings only as the retained earnings of the previous years become more or less a part of permanent investment in the business to earn current profits. The past trend of the company’s earnings should also be kept in consideration while making the dividend decision.

• Desire and Type of Shareholders:

Although, legally, the discretion as to whether to declare dividend or not has been left with the Board of Directors, the directors should give the importance to the desires of shareholders in the declaration of dividends as they are the representatives of shareholders. Desires of shareholders for dividends depend upon their economic status.

Investors, such as retired persons, widows and other economically weaker persons view dividends as a source of funds to meet their day-to-day living expenses. To benefit such investors, the companies should pay regular dividends. On the other hand, a wealthy investor in a high income tax bracket may not benefit by high current dividend incomes.

Such an investor may be interested in lower current dividends and high capital gains. It is difficult to reconcile these conflicting interests of the different type of shareholders, but a company should adopt its dividend policy after taking into consideration the interests of its various groups of shareholders.

• Nature of Industry:

Nature of industry to which the company is engaged also considerably affects the dividend policy. Certain industries have a comparatively steady and stable demand irrespective of the prevailing economic conditions. For instance, people used to drink liquor both in boom as well as in recession. Such firms expect regular earnings and hence can follow a consistent dividend policy.

On the other hand, if the earnings are uncertain, as in the case of luxury goods, conservative policy should be followed. Such firms should retain a substantial part of their current earnings during boom period in order to provide funds to pay adequate dividends in the recession periods.

Thus, industries with steady demand of their products can follow a higher dividend payout ratio while cyclical industries should follow a lower payout ratio.

• Age of the Company:

The age of the company also influences the dividend decision of a company. A newly established concern has to limit payment of dividend and retain substantial part of earnings for financing its future growth and development, while older companies which have established sufficient reserves can afford to pay liberal dividends.

• Future Financial Requirements:

It is not only the desires of the shareholders but also future financial requirements of the company that have to be taken into consideration while making a dividend decision. The management of a concern has to reconcile the conflicting interests of shareholders and those of the company’s financial needs.

If a company has highly profitable investment opportunities it can convince the shareholders of the need for limitation of dividend to increase the future earnings and stabilise its financial position.

But when profitable investment opportunities, do not exist then the company may not be justified in retaining substantial part of its current earnings. Thus, a concern having few internal investment opportunities should follow high payout ratio as compared to one having more profitable investment opportunities.

• Government’s Economic Policy:

The dividend policy of a firm has also to be adjusted to the economic policy of the Government as was the case when the Temporary Restriction on Payment of Dividend Ordinance was in force. In 1974 and 1975, companies were allowed to pay dividends not more than 33 per cent of their profits or 12 per cent on the paid-up value of the shares, whichever was lower.

• Taxation Policy:

The taxation policy of the Government also affects the dividend decision of a firm. A high or low rate of business taxation affects the net earnings of company (after tax) and thereby its dividend policy. Similarly, a firm’s dividend policy may be dictated by the income-tax status of its shareholders.

If the dividend income of shareholders is heavily taxed being in high income bracket, the shareholders may forego cash dividend and prefer bonus shares and capital gains.

• Inflation:

Inflation acts as a constraint in the payment of dividends. Profits as arrived from the profit and loss account on the basis of historical cost have a tendency to be overstated in times of rise in prices due to over valuation of stock-in-trade and writing off depreciation on fixed assets at lower rates.

As a result, when prices rise, funds generated by depreciation would not be adequate to replace fixed assets, and hence to maintain the same assets and capital intact, substantial part of the current earnings would be retained.

Otherwise, imaginary and inflated book profits in the days of rising prices would amount to payment of dividends much more than warranted by the real profits, out of the equity capital resulting in erosion of capital.

• Control Objectives:

When a company pays high dividends out of its earnings, it may result in the dilution of both control and earnings for the existing shareholders. As in case of a high dividend pay-out ratio, the retained earnings are insignificant and the company will have to issue new shares to raise funds to finance its future requirements.

The control of the existing shareholders will be diluted if they cannot buy the additional shares issued by the company.

Similarly, issue of new shares shall cause increase in the number of equity shares and ultimately cause a lower earnings per share and their price in the market. Thus, under these circumstances to maintain control of the existing shareholders, it may be desirable to declare lower dividends and retain earnings to finance the firm’s future requirements.

• Requirements of Institutional Investors:

Dividend policy of a company can be affected by the requirements of institutional investors such as financial institutions, banks insurance corporations, etc. These investors usually favour a policy of regular payment of cash dividends and stipulate their own terms with regard to payment of dividend on equity shares.

• Stability of Dividends:

Stability of dividends is another important guiding principle in the formulation of a dividend policy. Stability of dividend simply refers to the payment of dividend regularly and shareholders, generally, prefer payment of such regular dividends.

