Tag: Industry Analysis

Economists believe that very high rates of inflation and hyperinflation are harmful, and are caused by an excessive growth of the money supply. Views on which factors determine low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities. However, the consensus view is that a long-sustained period of inflation is caused by money supply growing faster than the rate of economic growth.

Inflation affects economies in various positive and negative ways. The negative effects of inflation include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include reducing unemployment due to nominal wage rigidity, allowing the central bank more leeway in carrying out monetary policy, encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation.

Inflation may be defined as ‘a sustained upward trend in the general level of prices’ and not the price of only one or two goods. G. Ackley defined inflation as ‘a persistent and appreciable rise in the general level or aver­age of prices. In other words, inflation is a state of rising prices, but not high prices.

It is not high prices but rising price level that con­stitute inflation. It constitutes, thus, an over­all increase in price level. It can, thus, be viewed as the devaluing of the worth of money. In other words, inflation reduces the purchasing power of money. A unit of money now buys less. Inflation can also be seen as a recurring phenomenon.

While measuring inflation, we take into ac­count a large number of goods and services used by the people of a country and then cal­culate average increase in the prices of those goods and services over a period of time. A small rise in prices or a sudden rise in prices is not inflation since they may reflect the short-term workings of the market.

It is to be pointed out here that inflation is a state of disequilib­rium when there occurs a sustained rise in price level. It is inflation if the prices of most goods go up. Such rate of increases in prices may be both slow and rapid. However, it is difficult to detect whether there is an upward trend in prices and whether this trend is sus­tained. That is why inflation is difficult to define in an unambiguous sense.

Types of Inflation:

On the Basis of Causes:

• Currency inflation:

This type of infla­tion is caused by the printing of cur­rency notes.

• Credit inflation:

Being profit-making institutions, commercial banks sanction more loans and advances to the public than what the economy needs. Such credit expansion leads to a rise in price level.

• Deficit-induced inflation:

The budget of the government reflects a deficit when expenditure exceeds revenue. To meet this gap, the government may ask the central bank to print additional money. Since pumping of additional money is required to meet the budget deficit, any price rise may the be called the deficit-induced inflation.

• Demand-pull inflation:

An increase in aggregate demand over the available output leads to a rise in the price level. Such inflation is called demand-pull in­flation (henceforth DPI). But why does aggregate demand rise? Classical economists attribute this rise in aggre­gate demand to money supply. If the supply of money in an economy ex­ceeds the available goods and services, DPI appears. It has been described by Coulborn as a situation of “too much money chasing too few goods.”

Keynesians hold a different argu­ment. They argue that there can be an autonomous increase in aggregate de­mand or spending, such as a rise in con­sumption demand or investment or government spending or a tax cut or a net increase in exports (i.e., C + I + G + X – M) with no increase in money sup­ply. This would prompt upward adjust­ment in price. Thus, DPI is caused by monetary factors (classical adjustment) and non-monetary factors (Keynesian argument).

• Cost-push inflation:

Inflation in an economy may arise from the overall increase in the cost of production. This type of inflation is known as cost-push inflation (henceforth CPI). Cost of pro­duction may rise due to an increase in the prices of raw materials, wages, etc. Often trade unions are blamed for wage rise since wage rate is not completely market-determinded. Higher wage means high cost of production. Prices of commodities are thereby increased.

A wage-price spiral comes into opera­tion. But, at the same time, firms are to be blamed also for the price rise since they simply raise prices to expand their profit margins. Thus, we have two im­portant variants of CPI wage-push in­flation and profit-push inflation.

On the Basis of Speed or Intensity:

• Creeping or Mild Inflation:

If the speed of upward thrust in prices is slow but small then we have creeping inflation. What speed of annual price rise is a creeping one has not been stated by the economists? To some, a creeping or mild inflation is one when annual price rise varies between 2 p.c. and 3 p.c. If a rate of price rise is kept at this level, it is con­sidered to be helpful for economic development. Others argue that if annual price rise goes slightly beyond 3 p.c. mark, still then it is considered to be of no danger.

• Walking Inflation:

If the rate of annual price increase lies between 3 p.c. and 4 p.c., then we have a situation of walking inflation. When mild inflation is allowed to fan out, walking inflation appears. These two types of inflation may be described as ‘moderate inflation’.

Often, one-digit inflation rate is called ‘moder­ate inflation’ which is not only predict­able, but also keep people’s faith on the monetary system of the country. Peoples’ confidence get lost once moderately maintained rate of inflation goes out of control and the economy is then caught with the galloping inflation.

• Galloping and Hyperinflation:

Walking inflation may be converted into running inflation. Running inflation is danger­ous. If it is not controlled, it may ulti­mately be converted to galloping or hyperinflation. It is an extreme form of inflation when an economy gets shatter­ed.” Inflation in the double or triple digit range of 20, 100 or 200 p.c. a year is labelled “galloping inflation”.

• Government’s Reaction to Inflation:

In­flationary situation may be open or suppressed. Because of anti-infla­tionary policies pursued by the govern­ment, inflation may not be an embar­rassing one. For instance, increase in income leads to an increase in con­sumption spending which pulls the price level up.

If the consumption spending is countered by the govern­ment via price control and rationing device, the inflationary situation may be called a suppressed one. Once the government curbs are lifted, the sup­pressed inflation becomes open infla­tion. Open inflation may then result in hyperinflation.

Main Causes of inflation

• Inflation can arise from internal and external events
• Some inflationary pressures direct from the domestic economy, for example the decisions of utility businesses providing electricity or gas or water on their tariffs for the year ahead, or the pricing strategies of the food retailers based on the strength of demand and competitive pressure in their markets.
• A rise in the rate of VAT would also be a cause of increased domestic inflation in the short term because it increases a firm’s production costs.
• Inflation can also come from external sources, for example a sustained rise in the price of crude oil or other imported commodities, foodstuffs and beverages.
• Fluctuations in the exchange rate can also affect inflation, for example a fall in the value of the pound against other currencies might cause higher import prices for items such as foodstuffs from Western Europe or technology supplies from the United States, which feeds through directly or indirectly into the consumer price index.

An economic system is a mechanism with the help of which the government plans and allocates accessible services, resources and commodities across the country. Economic systems manage elements of production, combining wealth, labour, physical resources and business people. An economic system incorporates many companies, agencies, objects, models, as well as for deciding procedures.