Some companies follow a policy of constant dividend per share while others follow a policy of constant payout ratio and while there are some other who follows a policy of constant low dividend per share plus an extra dividend in the years of high profits.

A policy of constant dividend per share is most suitable to concerns whose earnings are expected to remain stable over a number of years or those who have built-up sufficient reserves to pay dividends in the years of low profits.

The policy of constant payout ratio, i.e., paying a fixed percentage of net earnings every year may be supported by a firm because it is related to the firm’s ability to pay dividends. The policy of constant low dividend per share plus some extra dividend in years of high profits is suitable to the firms having fluctuating earnings from year to year.

Liquid Resources:

The dividend policy of a firm is also influenced by the availability of liquid resources. Although, a firm may have sufficient available profits to declare dividends, yet it may not be desirable to pay dividends if it does not have sufficient liquid resources. Hence the liquidity position of a company is an important consideration in paying dividends.

If a company does not have liquid resources, it is better to declare stock-dividend i.e. issue of bonus shares to the existing shareholders. The issue of bonus shares also amounts to distribution of firm’s earnings among the existing shareholders without affecting its cash position.

A dividend is a share of profits and retained earnings that a company pays out to its shareholders. When a company generates a profit and accumulates retained earnings, those earnings can be either reinvested in the business or paid out to shareholders as a dividend. The annual dividend per share divided by the share price is the dividend yield.

Steps of how it works:

• The company generates profits and retained earnings
• The management team decides some excess profits should be paid out to shareholders (instead of being reinvested)
• The board approves the planned dividend
• The company announces the dividend (the value per share, the date when it will be paid, the record date, etc.)
• The dividend is paid to shareholders

Dividend vs buyback

Managers of corporations have several types of distributions they can make to the shareholders. The two most common types are dividends and share buybacks. A share buyback is when a company uses cash on the balance sheet to repurchase shares in the open market. This has two effects.

(1) It returns cash to shareholders

(2) It reduces the number of shares outstanding.

The reason to perform share buybacks as an alternative means of returning capital to shareholders is that it can help boost a company’s EPS. By reducing the number of shares outstanding, the denominator in EPS (net earnings/shares outstanding) is reduced and, thus, EPS increases.  Managers of corporations are frequently evaluated on their ability to grow earnings per share, so they may be incentivized to use this strategy.

Types of Dividend

A dividend is generally considered to be a cash payment issued to the holders of company stock. However, there are several types of dividends, some of which do not involve the payment of cash to shareholders. These dividend types are:

1. Cash Dividend

The cash dividend is by far the most common of the dividend types used. On the date of declaration, the board of directors resolves to pay a certain dividend amount in cash to those investors holding the company’s stock on a specific date. The date of record is the date on which dividends are assigned to the holders of the company’s stock. On the date of payment, the company issues dividend payments.

2. Stock Dividend

A stock dividend is the issuance by a company of its common stock to its common shareholders without any consideration. If the company issues less than 25 percent of the total number of previously outstanding shares, then treat the transaction as a stock dividend. If the transaction is for a greater proportion of the previously outstanding shares, then treat the transaction as a stock split.  To record a stock dividend, transfer from retained earnings to the capital stock and additional paid-in capital accounts an amount equal to the fair value of the additional shares issued. The fair value of the additional shares issued is based on their fair market value when the dividend is declared.

3. Property Dividend

A company may issue a non-monetary dividend to investors, rather than making a cash or stock payment. Record this distribution at the fair market value of the assets distributed. Since the fair market value is likely to vary somewhat from the book value of the assets, the company will likely record the variance as a gain or loss. This accounting rule can sometimes lead a business to deliberately issue property dividends in order to alter their taxable and/or reported income.

4. Scrip Dividend

A company may not have sufficient funds to issue dividends in the near future, so instead it issues a scrip dividend, which is essentially a promissory note (which may or may not include interest) to pay shareholders at a later date. This dividend creates a note payable.

5. Liquidating Dividend

When the board of directors wishes to return the capital originally contributed by shareholders as a dividend, it is called a liquidating dividend, and may be a precursor to shutting down the business.  The accounting for a liquidating dividend is similar to the entries for a cash dividend, except that the funds are considered to come from the additional paid-in capital account.

Significance of Dividend

Dividend policy is about the decision of the management regarding distribution of profits as dividends. This policy is probably the most important single area of decision making for finance manager. Action taken by the management in this area affects growth rate of the firm, its credit standing, share prices and ultimately the overall value of the firm.

Erroneous dividend policy may plunge the firm in financial predicament and capital structure of the firm may turn out unbalanced. Progress of the firm may be hamstrung owing to insufficiency of resources which may result in fall in earnings per share.

Stock market is very likely to react to this development and share prices may tend to sag leading to decline in total value of the firm. Extreme care and prudence on the part of the policy framers is, therefore, necessary.

If strict dividend policy is formulated to retain larger share of earnings, sufficiently larger resources would be available to the firm for its growth and modernization purposes. This will give rise to business earnings. In view of improved earning position and robust financial health of the enterprise, the value of shares will increase and a capital gain will result.

Thus, shareholders earn capital gain in lieu of dividend income; the former in the long run while the latter in the short run.

The reverse holds true if liberal dividend policy is followed to pay out high dividends to share-holders. As a result of this, the stockholders’ dividend earnings will increase but possibility of earning capital gains is reduced.

Significance:

Dividends are a reliable income source

To begin with, it is important to realize the positioning of dividends in your investment portfolio and income sources. It is important to note that dividends are a stable and reliable income that investors receive without making any alterations to their investment portfolio.

Generally, a major income flows in only when you sell off your shares or stocks. But, with dividends you get an income source that comes without any variance to your portfolio. Although the companies are under no obligation to pay out dividends to investors, major companies who have been flourishing in the markets over the years do maintain a regular dividend sharing practice with their shareholders.

Dividends are tax-efficient

Investors can save a major chunk of their earnings from high taxes by opting for dividend options. Being a steady income source, dividends are taxed differently if managed well. The tax rates for qualified dividends range between 5% and 15%, depending upon the income range. Typically, a low-income range is taxed at a rate of 5% which is quite low as compared to the percentage of tax charged on other investments which is generally above 25%. There is several tax advantages associated with your dividend earnings unlike income from other investments.

Dividends are a good growth opportunity

When you invest in dividend paying companies, you are essentially expanding your return horizons. Most of the well-established companies or market players not only stay consistent with dividend payouts to their investors but also increase the dividend percentage at regular intervals (generally once every year). Although, risk cannot completely be eliminated while investing in market-related instruments, investing in dividend paying companies can assure partial returns over investments that can be better than non-profiting investments in stocks, especially in such volatile markets.

Of course, there are exceptions, but only a few dividend paying companies have faltered over the years. The rest of them have been consistent in paying out dividends with a promising future ahead.

Dividends allow portfolio expansion

With dividends acting as a steady side income source, investors have an excellent opportunity to expand and diversify their investment portfolio. Portfolio diversification is essential to your financial health requiring a considerable income at disposal to be invested across industries. Even if you invest the SIP way, you will still require regular money. Dividends, on the other hand, allow investors a higher level of flexibility that helps them make good investment decisions while expanding their portfolio.

Also, when you reinvest your dividends, you are creating more sources of income by acquiring more shares. You can always manage the flow of money as per your requirements since there is a provision to reinvest a partial percentage of your dividend earnings back to the investments. Moreover, investors are allowed to make a free reinvestment of their dividend earnings back to the original source.

Dividends help beat inflation

Inflation can be a hole in the pocket with the capability to eat away all your hard-earned money. While budgeting or evaluating the profit earnings, investors generally forget to factor-in inflation that later on challenges their foundational assumptions and estimates.

Dividends help investors to balance out the loss caused by inflation in order to reap any actual benefit from their investments. For instance, if you earn an average profit of 7% per year on your investments and inflation for the given year is 8%, then realistically you have incurred a loss of 1% rather than any profit. This in turn adversely affects the purchasing power of the capital.

On the other hand, if your investments offer a 7% return on investment plus a 4% dividend payout, then you have made a profit beating the rise in inflation. As a general rule, most dividend paying investments outrun the inflation affects, leaving the investor with a handful of earnings.

Dividends help manage risk and volatility

This might come as a surprise but dividends are quite handy when it comes to managing portfolio risk and volatility. When investors suffer losses due to a fall in the stock price, dividends help balance out the loss and mitigate the risk. There have been a lot of studies indicating a better performance on the part of dividend paying companies and stocks than the non-dividend paying ones. These trends have particularly stood out during the bearish cycles of the market. Even though a bear market is generally unfavourable to all industries and investment instruments, yet dividend paying stocks have outperformed their counterparts fairly well in those times as well.

The fact has been testified during the 2002 market fiasco when the overall downturn dragged the whole economy and investment industry into a considerable low. An average 30% downfall was observed in the overall market but to everyone’s surprise, the dividend paying stocks suffered only a 10% decline reinforcing the investors’ faith in them.

Dividends are sustainable

A person’s needs and wants grow every single day, leaving very little room for a balanced lifestyle and continual investing. Dividends act as the support system in such times promoting sustainability in income flow. With the diverse effects of inflation on the individual and the economy, one of the most reliable go-to options for a secured income is a dividend paying stock.