Capitalist Economy:

According to Gary M. Pickersgill and Joyce E. Pickersgill, “The capitalist system is one characterised by the private ownership of the means of production, individual decision making, and the use of the market mechanism to carry out the decisions of individual participants and facilitate the flow of goods and services in markets.”

In a capitalist system, the products manufactured are divided among people not according to what people want but on the basis of Purchasing Power which is the ability to buy products and services. This means an individual needs to have the money with him to buy the goods and services. The Low-cost housing for the underprivileged is much required but will not include as demand in the market because the needy do not have the buying power to back the demand. Therefore, the commodity will not be manufactured and provided as per market forces.

Two types of capitalism may be found in the economic system:

(1) The old laissez faire capitalism and

(2) The modern, regulated and mixed capitalism.

Characteristics of Capitalism:

The following are the basic characteristics of a ‘pure’ capitalism system:

1. Private Property:

Every individual has a right to hold property. This means that every individual is free to consume his private property and every individual has a right to transfer his property to his successors after death. Individuals have their property rights protected and are usually free to use their property as they like as long as they do not infringe on the legal property rights of others.

Private property, however, is protected, controlled and enforced by law. Private property is necessary because it supplies the motive underlying economic activity. In a capitalist economy, the factors of production land, labour and capital are privately owned, and production occurs at private initiative.

2. Free Enterprise:

Free enterprise, an essential feature of the capitalist system, is merely an extension of the concept of property rights. The term free enterprise implies that private firms are allowed to obtain resources, to organise production and to sell the resultant product in any way they choose. In other words, there will not be any government or other artificial restrictions on the freedom and ability of the private individuals to carry out any business.

3. Price Mechanism:

The price mechanism plays an important role in the production of goods and services. Under capitalism, the price is determined by the demand and supply.

4. The Market System:

The market mechanism is the key factor that regulates the capitalist economy. A market economy is one in which buyers and sellers express their opinions about how much they are willing to pay for or how much they demand of goods and services. Prices guide the purchase decisions of the consumers.

At the same time, while they decide to buy or not to buy a product, consumers vote for or against the product by using their money. Thus, market prices, which reflect the desires of millions of consumers, provide guidance to investors and other business persons. The market system, also called the price system, may, therefore, be regarded as the organising force in a capitalist economy.

5. Economic Freedom:

Another feature of capitalism is economic freedom.

This freedom implies three things:

(1) Freedom of enterprise,

(2) Freedom of contrast,

(3) Freedom to use one’s property.

Under the capitalism, everybody is free to take up any occupation that he likes, and to enter into agreements with fellow citizens in a manner most profitable to him.

In a capitalist economy, the individual is free to choose any occupation he is qualified for. This freedom of choice enables the worker to make the best possible bargain for his labour. This implies that the employers have to competitively bid for labour. Freedom of occupational choice, however, does not mean guarantee of the job a worker opts for; the choice is practically limited by the extent of availability of the jobs.

6. Consumers’ Sovereignty:

Consumers’ sovereignty is at its best in the capitalist system where consumers have complete freedom of choice of consumption. Under capitalism, the consumer is the king. Consumers’ sovereignty means freedom of choice on the part of every consumer. The consumer buys whatever he likes and as much as he likes.

The money price which the consumer offers expresses his wish. The production decisions in the free-market economy are based on the consumer desires which are reflected in the demand pattern. Frederic Benham remarks- “Under capitalism, the consumer is the king.”

7. Unplanned Economy:

As is clear from the features mentioned above, the capitalist system is essentially characterised by the absence of a central plan. No central economic planning is done in a capitalist economy.

There are no rules and regulations framed by the central agency. The productive function is the result of decision taken by a large number of entrepreneurs. Freedom of enterprise, occupation and property rights rule out the possibility of a central plan. Resource allocation and investment decisions in a free market economy are influenced by market forces rather than by the State.

8. Freedom to Save and Invest:

The freedom to save is implied in the freedom of consumption, for savings depend on income and consumption. The term saving implies the sacrifice of consumption. As George Halm observes- “The right to save is supported by the right to transmit wealth, so that the choice between present and future consumption is not limited to the adult life of one person. The freedom to save, inherit, and accumulate wealth is, therefore, a right which is perhaps more typical for the private enterprise system than is free choice of consumption and occupation.”

9. Economic Inequalities:

Another feature of capitalism is the existence of glaring inequalities in income, wealth and economic power. The existence of big monopolies results in the concentration of not only income and wealth but also of economic power in the hands of a few people.

10. Motive of Profit:

Profit is an important element of capitalism Investment tends to take the direction in which there is more possibility of profit. If the producers feel that they can obtain greater profit by the production of comfortable goods they will be inclined to do so without caring what people actually need.

11. Competition:

Competition among sellers and buyers is an essential feature of an ideal capitalist system. Competition reduces market imperfections and associated problems. Therefore, in a free market economy, a sufficient amount of competition is considered necessary if the whole production and distribution process is to be regulated by market forces.

Competition is necessary in a private enterprise economy to keep initiative constantly on alert, to protect the consumer, and to maintain a sufficiently flexible price system.

12. Limited Role of Government:

The absence of a central plan does not mean that the government does not play any role in a private enterprise economy. Indeed, government intervention is necessary to ensure some of the essential features and smooth functioning of the capitalist system. For example, government interference is necessary to define and protect property rights, ensure freedom of entry and exit, enforce contractual agreements among private entrepreneurs, ensure the satisfaction of certain community wants, etc. However, government interference in the system is comparatively very limited.

The pure capitalist system described above is highly idealised system. There is hardly any pure capitalist or free enterprise system in the real world today. The capitalist economies of today are characterised by state regulation in varying degrees. As a matter of fact, the modern capitalist economies are mixed or regulated systems.

Such regulated capitalist or market economies include the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Spain, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, etc.

Merits of Capitalism:

1. Automatic Working: Capitalism is controlled by the profit motive and price mechanism. Thus, there is coordination under capitalism. The whole activity is automatic in capitalism.
2. Capital Formation: Capitalist economy encourages formations of capital in the society. New industrial and commercial institutions are set up with the objective of profits and also encourage income and savings.
3. Maximum Satisfaction: In capitalism, production is carried on, keeping in view the needs and tastes of the consumer. This provides maximum satisfaction to the consumer who is a king in a capitalist economy.
4. Reward according to Capacity: In capitalism people are rewarded according to their capacity, to work and labour. The more people have the spirit of daring adventure, the more they are rewarded.
5. Efficiency: Under capitalism there is wide competition among the producers. In the competitive race it is the able producer who wins the race. An efficient producer produces the best goods at cost of production. Thus, capitalism encourages efficiency.