Working Capital refers to the difference between a company’s current assets (such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory) and its current liabilities (such as accounts payable and short-term debts). It represents the funds available for day-to-day operations, ensuring smooth business functioning. Adequate working capital is essential for meeting short-term obligations, maintaining liquidity, and supporting operational efficiency. A positive working capital indicates the company can cover its short-term liabilities, while a negative working capital signals potential financial strain. Effective management of working capital ensures optimal utilization of resources, enhances profitability, and minimizes the risk of liquidity crises.

Concepts in respect of Working Capital:

(i) Gross working capital and

(ii) Networking capital.

Gross Working Capital:

The sum total of all current assets of a business concern is termed as gross working capital. So,

Gross working capital = Stock + Debtors + Receivables + Cash.

Net Working Capital:

The difference between current assets and current liabilities of a business con­cern is termed as the Net working capital.

Hence,

Net Working Capital = Stock + Debtors + Receivables + Cash – Creditors – Payables.

Need for Working Capital:

• Ensuring Smooth Operations

Working capital is vital for the seamless execution of day-to-day activities, such as purchasing raw materials, paying wages, and meeting other operating expenses. It acts as the financial backbone for sustaining operational efficiency and continuity.

• Meeting Short-Term Obligations

Businesses must regularly settle short-term liabilities like accounts payable, taxes, and utility bills. Adequate working capital ensures timely payment of these obligations, protecting the company’s creditworthiness and reputation.

• Maintaining Inventory Levels

A proper working capital ensures that a company can maintain optimal inventory levels. This helps in avoiding stockouts that could disrupt production or sales and ensures timely fulfillment of customer demands.

• Managing Cash Flow

Working capital ensures that a business has sufficient liquidity to bridge the gap between cash inflows and outflows. This is especially important for industries with seasonal demand, where revenues may fluctuate.

• Supporting Credit Sales

Businesses often extend credit to customers to maintain competitiveness. Working capital is needed to finance these credit sales until payments are received, preventing cash flow issues.

• Tackling Unexpected Expenses

Unforeseen expenses, such as repairs, penalties, or market fluctuations, can disrupt business operations. Adequate working capital acts as a buffer to manage such contingencies without jeopardizing the company’s stability.

• Financing Growth and Expansion

For businesses aiming to expand or explore new markets, working capital is necessary to fund increased operational demands, such as additional inventory, labor, or marketing expenses, without disrupting current operations.

• Ensuring Financial Stability

A healthy working capital position reflects a company’s financial health and enhances its ability to secure loans or attract investors. It reassures stakeholders of the business’s ability to meet obligations and pursue growth opportunities.

Importance of Working Capital:

• Ensures Business Continuity

Adequate working capital ensures that a business can meet its day-to-day operational expenses, such as paying wages, purchasing raw materials, and covering overhead costs. This continuity is critical to prevent operational disruptions and maintain productivity.

• Enhances Liquidity

Working capital reflects a company’s short-term financial health and liquidity. It ensures that the organization has sufficient funds to meet immediate obligations, avoiding situations like delayed payments, penalties, or defaulting on liabilities.

• Supports Customer Credit

Offering credit to customers is a common business practice to boost sales and customer satisfaction. Proper working capital allows a business to manage the time gap between extending credit and receiving payment without compromising liquidity.

• Facilitates Inventory Management

A well-managed working capital ensures that the business can maintain an optimal inventory level, avoiding stockouts or overstocking. This is crucial for meeting customer demands promptly and efficiently.

• Prepares for Contingencies

Businesses often face unexpected challenges, such as economic downturns, sudden market changes, or equipment breakdowns. Adequate working capital acts as a financial cushion, enabling companies to handle such contingencies without significant setbacks.

• Improves Creditworthiness

A business with strong working capital is viewed as financially stable and reliable by creditors and investors. This improved creditworthiness makes it easier to secure loans, negotiate better terms, and attract investments for growth and expansion.

• Boosts Profitability

Efficient working capital management helps minimize costs, such as interest on short-term borrowings or penalties for delayed payments. It also optimizes resource utilization, enhancing overall profitability.

• Supports Business Growth

For a company aiming to expand, working capital is crucial to fund increased operational needs like additional inventory, higher production costs, or expanded marketing efforts. It ensures that growth initiatives are supported without causing financial strain.

Types of working Capital

Working capital can be categorized based on its purpose, time frame, or sources. These classifications help businesses better understand and manage their financial requirements.

1. Permanent Working Capital

This refers to the minimum level of current assets required to maintain the day-to-day operations of a business. It remains constant over time, regardless of fluctuations in sales or production levels.

• Fixed Permanent Working Capital: The portion of working capital that remains unchanged even during seasonal variations or changes in business cycles.
• Variable Permanent Working Capital: The additional working capital required due to growth in production and operations over time.