Demerits of Capitalism:

1. Economic Inequality: Capitalism gives complete freedom of private property, occupation and profession and is controlled by price mechanism. This leads to economic inequalities. The rich become richer and the poor become poorer.
2. Inefficiency in Working: The efficiency of the capitalistic system depends on the existence of free competition and the mobility of factors of production. But the existence of social, economic and legal issues hampers free competition with the result that the factors of production often lie idle.
3. Neglect of National Interest: The capitalists are mainly oriented towards self-interest of maximisation of profits and for this purpose they complete each of the formalities. They neglect the social interest. They do not complete their activities, keeping in view the national interest.
4. Lack of Coordination: Under capitalism the central government has no control over the activities of the businessmen and producers. The decisions pertaining to production mostly depend on the producers. The leads to irregularities, excess production and trade cycles. Thus there is a lack of coordination under capitalism.
5. Unemployment: Some of the economists are of the view that under a capitalist system full employment situation cannot be brought due to the lack of central economic planning. As a result, optimum use of resources cannot be possible. This brings up the situation of unemployment.

Evaluation of Capitalism:

Pure capitalism is an idealised system. It is very difficult to realise the avowed virtues of a free enterprise economy in the real world. There is no invisible hand that ensures the smooth functioning of the capitalist system.

Unregulated capitalism suffers from the following drawback:

1. In capitalism investment allocation is guided by only profitability criterion, sufficient investment may not take place in areas where profitability is low, however essential they may be. Profitability would be generally high in sectors which cater to the needs of the upper income strata.

A large part of the resources of the nation may, therefore, be utilised for the satisfaction of the needs of the well-to-do. Resource allocation under pure capitalism will not, therefore, be optimal.

2. The right to property and freedom of enterprise are likely to lead to concentration of income and wealth and the widening of inter-personal income disparities.
3. Though, according to the theory, there will be free competition, in the real world the large firms are likely to gain an advantageous position which would eventually lead to monopolies.
4. The operation of free market mechanism in the long run is detrimental to the lower and middle level of society. It creates imbalances in the standard of living also.

On the basis of the demerits of capitalism H.D. Dickinson writes, “Capitalism … is fundamentally blind, purposeless, irrational and is incapable of satisfying many of the urgent human needs.”

Socialist Economy:

According to Webbs, “A socialised industry is one in which the national instruments of production are owned by public authority or voluntary association and operated not with a view to profit by sale to other people, but for the direct service of those whom the authority or association represents.”

In the words of H.D. Dickinson, “Socialism is an economic organisation of society, in which the material means of production are owned by the whole community according to a general economic plan, all members being entitled to benefit from the results of such socialist plant production on the basis of equal rights.”

This economy system acknowledges the three inquiries in a different way. In a socialist society, the government determines what products are to be manufactured in accordance with the requirements of society. It is believed that the government understands what is appropriate for the citizen of the country, therefore, the passions of individual buyers are not given much attention. The government concludes how products are to be created and how the product should be disposed of. In principle, sharing under socialism is assumed to be based on what an individual needs and not what they can buy. A socialist system does not have a separate estate because everything is controlled by the government.

Characteristics of Socialism:

The important characteristics of socialism are as follows:

1. Government Ownership:

In socialist economy the means of production are either owned by the government or their use is controlled by the government. The state holds the ownership on the means of production and they are utilised for the welfare of the society. There is no private property in respect of the means of production.

In communist countries like the USSR and China, the means of production are mostly owned by the state. In some socialist economies, the private sector also plays a very important role. In such cases, the government directs and regulates investment allocation and production pattern in accordance with national priorities.

In some countries, such as India, some of the basic sectors, including a major part of institutional finance, are in the public sector so that the resource allocation and investment pattern of the private sector may be regulated by regulating the flow of the basic inputs to the private sector.

When the state owns almost the whole of the means of production, it is much easier to achieve the desired pattern of resource allocation. State capitalism, of course, has its own defects and limitations.

2. Central Planning:

Under socialism, the central planning authority or a Planning Commission formulates an overall plan for the entire economy according to certain objectives and priorities. The socialist economies generally have a central authority like the central planning agency to formulate the national plan for development and to direct resource mobilisation, allocation and investment to achieve the plan targets.

In the word of Dickinson, “Economic planning is the making of measured economic decisions, what and how much is to be produced, and to whom this is to be allocated by the conscious decision of determinate authority, on the basis of comprehensive survey of the economic systems as a whole.”

Socialist economies are sometimes called command economies because the central planning authority commands the pattern of resource utilisation and development. They are also called centrally planned economies. Centrally planned economies include the USSR, China, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Poland, Romania, etc.

3. Social Welfare:

Another feature of socialism is that the means of production are operated with the object of promoting and serving the good of the community rather than for the benefit of few persons. Under socialism, the productive resources of the community are diverted to the production of goods and services which maximise social welfare rather than earn the largest profits.

4. Lack of Competition:

Since there is governmental control over means of production, government has a hand in the matter of the kind of product to be produced, the quantity to be produced and determination of its price. There is no scope for competition.

5. Restriction on Consumption:

In communist countries, there is no consumer sovereignty because the state decides what may be made available to consumers, unlike in the market economies where the consumers have the freedom to choose from a wide variety. The consumers in a communist system, thus, have to content themselves with what the state thinks is sufficient for them.

6. Restriction on Occupation:

The freedom of occupation is absent or restricted in socialist countries. An individual may not have the freedom to choose any occupation he is qualified for. Similarly, individual freedom of enterprise is absent or restricted.

7. Fixation of Wages and Prices by the Government:

The wage rates and prices in a communist economy are fixed by the government and not by market forces. Non-communist socialist countries may also fix wages and prices or regulate them by certain means.

8. Equitable Distribution of Income:

An equitable distribution of income is an important feature of the socialist system. This does not mean, however, that socialist systems aim at perfect equality in income distribution. Wage differentials, depending on the nature and requirements of the job, are recognised in socialist countries.