2. Temporary Working Capital

Temporary working capital is required to meet short-term or seasonal demands. It fluctuates depending on the level of business activity and market conditions.

• Seasonal Working Capital: Needed to manage increased demand during peak seasons.
• Special Working Capital: Required for non-recurring or special needs, such as promotional campaigns or sudden bulk orders.

3. Gross Working Capital

Gross working capital represents the total investment in current assets, such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory. It emphasizes the importance of efficiently managing current assets to maintain liquidity.

4. Net Working Capital

Net working capital is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. It indicates the surplus or deficiency of current assets over liabilities and reflects the business’s ability to meet short-term obligations.

5. Positive and Negative Working Capital

• Positive Working Capital: Occurs when current assets exceed current liabilities, indicating good liquidity and financial health.
• Negative Working Capital: Happens when current liabilities exceed current assets, signaling potential financial strain and risk of insolvency.

6. Reserve Working Capital

Reserve working capital refers to the extra funds kept aside to handle unexpected emergencies or contingencies, such as economic downturns or sudden increases in costs.

7. Regular Working Capital

This type of working capital is used to meet routine business operations, including the purchase of raw materials, payment of wages, and covering operational expenses.

8. Special Working Capital

Special working capital is required for one-time projects or events, such as launching a new product, entering a new market, or undertaking a merger or acquisition.

Determinants of Working Capital:

• Nature of Business

The type of business significantly determines its working capital requirements. Manufacturing firms require substantial working capital due to the need for raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods inventory. Conversely, service-oriented businesses, like consulting or IT firms, require minimal working capital as they primarily focus on delivering services and do not maintain significant inventory. Similarly, trading firms require moderate working capital to manage goods for resale. Understanding the nature of the business helps identify whether large, small, or minimal funds are needed to support day-to-day operations.

• Business Size and Scale

The size and scale of a business directly impact its working capital needs. Larger businesses with extensive operations require more working capital to finance inventory, receivables, and other operational expenses. These organizations typically handle large volumes of transactions, necessitating higher funds. In contrast, smaller businesses with limited operations and simpler processes have lower working capital requirements. However, as businesses expand, they need to adjust their working capital to sustain growth, ensuring that financial resources align with their scale.

• Production Cycle

The production cycle, which measures the time required to convert raw materials into finished goods, affects working capital requirements. A longer production cycle increases the need for funds to cover costs such as raw materials, labor, and overheads during the production process. Conversely, businesses with shorter production cycles require less working capital as they can quickly convert inventory into cash. Efficient production processes help minimize the length of the cycle, reducing working capital requirements while improving overall financial stability.

• Credit Policy

A company’s credit policy for customers and suppliers significantly influences its working capital. Liberal credit terms for customers increase accounts receivable, raising the need for additional working capital to manage delayed cash inflows. Conversely, strict credit terms reduce the amount tied up in receivables. On the supplier side, favorable credit terms reduce immediate cash outflows, lowering working capital requirements. Balancing credit policies ensures that businesses maintain adequate liquidity while fostering strong customer and supplier relationships.

• Economic Conditions

Economic factors like inflation, interest rates, and market conditions impact working capital requirements. During inflationary periods, businesses require more working capital to handle rising costs of raw materials, wages, and utilities. Unstable economic conditions may also prompt companies to maintain higher reserves to tackle uncertainties. Conversely, during periods of economic stability, businesses can optimize their working capital levels, focusing on investments and growth. Adapting to economic trends is crucial for maintaining financial stability and operational efficiency.

EBIT-EPS Analysis is a financial tool used to determine the impact of different financing options (debt and equity) on a company’s Earnings Per Share (EPS) at various levels of Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT). It helps in capital structure decision-making, allowing firms to choose between debt financing (which increases financial leverage) and equity financing (which avoids fixed interest costs but dilutes ownership). The analysis involves computing EPS for different EBIT levels to identify the indifference point, where EPS remains the same regardless of financing choice. Companies aim to maximize EPS while managing financial risk and shareholder value.

Advantages of EBIT-EPS Analysis:

• Financial Planning:

Use of EBIT-EPS analysis is indispensable for determining sources of funds. In case of financial planning the objective of the firm lies in maximizing EPS. EBIT-EPS analysis evalu­ates the alternatives and finds the level of EBIT that maximizes EPS.

• Comparative Analysis:

EBIT-EPS analysis is useful in evaluating the relative efficiency of depart­ments, product lines and markets. It identifies the EBIT earned by these different departments, product lines and from various markets, which helps financial planners rank them according to profitability and also assess the risk associated with each.

• Performance Evaluation:

This analysis is useful in comparative evaluation of performances of various sources of funds. It evaluates whether a fund obtained from a source is used in a project that produces a rate of return higher than its cost.

• Determining Optimum Mix:

EBIT-EPS analysis is advantageous in selecting the optimum mix of debt and equity. By emphasizing on the relative value of EPS, this analysis determines the optimum mix of debt and equity in the capital structure. It helps determine the alternative that gives the highest value of EPS as the most profitable financing plan or the most profitable level of EBIT as the case may be.

Limitations of EBIT-EPS Analysis:

• No Consideration for Risk:

Leverage increases the level of risk, but this technique ignores the risk factor. When a corporation, on its borrowed capital, earns more than the interest it has to pay on debt, any financial planning can be accepted irrespective of risk. But in times of poor business the reverse of this situation arises—which attracts high degree of risk. This aspect is not dealt in EBIT-EPS analysis.

• Contradictory Results:

It gives a contradictory result where under different alternative financing plans new equity shares are not taken into consideration. Even the comparison becomes difficult if the number of alternatives increase and sometimes it also gives erroneous result under such situation.

• Over-capitalization:

This analysis cannot determine the state of over-capitalization of a firm. Beyond a certain point, additional capital cannot be employed to produce a return in excess of the payments that must be made for its use. But this aspect is ignored in EBIT-EPS analysis.

Indifference Points:

The indifference point, often called as a breakeven point, is highly important in financial planning because, at EBIT amounts in excess of the EBIT indifference level, the more heavily levered financ­ing plan will generate a higher EPS. On the other hand, at EBIT amounts below the EBIT indifference points the financing plan involving less leverage will generate a higher EPS.

Indifference points refer to the EBIT level at which the EPS is same for two alternative financial plans. According to J. C. Van Home, ‘Indifference point refers to that EBIT level at which EPS remains the same irrespective of debt equity mix’. The management is indifferent in choosing any of the alternative financial plans at this level because all the financial plans are equally desirable. The indifference point is the cut-off level of EBIT below which financial leverage is disadvanta­geous. Beyond the indifference point level of EBIT the benefit of financial leverage with respect to EPS starts operating.

The indifference level of EBIT is significant because the financial planner may decide to take the debt advantage if the expected EBIT crosses this level. Beyond this level of EBIT the firm will be able to magnify the effect of increase in EBIT on the EPS.

In other words, financial leverage will be favorable beyond the indifference level of EBIT and will lead to an increase in the EPS. If the expected EBIT is less than the indifference point then the financial planners will opt for equity for financing projects, because below this level, EPS will be more for less levered firm.

• Computation:

We have seen that indifference point refers to the level of EBIT at which EPS is the same for two different financial plans. So the level of that EBIT can easily be computed. There are two approaches to calculate indifference point: Mathematical approach and graphical approach.

• Graphical Approach:

The indifference point may also be obtained using a graphical approach. In Figure 5.1 we have measured EBIT along the horizontal axis and EPS along the vertical axis. Suppose we have two financial plans before us: Financing by equity only and financing by equity and debt. Dif­ferent combinations of EBIT and EPS may be plotted against each plan. Under Plan-I the EPS will be zero when EBIT is nil so it will start from the origin.

The curve depicting Plan I in Figure 5.1 starts from the origin. For Plan-II EBIT will have some positive figure equal to the amount of interest to make EPS zero. So the curve depicting Plan-II in Figure 5.1 will start from the positive intercept of X axis. The two lines intersect at point E where the level of EBIT and EPS both are same under both the financial plans. Point E is the indifference point. The value corresponding to X axis is EBIT and the value corresponding to 7 axis is EPS.

These can be found drawing two perpendiculars from the indifference point—one on X axis and the other on Taxis. Similarly we can obtain the indifference point between any two financial plans having various financing options. The area above the indifference point is the debt advantage zone and the area below the indifference point is equity advantage zone.

Above the indifference point the Plan-II is profitable, i.e. financial leverage is advantageous. Below the indifference point Plan I is advantageous, i.e. financial leverage is not profitable. This can be found by observing Figure 5.1. Above the indifference point EPS will be higher for same level of EBIT for Plan II. Below the indifference point EPS will be higher for same level of EBIT for Plan I. The graphical approach of indifference point gives a better understanding of EBIT-EPS analysis.

Financial Breakeven Point:

In general, the term Breakeven Point (BEP) refers to the point where the total cost line and sales line intersect. It indicates the level of production and sales where there is no profit and no loss because here the contribution just equals to the fixed costs. Similarly financial breakeven point is the level of EBIT at which after paying interest, tax and preference dividend, nothing remains for the equity shareholders.

In other words, financial breakeven point refers to that level of EBIT at which the firm can satisfy all fixed financial charges. EBIT less than this level will result in negative EPS. Therefore EPS is zero at this level of EBIT. Thus financial breakeven point refers to the level of EBIT at which financial profit is nil.