The objective of equitable income distribution maybe achieved by fixing the wage rates and other economic rewards or by means of fiscal and other appropriate measures.

The traditional socialism emphasised government ownership of factors of production. But a number of today’s socialist systems are based on government control of the means of production rather than pure state capitalism. Even the Euro-communism shows a more liberal view than the Russian and Chinese systems. The recent changes in USSR and India are its best example.

Merits of Socialism:

1. Economic Equality: Under socialism, there is control of government over production, there is no scope for centralisation of wealth. Wealth is distributed among all the people. This avoids economic inequalities.
2. Production Planning: Under the socialist economy, the object is to serve the real demands and to fulfill the real needs of the people. For this purpose it arranges plant productions.
3. Economic Stability: Under socialism the government establishes coordination between the demand for production and supply of various goods. Thus there is a little likelihood of over-production and under-production. As a result, there is economic stability in a socialist economy.
4. Proper use of National Resources: Under capitalism, the central planning authority is better equipped than a capitalist market in locating price output fluctuations. The state uses the means of production for optimum welfare of the society.

Demerits of Socialism:

1. Difficulties of Management: In a socialist system all production setup is based on government planning, wherein the government officials have to shoulder all responsibilities. As a result, the government officials are heavily burdened with the work and it makes proper management difficult.
2. Lack of Freedom: In a socialist economy, it is a government which controls the economy. The workers are not free to choose occupation according to their choice. The government controls on all the activities of human life hinder developments.
3. Lack of Consumer’s Sovereignty: In a socialist setup proper attention is not paid towards the likes and dislikes of the consumer. The government machinery determines the nature and quantity of production. Thus, the consumer is not a king in a socialist economy.
4. Lack of Rational Calculation of Cost: The economists are of the view that in socialist system, there is lack of rational calculation of cost in production process. Efficient production becomes impossible in the absence of rational calculation of cost. The reason is the state ownership of the sources of production.

Evaluation of Socialism:

Socialism has become a very appealing and flexible concept. It has been aptly remarked that socialism is a cap that has lost its shape because so many different people have worn it. Indeed, there is a large variety of socialism today.

Democratic socialism strives to achieve a trade-off between the free enterprise system and state capitalism. Communism and state capitalism, however, suffer from a number of drawbacks.

Some of the important among these are the following:

1. Civil liberties are suppressed under communism: Under communism; man is a mere cog in the machine. If a free and fair election is conducted in the totalitarian countries, it is doubtful if people will vote for the status quo.
2. There is no consumer sovereignty in totalitarian systems. The state decides what and how much the people shall consume.
3. The central planning authority commands the resource allocation, investment and development pattern. But the views of the authority need not always be the right ones. As criticism is hardly tolerated, there is a limited scope for accommodating different views and making critical evaluations.

Mixed Economic:

According to J.D. Khatri, “A mixed economic system is that in which the public sector and private sector are allotted their respective roles in promoting the economic welfare of all sections of the community.”

According to J.W. Grove, “One of the pre-suppositions of a mixed economy is that private firms are less free to control measure decisions about production and consumption than they would be under capitalist free enterprise, and that public industry is free from government restraints than it would be under centrally directed socialist enterprise.”

Mixed systems have characteristics of both the command and market economic systems. For this purpose, the mixed economic systems are also called dual economic systems. However, there is no sincere method to determine a mixed system. Sometimes, the word represents a market system beneath the strict administrative control in certain sections of the economy.

Characteristics of Mixed Economy:

1. Division of Public and Private Sector: In mixed economy, public and private sectors are divided into two parts. In one part are the industries, the responsibility for the development of which is entrusted to the state and they are owned and managed by the state. In the second part, the consumer goods industries, small and cottage industries, agriculture, etc., are given to the private sector. It may be noted that the government does not work against the private sector.
2. Government Control: Mixed economy cannot function without exercising control over the private enterprises in the public interest. This control is necessary for the government to introduce and implement its policies.
3. Protection of Labour: Under mixed economy, government protects the weaker sections of society, especially labour, that is, it saves labour from exploitation by the capitalist. Minimum wages and the working hours have been fixed. The government takes a number of steps to prevent industrial disputes.
4. Reduction of Economic Inequalities: In mixed economy the government takes necessary steps for the reduction of inequalities of income and wealth. In the democratic system, the governments try to reduce economic inequalities for promoting social justice, social welfare and increasing production for all.

Merits of Mixed Economy:

1. Economic Freedom: Under mixed economy the consumers are free to act according to their choice. There is complete freedom for people to choose their profession. Economic liberty is available to people.
2. Control on Monopolistic Activities: In a mixed economy, both public and private sector co-exist and the private sector gets the opportunity to develop. There is a restric­tion on monopolistic activities for which the government enacts various rules and regulations.
3. Social Welfare: Under this system, the capitalist organisa­tions are controlled by government. The industrial, economic and financial policies of government are based on the concept of social welfare.
4. Planning and Proper Use of Resource: Under mixed economy the attention is given to planning. After proper survey all the resources are distributed into different sectors of the economy. This leads to proper and efficient utilisation of resources.

Demerits of Mixed Economy:

1. Temporary Economic System: Mixed economy cannot be maintained as permanent economic system. At the very early stage of development this system was found suitable but later on, its principles went on diminishing.
2. Danger to Democracy: It is possible that with the passage of time socialism may become powerful. In such condition the whole economic system would go under the control of government. Thus, there might be danger to democracy.
3. Imbalance in the Economy: The mixed economy cannot provide proper development as the government wants to maintain a balance between the private and public sector. The policies of the government are not clear; with the result there exists presence of imbalance in the economy.

India is regarded as the best example of a mixed economy. The evaluation of such an economy in India is based on values as embodied in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution. According to these Directive Principles it is obligatory on the part of the state to have a democratic form of government and within the framework of democracy to bring about a rapid economic development of the Indian economy in order to raise the national income and the standard of living of the masses.

The Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution lay down that the Slate strives “to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may, social order in which justice social, economic, and political shall inform all the institutions of national life.” In the economic sphere, the state is to direct its policy to secure a better distribution of ownership and control of the material resources of the community and to prevent concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and the exploitation of labour.

It would be impossible for the state to attain the ends implied in the directive unless it enters the field of production and distribution. How can the state raise the level of national income and standards of living of the toiling masses in India unless it promotes rapid industrialisation through its own participation?