Financial Break Even Point (FBEP) is expressed as ratio with the following equation:

Weighted average Cost of Capital (WACC) is a financial metric used to determine the cost of financing a company’s operations. It reflects the average cost of all sources of financing, including debt and equity, weighted by their proportion in the company’s capital structure. The WACC is an important factor in determining a company’s value and profitability, and is used in various financial analysis and decision-making processes.

Components of WACC:

The WACC is composed of two main components:

• Cost of equity
• Cost of debt

Cost of Equity:

The cost of equity is the return required by investors in exchange for owning a company’s stock. It reflects the risk associated with owning the stock and is influenced by factors such as market conditions, the company’s financial performance, and the company’s growth prospects. The cost of equity can be calculated using various models, including the dividend discount model, the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), and the arbitrage pricing theory.

Cost of Debt:

The cost of debt is the interest rate paid by a company on its debt financing. It reflects the creditworthiness of the company and market conditions, and is typically lower than the cost of equity. The cost of debt can be calculated using the yield to maturity of the company’s existing debt or by estimating the interest rate the company would have to pay on new debt.

Calculation of WACC:

WACC is calculated by weighting the cost of equity and cost of debt based on their proportion in the company’s capital structure.

WACC = (E/V x Re) + (D/V x Rd x (1 – Tc))

Where:

E = Market value of equity

D = Market value of debt

V = Total market value of the company (E + D)

Re = Cost of equity

Rd = Cost of debt

Tc = Corporate tax rate

The first part of the equation (E/V x Re) represents the cost of equity weighted by the proportion of equity in the company’s capital structure. The second part of the equation (D/V x Rd x (1 – Tc)) represents the cost of debt weighted by the proportion of debt in the company’s capital structure, adjusted for the tax deductibility of interest payments.

Advantages of WACC:

• Considers all Sources of Financing:

WACC considers the cost of all sources of financing, including debt and equity, which provides a more comprehensive view of the company’s cost of capital.

• Useful in Decision-making:

WACC is used in various financial analysis and decision-making processes, such as determining whether to undertake a new project or make an acquisition.

• Reflects Market Conditions:

WACC reflects current market conditions, such as interest rates and the risk premium for equity, which helps companies make informed financial decisions.

• Easy to Calculate:

WACC is a relatively simple calculation that can be easily understood and communicated to stakeholders.

Limitations of WACC:

• Assumes constant Capital Structure:

WACC assumes a constant capital structure, which may not be realistic for companies that frequently issue or retire debt or equity.

• Sensitive to input assumptions:

WACC is sensitive to input assumptions, such as the cost of debt and equity, which can vary depending on the method used to calculate them.

• Ignores other factors:

WACC does not consider other factors that may affect a company’s cost of capital, such as market risk and company-specific risk.

• Does not account for Project risk:

WACC is based on the company’s overall risk, and may not accurately reflect the risk associated with a specific project or investment.

Financial Management involves planning, organizing, directing, and controlling financial activities to achieve an organization’s objectives. It focuses on the efficient procurement and utilization of funds while balancing risk and profitability. Key aspects include capital budgeting, determining financial structure, managing working capital, and ensuring liquidity. It aims to maximize shareholder wealth by optimizing resource allocation and minimizing costs. Effective financial management supports decision-making related to investments, financing, and dividends, ensuring sustainable growth. It also involves analyzing financial risks and returns, maintaining financial stability, and complying with legal and regulatory requirements.

Finance functions:

Finance functions refer to the key activities involved in managing an organization’s financial resources efficiently to achieve its objectives. These functions can be broadly categorized into Investment decisions, Financing decisions, and Dividend decisions, along with managing day-to-day financial operations.

1. Investment Decisions

Investment decisions involve determining where to allocate the firm’s resources for long-term and short-term benefits. This function is crucial for wealth maximization and can be divided into two types:

• Capital Budgeting: This focuses on evaluating potential investment opportunities in fixed assets such as machinery, buildings, or new projects. Tools like Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Payback Period are used for analysis.
• Working Capital Management: This deals with managing current assets and liabilities to ensure liquidity and smooth operations. It involves maintaining an optimal balance between inventory, accounts receivable, and cash.

2. Financing Decisions

Financing decisions revolve around determining the best mix of debt, equity, and internal funds to finance the organization’s activities.

• Capital Structure: It involves deciding the proportion of debt and equity in the company’s financial structure to optimize cost and risk.
• Sources of Funds: The finance team must decide whether to raise funds through equity (issuing shares), debt (loans or bonds), or retained earnings. Factors such as cost of capital, risk, and control considerations influence these decisions.

3. Dividend Decisions

Dividend decisions determine the distribution of profits to shareholders.

• Dividend Payout Ratio: The organization must decide what portion of profits to distribute as dividends and what to retain for reinvestment.
• Form of Dividend: Dividends can be in cash, stock, or other forms. A stable dividend policy enhances shareholder confidence.

4. Risk Management

Financial risk management is an integral part of finance functions. It involves identifying, analyzing, and mitigating risks such as credit risk, market risk, and operational risk. Techniques like diversification, hedging, and insurance are employed.

5. Financial Control

This function ensures that the company’s financial activities align with its strategic goals. It involves budget preparation, financial reporting, variance analysis, and adherence to regulatory requirements.

Objective of Financial Management

1. Profit maximization

Main aim of any kind of economic activity is earning profit. A business concern is also functioning mainly for the purpose of earning profit. Profit is the measuring techniques to understand the business efficiency of the concern.

The finance manager tries to earn maximum profits for the company in the short-term and the long-term. He cannot guarantee profits in the long term because of business uncertainties. However, a company can earn maximum profits even in the long-term, if:

• The Finance manager takes proper financial decisions
• He uses the finance of the company properly

2. Wealth maximization

Wealth maximization (shareholders’ value maximization) is also a main objective of financial management. Wealth maximization means to earn maximum wealth for the shareholders. So, the finance manager tries to give a maximum dividend to the shareholders. He also tries to increase the market value of the shares. The market value of the shares is directly related to the performance of the company. Better the performance, higher is the market value of shares and vice-versa. So, the finance manager must try to maximize shareholder’s value

3. Proper estimation of total financial requirements

Proper estimation of total financial requirements is a very important objective of financial management. The finance manager must estimate the total financial requirements of the company. He must find out how much finance is required to start and run the company. He must find out the fixed capital and working capital requirements of the company. His estimation must be correct. If not, there will be shortage or surplus of finance. Estimating the financial requirements is a very difficult job. The finance manager must consider many factors, such as the type of technology used by company, number of employees employed, scale of operations, legal requirements, etc.

4. Proper mobilization

Mobilization (collection) of finance is an important objective of financial management. After estimating the financial requirements, the finance manager must decide about the sources of finance. He can collect finance from many sources such as shares, debentures, bank loans, etc. There must be a proper balance between owned finance and borrowed finance. The company must borrow money at a low rate of interest.

5. Proper utilization of finance

Proper utilization of finance is an important objective of financial management. The finance manager must make optimum utilization of finance. He must use the finance profitable. He must not waste the finance of the company. He must not invest the company’s finance in unprofitable projects. He must not block the company’s finance in inventories. He must have a short credit period.

6. Maintaining proper Cash flow

Maintaining proper cash flow is a short-term objective of financial management. The company must have a proper cash flow to pay the day-to-day expenses such as purchase of raw materials, payment of wages and salaries, rent, electricity bills, etc. If the company has a good cash flow, it can take advantage of many opportunities such as getting cash discounts on purchases, large-scale purchasing, giving credit to customers, etc. A healthy cash flow improves the chances of survival and success of the company.

7. Survival of company

Survival is the most important objective of financial management. The company must survive in this competitive business world. The finance manager must be very careful while making financial decisions. One wrong decision can make the company sick, and it will close down.

8. Creating Reserves

One of the objectives of financial management is to create reserves. The company must not distribute the full profit as a dividend to the shareholders. It must keep a part of it profit as reserves. Reserves can be used for future growth and expansion. It can also be used to face contingencies in the future.

9. Proper coordination

Financial management must try to have proper coordination between the finance department and other departments of the company.

10. Create goodwill

Financial management must try to create goodwill for the company. It must improve the image and reputation of the company. Goodwill helps the company to survive in the short-term and succeed in the long-term. It also helps the company during bad times.

11. Increase efficiency

Financial management also tries to increase the efficiency of all the departments of the company. Proper distribution of finance to all the departments will increase the efficiency of the entire company.

12. Financial discipline

Financial management also tries to create a financial discipline. Financial discipline means:

• To invest finance only in productive areas. This will bring high returns (profits) to the company.
• To avoid wastage and misuse of finance.

13. Reduce Cost of Capital

Financial management tries to reduce the cost of capital. That is, it tries to borrow money at a low rate of interest. The finance manager must plan the capital structure in such a way that the cost of capital it minimized.

14. Reduce operating risks

Financial management also tries to reduce the operating risks. There are many risks and uncertainties in a business. The finance manager must take steps to reduce these risks. He must avoid high-risk projects. He must also take proper insurance.

15. Prepare Capital Structure

Financial management also prepares the capital structure. It decides the ratio between owned finance and borrowed finance. It brings a proper balance between the different sources of capital. This balance is necessary for liquidity, economy, flexibility and stability.