In India, therefore, the state is pledged to the establishment of a socialist order of society in which the present glaring inequalities of wealth would be reduced to the minimum. But then, the state would not be prepared to eliminate the system of private enterprise, which, in spite of many mistakes and obvious handicaps, has been doing a good job in the field of production and distribution.

Our mixed economy, therefore, is the result of our devotion to democracy and also to socialism. The result has been a growing state sector side by side with a growing private sector.

The Indian economy is a mixed economy characterised by the co-existence of private, public, joint and cooperative sectors and cottage, tiny, small, medium and large industries. Though there are overlapping in a number of areas, certain areas are specifically earmarked for different sectors, or some sectors are ruled out of some areas with a view to achieving certain socio-economic objectives.

The first important characteristic of a mixed economy is the existence of both private and public sectors. In a sense, both capitalist and socialist economies may be regarded as mixed economies, because as has been mentioned before, public sector will definitely exist in a capitalist economy and a small private sector will exist in a socialist economy.

The existence of a small public or private sector in a capitalist or socialist economy will not convert them into mixed economies. The important thing is that the government should follow a definite policy and should declare through the legislature its determination to allow the co­existence of the two sectors. Through law, the scope of each is clearly marked out.

Secondly, a mixed economy is necessarily a planned economy. The mixed economy does not mean simply a controlled economy in which the government interferes in economic matters through fiscal and monetary policies, but it is an economy in which the government has a clear and definite economic plan.

The government has operated according to certain planning and to achieve certain social and economic goals. But the government cannot leave the private sector to develop in its own unorganised manner, and therefore, it will have to prepare an integrated plan in while the private sector has well defined place.

Thirdly, the mixed economy has the salient features of capitalism and also of socialism very clearly and cleverly incorporated together. For instance, the private sector enterprises are based on self-interest and profit motive. Individual initiative is given full scope and the system of private property is respected. Individual freedom and competition are allowed to exist.

At the same time, it is not free or laissez faire capitalism but it is controlled capitalism since the scope of free enterprise and initiative, the driving forces of self-interest of society. Either they are restricted to certain industries or they are controlled through legislative and other measures. On the other hand, the public sector industries are managed and operated on the basis of welfare of the community.

Here private property and profit motive have no place. Competition is avoided and so too are the possible wastes of competition. The advantages of planning and relative equality of incomes are harmonised with the advantages of private initiative and profit motive.

The ideal of a mixed economic system has been adopted because it has been found to be the best system for the realisation of the goal of democratic socialism. A properly balanced system, where each of the sectors has a specific role to play, can make a significant contribution to growth with social justice.

The mixed system is a via media between the free enterprise economy and state capitalism or communism. Such a mixed economy harnesses and harmonises the resources and skills of both the private and public sectors for national development. It is expected to have the positive effects of the free enterprise and state capitalism without their negative effects.

With a view of effectively regulating the private sector, not only is the private sector subject to a number of checks and controls, but the public sector has acquired control over the commanding heights of the economy. However, the private sector is given positive support for growth and development in the areas in which it is expected to function.

There is no denying the fact that the public, private, joint and cooperative sectors have made their own contributions to the economic development of the country, though each suffers from some drawbacks and deficiencies, the mixed economic system has assisted in the acceleration of the pace of development, for it has facilitated the augmentation of the productive resources and their channelisation and utilisation in accordance with policy.

This is not to say that there have not been distortions or improper developments. But such distortions are the result of defective implementation rather than that of a defective policy.

The mixed economic system, no doubt, is best suited for a vast developing country like India. Our development experience since independence bears testimony to this. Had not the public, private and other sectors played their respective roles, it would not have been possible for India to achieve whatever growth and diversification it has attained.

The regulation of the private sector and the dominance of the public sector in certain areas are necessary for the attainment of the objective of the prevention of concentration of economic power in a few hands to the common detriment, to check the economic dominance and power of the private sector against social interest, and to promote social justice.

At the same time the pace of development has been accelerated by allowing the private sector to function in a number of areas. A lot of resources, including skills, would otherwise have gone unutilised.

The joint sector is an attempt at utilising the resources and talents of both the public and private sectors, with social orientation to achieve development in the desired direction. The co-operative sector, which involves the operation of the democratic spirit, has been encouraged in a number of areas to augment the resources of the common man and to facilitate their greater involvement in the development process.

Regulator of Business:

The entire regulatory legislation and policies stand covered under this segment. On the one hand, there is a very large indirect area of government control over the functioning of private sector business through budgetary and monetary policies.

But against this there is also a fast-expanding area of direct administrative or physical controls through which the government seeks to ensure that private investment and production in industry and the use of scarce resources conform to government’s basic socio-economic objectives.

They have become necessary tools in a system which seeks to avoid total nationalisation of resources.

Government’s regulatory functions with regard to trade, business and industry aim at laying down the limits for the private enterprise. The regulatory functions of the Government include:

(i) Restraints on private activities

(ii) Control of monopoly and big business

(iii) Development of public enterprises as an alternative to private enterprises to ensure competitive dualism

(iv) Maintenance of a proper socio-­economic infrastructure.

Promoter of Business:

The promotional role of the government in relation to industries can be seen as providing finance to industry, in granting various incentives and in creating infrastructure facilities for industrial growth and investment.

For example, our government has identified certain backward areas as ‘No Industry Districts’. To promote development of such areas, Government provides subsidies and tax holiday to attract investment in backward areas.

In this way the government will help the process of balanced development and thereby remove regional disparities. The government is assisting the development of small scale industries.

The District Industrial Centers are assisting the development of small industries. The government is actively helping the industrial development of the country by providing finance to them through the development banks.

Government as the Planner:

In its role as a planner, the government indicates various priorities in the Five Year Plans and also the sectoral allocation of resources. Mixed economies are democratically planned economies.

The government tries to manage the economy and its business activities through the exercise of planning. Planning is the most important activity in a modern mixed economy. The idea of economic planning can be traced to three different sources: Rationalism, Socialism and Nationalism.

Economists advocate a planned economy on the ground that it can be a rational economy which can utilize the available resources in an optimal manner.

In other words, the planned economy is a rational economy which attempts to secure the maximum return with minimum wastage of productive resources.

The socialists advocate a planned economy because it helps to achieve some desirable social ends like economic equality. An unplanned economy, left to it, is incapable of attaining the social ends.

The nationalists advocate a planned economy because a planned economy is a powerful economy.

Government’s Responsibilities towards business:

• Providing Monetary System

The Government has to provide monetary system so that business transactions can be effected. Further, it is also the responsibility of the Government to regulate money and credit, and protect the money value of the currency in terms of other currencies.

• Incentives to Home Industries

It is the responsibility of the Government to encourage the development of home industries by providing them various incentives and subsidies.

• Conducting Inspections

It is the responsibility of the Government to inspect the private business concerns in order to make sure that they produce quality products, and also to prevent the production and sale of sub-standard goods.

• Transfer of Technology

It is the responsibility of the Government to transfer to private industries whatever discoveries are made by the Government owned Research Institutions so that they can be used for commercial production.

• Assistance to Small-scale Industries

It the responsibility of the Government to provide the required facilities and encourage the development of small-scale industries to overcome the problem faced by them.

• Supply of Information

It is the responsibility of the Governments to provide information, which is useful to businessmen in carrying out their business activities. Government agencies publish and provide a large volume of information, which is used extensively by business firms. This information normally relates to economic and business activity, specific lines of business, scientific and technological developments, and many other things of interest to business houses or business leaders.

• Provision of Basic Infrastructure

Government should provide basic infrastructural facilities such as transportation, power, finance, trained personnel and civic amenities, which are indispensable for the effective functioning of business concerns.

• Balanced Regional Development and Growth

It is the responsibility of the Government to make sure that there are balanced regional developments and growth.

• Maintaining Law and Order

Maintaining law and order and protecting persons and property is another responsibility of the Government of the country. It would be impossible to carry on business in the absence of a peaceful atmosphere.

• Enacting and Enforcing Laws

Enacting and enforcing laws is the prime responsibility of the Government of each country. This is because laws and regulations only enable the businesses to function smoothly. Further, Government provides a system of court for adjudicating differences between firms, individual or Government agencies.

Business Environment encompasses all internal and external factors that affect the operations and performance of a company. Internally, this includes elements such as organizational culture, management structure, and resources. Externally, it involves factors like economic conditions, market trends, technological advancements, legal and regulatory frameworks, and socio-cultural influences. A favorable business environment can foster growth and innovation, while unfavorable conditions may pose challenges and risks. Companies often conduct thorough analyses of the business environment to make informed decisions, mitigate risks, and seize opportunities, ultimately shaping their strategies and outcomes in the competitive landscape.

Significance of Business Environment:

• Strategic Planning:

Understanding the business environment helps in formulating effective strategies by identifying opportunities and threats. Businesses can capitalize on favorable conditions and prepare for challenges.

• Risk Management:

Assessing the business environment enables businesses to anticipate risks and take proactive measures to mitigate them. This includes regulatory changes, economic fluctuations, and competitive pressures.

• Competitive Advantage:

A deep understanding of the business environment allows companies to differentiate themselves from competitors. By leveraging unique opportunities and adapting to market dynamics, they can gain a competitive edge.

• Innovation:

The business environment often presents opportunities for innovation. By staying abreast of technological advancements, market trends, and consumer preferences, businesses can develop innovative products and services to meet evolving demands.

• Adaptability:

Business environment is dynamic and constantly evolving. Businesses that are adaptable and responsive to changes can thrive amidst uncertainty and volatility.

• Regulatory Compliance:

Compliance with legal and regulatory requirements is crucial for business sustainability. Understanding the regulatory landscape helps businesses navigate complex legal frameworks and avoid penalties.

• Resource Allocation:

Knowledge of the business environment guides effective resource allocation. Businesses can allocate resources such as capital, manpower, and technology strategically to capitalize on opportunities and address challenges.

• Stakeholder Management:

Businesses operate within a network of stakeholders including customers, investors, employees, and communities. Understanding the business environment enables businesses to effectively engage with stakeholders and build mutually beneficial relationships.

Characteristics of the Business Environment:

• Dynamic:

Business environment is constantly changing due to factors such as technological advancements, market trends, and regulatory developments. This dynamism requires businesses to remain flexible and adaptable.

• Uncertain:

Business environment is inherently uncertain, with factors such as economic fluctuations, political instability, and unexpected events influencing operations and outcomes. Businesses must manage and mitigate uncertainties to minimize risks.

• Competitive:

Competition is a defining characteristic of the business environment. Companies must contend with rivals for market share, customers, and resources, driving innovation, efficiency, and strategic positioning.

• Interconnected:

Various elements of the business environment are interconnected and interdependent. Changes in one area, such as economic conditions or consumer preferences, can have ripple effects across industries and regions.

• Multi-dimensional:

Business environment encompasses a wide range of dimensions, including economic, social, political, technological, legal, and environmental factors. Businesses must consider the interactions and impacts of these dimensions on their operations.

• Global:

In an increasingly interconnected world, the business environment extends beyond national boundaries. Globalization has opened up opportunities and challenges for businesses to operate in diverse markets and cultures.

• Regulatory:

Regulations and laws shape the business environment by governing aspects such as trade, labor relations, environmental protection, and consumer rights. Compliance with regulatory requirements is essential for business operations and sustainability.

• Opportunistic:

Despite challenges, the business environment also presents opportunities for growth, innovation, and expansion. Businesses must proactively identify and capitalize on opportunities to achieve success amidst dynamic and competitive conditions.

Scope of the Business Environment:

• Economic Environment:

Factors such as economic growth, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, and fiscal policies impact business decisions, demand for goods and services, and overall market conditions.

• Social and Cultural Environment:

Demographic trends, cultural norms, lifestyle changes, and societal values influence consumer behavior, market preferences, and business strategies.

• Political and Legal Environment:

Government policies, regulations, political stability, taxation, trade policies, and legal frameworks shape the operating environment for businesses, affecting market entry, competition, and compliance requirements.

• Technological Environment:

Advances in technology, innovation, automation, and digitalization impact business processes, product development, service delivery, and competitiveness in the market.

• Competitive Environment:

Industry structure, market dynamics, competitor actions, and bargaining power of suppliers and customers define the competitive landscape within which businesses operate.

• Natural Environment:

Environmental factors such as climate change, natural disasters, resource availability, and sustainability concerns influence business operations, supply chains, and corporate responsibility practices.

• Global Environment:

Globalization, international trade, geopolitical developments, and cross-border interactions present opportunities and challenges for businesses operating in diverse markets and regions.

EXIM Policy, short for Export-Import Policy, outlines a country’s strategies and regulations governing the import and export of goods and services. It serves as a roadmap for promoting international trade and economic development by establishing guidelines for tariffs, quotas, subsidies, and other trade-related measures. The main objectives of an EXIM policy typically include enhancing export competitiveness, reducing import dependency, attracting foreign investment, and fostering economic growth. By providing clarity and direction to businesses and policymakers, EXIM policies aim to facilitate trade, stimulate investment, and create a conducive environment for sustainable economic development.

Objectives of EXIM Policy:

• Promoting Export Competitiveness:

One of the primary goals of an EXIM policy is to enhance the competitiveness of domestic goods and services in international markets. This may involve providing incentives, subsidies, or assistance to exporters, as well as implementing measures to improve the quality and efficiency of export-oriented industries.

• Facilitating Import Substitution:

EXIM policies often aim to reduce dependency on imported goods by promoting domestic production and manufacturing. This may involve imposing tariffs or quotas on certain imports, providing incentives for domestic industries, or implementing measures to improve productivity and efficiency.

• Attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):

Encouraging foreign investment is another objective of many EXIM policies. By creating an attractive investment climate through regulatory reforms, tax incentives, and other measures, countries aim to attract foreign capital to support export-oriented industries and stimulate economic growth.

• Achieving Balance of Payments Stability:

EXIM policies seek to achieve a balance between exports and imports to ensure stability in the country’s balance of payments. This may involve implementing trade restrictions, promoting export diversification, or managing currency exchange rates to prevent trade imbalances.

• Fostering Economic Growth and Development:

EXIM policies play a crucial role in driving economic growth and development by promoting trade, investment, and industrialization. By supporting export-oriented industries and fostering entrepreneurship, countries aim to create jobs, generate income, and improve living standards.

• Enhancing Technology Transfer and Innovation:

EXIM policies may encourage technology transfer and innovation by facilitating collaboration and partnerships between domestic and foreign firms. This can help domestic industries adopt advanced technologies, improve productivity, and enhance their competitiveness in global markets.

• Promoting Regional and Bilateral Trade Relations:

Many EXIM policies aim to strengthen regional and bilateral trade relations through the negotiation of trade agreements, free trade zones, and preferential trade arrangements. By fostering closer economic ties with trading partners, countries seek to expand market access and create opportunities for mutual trade and investment.

• Ensuring Compliance with International Trade Norms:

EXIM policies often seek to ensure compliance with international trade norms and agreements, such as those established by the World Trade Organization (WTO). This may involve harmonizing trade regulations, resolving trade disputes, and participating in multilateral trade negotiations to promote a rules-based global trading system.

History of EXIM Policy of India:

• Pre-Independence Era:

Before India gained independence in 1947, its trade policies were heavily influenced by colonial rule. The British Raj controlled India’s trade, primarily for the benefit of the colonial power. India’s trade was characterized by the export of raw materials and agricultural products to Britain and other colonies, while imports consisted largely of manufactured goods.

• Post-Independence and Import Substitution:

After independence, India pursued a policy of import substitution industrialization (ISI), aimed at reducing dependency on imports by promoting domestic industrialization. The government imposed high tariffs and import restrictions to protect domestic industries and encourage self-sufficiency in manufacturing.

• Liberalization in the 1990s:

In response to economic crises and mounting pressure from international financial institutions, India began to liberalize its economy in the early 1990s. The government initiated a series of economic reforms, including trade liberalization measures such as tariff reductions, exchange rate reforms, and dismantling of trade barriers.

• Introduction of EXIM Policy:

The first EXIM Policy of independent India was announced in 1992-1997, marking a significant departure from the previous era of import substitution. The policy aimed to promote exports, attract foreign investment, and integrate India into the global economy. It introduced various export promotion schemes, incentives for exporters, and simplified export procedures to boost India’s competitiveness in international markets.

• Evolution and Amendments:

Since the introduction of the first EXIM Policy, there have been several revisions and amendments to reflect changing economic conditions and global trade dynamics. Subsequent EXIM Policies, now referred to as Foreign Trade Policies (FTPs), have continued to focus on export promotion, import facilitation, and trade facilitation measures.

• Modernization and Digitization:

In recent years, India’s EXIM Policy has undergone modernization and digitization to streamline trade processes, enhance transparency, and reduce transaction costs. The introduction of online platforms and electronic documentation systems has facilitated trade procedures and improved efficiency in customs clearance and export-import transactions.

• Alignment with Global Trade Norms:

India’s EXIM Policy has been aligned with international trade norms and obligations under various multilateral agreements, including those of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The policy aims to balance India’s trade interests while promoting compliance with international trade rules and commitments.

The primary aim to set up machinery for consultation is to create the required forum and environment for consulting various quarters interested and engaged in foreign trade.

It facilitates to develop a dialogue between Government, industry and the entrepreneurs, at various levels, to discuss varied problems faced by the enterprises and suggest necessary measures to solve the problems. Export is a dynamic industry and faces stiff international competition. It requires innovation, flexible approach and expeditious action to catch the swift changes that emerge as new opportunities. Further, orientation in attitude has to be developed to visualize and anticipate the changes that may overtake the scene. Equally, appropriate Government policies are important to support for rapid growth in international trade. To gear up with the changes, exporter needs guidance and assistance at different stages of export effort. For this purpose, Government has set up several institutions whose function is to support exporter in his endeavors. Institutions that are engaged in expo falls in six distinct tiers. The set-up is:

Department of Commerce

Primary Government agency responsible for formulating and directing Foreign Trade Policy and programs including establishing relations with other countries where needed

Board of Trade

Mechanism to maintain continuous dialogue with trade and industry for appropriate policy measures and corrective action by Government

Commodity specific organizations

Tackling problems connected with individual commodities and groups of commodities Service Institutions Assist exporters to expand their operations to reach world markets more effectively Government Trading organizations

Handling export/import of specified commodities & supplementing efforts of private enterprises in export promotion and import management

Government Policy Making and Consultations

The following bodies are involved in policy making and consultation process:

1. Department of Commerce

Ministry of Commerce is the apex ministry at the central level to formulate and execute India’s foreign trade policy and to initiate various exports promotional measures. e main functions of the Ministry are formulation of international commercial policy, negotiation of trade agreements, formulation of export-import policy and their implementation. has created a network of commercial sections in Indian embassies and high commissions various countries for export-import trade flows. It has set up an “Exporters’ Grievances dressal Cell” to assist exports in quick redressal of grievances. The department of Commerce, in the Ministry of Commerce, has been made responsible for India’s external trade and all matters connected with the same. This is the main organization to formulate and guide India’s foreign trade, formed with the responsibility of promoting India’s interest in international market. The Department of Commerce has six divisions and their functions are as under:

• Trade Policy Division: To keep abreast of the developments in the International organizations like UNCTAD, WTO, the Economic Commissions for Europe, Africa, Latin America and Asia and Far East
• Foreign Trade Territorial: Development of trade with different countries and regions of the world
• Export Products Division: Problems connected with production, generation of surplus and development of markets for the various products under its jurisdiction
• Export Industries Division: Development and Regulation of tobacco, Rubber and cardamom.
• Export Services Division: Export promotion activities relating to handlooms, textiles, woolens, readymade garments, silks, jute and jute products, handicrafts, coir and coir products Problems of Export Assistance
• Economic Division: Formulation of exports strategies, Export planning, Periodic appraisal and Review of policies

2. Board of Trade

It has been set up on May 5, 1989 with a view to provide an effective mechanism to maintain continuous dialogue with trade and industry in respect of major developments in the field of international trade. It provides regular consultation, monitoring and review of India’s foreign trade policies and operations. The board has the representatives from commerce and other important Ministries, Trade and Industry Associations and Export Services Organizations. It is an important national platform for a regular dialogue between the Government and trade and industry. The deliberations in the Board of Trade provide guidelines to the Government for appropriate policy measures for corrective action.

The Minister of Commerce is the chairman of the Board of Trade. The official membership includes Secretaries of the Ministries of Commerce and Industry, Finance (Revenue), External Affairs (ER), Textiles, Chairman of ITPO, Chairman/MD of ECGC, MD of Exim Bank and Deputy Governor of Reserve Bank of India. The non-official members are President of FICCI, ASSOCHAM, CH, FIEO, All India Handloom Weavers Marketing Co-operative Society.

Cabinet Committee regular and effective monitoring of India’s foreign trade performance and related policies

4. Empowered Committee of Secretaries

For speedier and quicker decision making, an Empowered Committee of Secretaries has been set up to assist the Cabinet Committee on Exports.

5. Grievances Cell

Grievances Cell has been established to entertain and monitor disposal of grievances and suggestions received. The purpose is to redress the genuine grievances, at the earliest. The grievance committee is headed by the Director General of Foreign. Trade. At the State level, the head of the concerned Regional Licensing authority heads the grievances committee. The committee also includes representatives of FIEO, concerned Export Promotion Council/ Commodity Board and other departments and organisations. The grievances may be addressed to the Grievances Cell, in the prescribed proforma.

6. Director General of Foreign Trade (DGFT)

DGFT is an important office of the Ministry of Commerce to help formulation of India’s Export4mport formulation policy and implementation thereof. It has set up regional offices in almost all the states and Union territories. These offices are known as Regional Licensing Authorities. The Regional Licensing offices also act as Export facilitation centres.

7. Ministry of Textiles

This is another ministry of Government of India which is responsible for policy formulation, development, regulation and export promotion of textile sector including sericulture, jute and handicrafts etc. It has a separate Export Promotion Division, advisory boards, development corporations, Export Promotion Councils and Commodity Boards. The advisory hoards have been set up to advise the government in the formulation of the overall development programmes in the concerned sector. It also devises strategy for expanding markets in India and abroad. The four advisory boards are as under:

(a) All India Hand loom Board

(b) All India Handicrafts Board

(c) All India Power loom Board

(d) Wool Development Board.

There are Development Commissioners, Handicrafts and Handlooms who advise on matters relating to development and exports of these sectors. There are Textile Commissioner and Jute commissioner who advise on the matters relating to growth of exports of these sectors. Textile committee has also been set up for ensuring textile machinery indigenously, especially for exports.

8. Institutional Framework

Export Promotion Councils and Commodity Boards have been established with the objective of promoting and strengthening commodity specialization. They are the key institutions in the institutional framework, established in India for export promotion.

Export Promotion Councils: There are 19 Councils covering different products. These Councils advise the Government the measures necessary to facilitate future exports growth, assist manufacturers and exporters to overcome various constraints and extend them full range of services for the development of overseas market. The councils also have certain regulatory functions such as the power to de-register errant and defaulting exporters. An idea of the functions of the Export Promotion Council can be had from understanding some of the functions of the Engineering Export Promotion Council. Some of their functions are:

(a) To apprise the Government of exporters’ problems;

(b) To keep its members posted with regard to trade inquiries and opportunities;

(c) To help in exploration of overseas markets and identification of items with export potential;

(d) To render assistance on specific problems confronting individual exporters;

(e) To help resolve amicably disputes between exporters and importers of Indian engineering goods and (f) to offer various facilities to engineering exporters in line with other exporting countries.

Over the years, the role of Export Promotion Councils has reduced to traditional liaison work and has lost their importance. Now, the procedures connected with the foreign trade are more simplified. So, they have to redefine their role to offer concrete market promotional and consolidation programmes and services to their members.

Commodity Boards: There are 9 statutory Boards. These Boards deal with the entire range of problems of production, development, marketing etc. In respect of these commodities concerned, they act themselves as if they are the Export Promotion Councils. These Boards take promotional measures by opening foreign offices abroad, participating in trade fairs and exhibitions, conducting market surveys, sponsoring trade delegations etc.

9. States’ Cell

This has been created under Ministry of Commerce. Its functions are to act as a nodel agency for interacting with state government or Union territories on matters concerning export or import from the state or Union territories. It provides guidance to state level export organizations. It assists them in the formulation of export plans for each state.

10. Development Commissioner, Small Scale industries Organization

The Directorate has the headquarter in New Delhi and Extension Centres are located in almost all the States and Union Territories. They provide export promotion services almost at the door steps of small-scale industries and cottage units. The important functions are:

• To help the small scale industries to develop their export capacities
• To organize export training programmes
• To collect and disseminate information
• To help such units in developing their export markets
• To take up the problems and other issues related to small-scale indus Corporation tries Besides, there are Directorates of Industries, National Small Scale Industries exports from small-scale industries.