Tag: Central Bank Policies

A cashless society describes an economic state whereby financial transactions are not conducted with money in the form of physical banknotes or coins, but rather through the transfer of digital information (usually an electronic representation of money) between the transacting parties. Cashless societies have existed from the time when human society came into existence, based on barter and other methods of exchange, and cashless transactions have also become possible in modern times using credit cards, debit cards, mobile payments, and digital currencies such as bitcoin. However this article discusses and focuses on the term “cashless society” in the sense of a move towards, and implications of, a society where cash is replaced by its digital equivalent in other words, legal tender (money) exists, is recorded, and is exchanged only in electronic digital form.

Such a concept has been discussed widely, particularly because the world is experiencing a rapid and increasing use of digital methods of recording, managing, and exchanging money in commerce, investment and daily life in many parts of the world, and transactions which would historically have been undertaken with cash are often now undertaken electronically. Some countries now set limits on transactions and transaction values for which non-electronic payment may be legally used.

Benefits:

Reduced business risks and costs

Cashless payments eliminate several risks, including counterfeit money (though stolen cards are still a risk), theft of cash by employees, and burglary or robbery of cash. The costs of physical security, physically processing cash (withdrawing from the bank, transporting, counting) are also reduced once a business goes completely cashless, as is the risk that the business will not have enough cash on hand to make the change.

Reducing transmittal of disease via cash

Cash provides a good home for disease-causing organisms (i.e. Staphylococcus aureus. Salmonella species, Escherichia coli, COVID-19…). However, cash has been found to be less likely to transmit disease than commonly touched items such as credit card terminals and pinpads. Such concerns prompted the German central bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, to state that “Cash poses no particular risk of infection for public”.

Transaction speed

Restaurant chain Sweetgreen found cashless locations (with customers using payment cards or the chain’s mobile app) could process transactions 15% faster.

Elimination of high-denomination notes for purposes of reducing criminal activity

One significant societal advantage cited by proponents is the difficulty of money laundering, tax evasion, performing illegal transactions, and funding illegal activity in a cashless society. Many countries have regulated, restricted, or banned private digital currencies such as Bitcoin, partly to prevent illegal transactions. Large amounts of value can also be stored in real estate, antiques, or commodities like diamonds, gold, silver, and platinum.

Some have proposed a “Reduced cash” system, where small bills and coins are available for anonymous, everyday transactions, but high-denomination notes are eliminated. This would make the amount of cash needed to move large amounts of value physically awkward and easier to detect. Large notes are also the most valuable to counterfeit.

Better collection of economic data

Rather than conducting “Costly and periodic” surveys and sampling of real-world transactions, “real data” collected on citizens’ spending can assist in devising and implementing policies that are deduced from actual data. With recorded financial transactions, the government can better track the movement of the money through financial records which enables them to track the black money and illegal transactions taking place in the country.

Flexibility

With advanced technology and payment systems at our disposal, going cashless is as good as having cash. You can use your money in several different ways, and often almost instantaneously. So, purchase air tickets, pay off your home loan EMI, or buy a life insurance policy without having to arrange for cash.

Easier consumer budgeting

As digital payments are made, transactions are kept in records. Cashless payments facilitate the tracking of spending expenditure and record the movement of money. Having recorded transactions, it can help citizens to refine their budget more efficiently because people can see their recorded transactions in their bank account and know where their ingoing’s and outgoings are occurring.

A medium-term loan is usually for a period of 2 to 5 years and can be said to be a hybrid of short and long-term loans. Such a loan is often taken for carrying repair or renovation of the fixed asset. For example, modernizing a showroom.

A medium-term loan is usually skipped when talking about the types of terms loans as people may go straight to the long-term loan after discussing the short-term loan. However, it is better to keep the duration of 2 to 5 years under medium-term as terms and condition for such a period is somewhat different from the long-term loan. Like, the interest rate is comparatively higher, while the documentation part is easier when compared to the long-term loans.

Advantages

• The rates of return on MTNs are usually higher than on other short-term investments.
• These notes are custom defined case by case and can be tailored to both issuers and investors needs (within legal requirements).
• For investors, it may serve as a compromise investment opportunity between short-term investments and bonds with long maturities.
• Availability to raise the funds non-publicly.

Disadvantages:

• Higher costs of servicing
• Due to strict issuance documentation requirements, issuers may prefer issuing public bonds instead.

Long Term Loans

These types of term loans are for more than five years. Most of the long-term loans are secured, for instance, home loans, car loans, loans against property. Since the loan is secured, the rate of interest is also lower. However, it can be unsecured as well. In an unsecured loan, no collateral or asset is needed, but the rate of interest is comparatively higher as the lender bears more risk.

EMI for such a loan is also quite low as the payment is spread over a long period. A long-term loan is credit-based, so the better your credit score is, the better are the chances that you get a lower interest rate. The amount of loan will also depend on your credit history and income.

Features:

Lower rate of interest

Since the time period of loan repayment is higher for long-term loans, banks and other lending entities levy lower rate of interest on these loans. Hence car loans and home loans come at lower rates than personal finance.

Higher loan amounts

Long-term loans generally come with higher loan amounts. Hence, home loans, auto loans etc. offer hefty loan amounts as compared to short-term loans like personal loans. Since, these loans are mostly secured via collateral submission hence banks are not apprehensive in lending heavy loan amounts to long-term loan applicants.

Collateral Submission

Since the loan amount involved in long-term loans is way higher than other types of loans, collaterals are almost always required to be submitted to the bank. This helps banks in recovering lost cash in case a borrower defaults to repay the loan.

Tax Benefits on long-term loans

Tax benefits are applicable on long-term loan repayment. However, this depends upon the type of loan. For example, an auto loan is a luxury loan and hence it does not offer any tax rebate whereas home loan is a loan for the basic need of housing and as such offers tax exemption on the repayment of loan. These tax benefits are subject to laws under the Income Tax Act.

Repayment in installments

Repayment of long-term loans generally happens in equated installments spread over a substantial period of time. These monthly installments are generally made up of two components, principal and interest.

Example:

Home loans

Home loans are one of the most suitable examples of long-term loans. The tenure for home loans goes much beyond 3 years and the loan amount is considerable. Collaterals require to be submitted to the bank and a guarantor also is required to sign the loan application. These loans offer pre-closure option to customers and depending upon the lending bank, this option may be charged or not charged. Home loans also give buyers the option of choosing between fixed and floating rate of interest.

Education Loans

Education loans or student loans are generally granted for a long period of time especially for courses like engineering and medical. These loans offer a longer repayment tenure to applicants. These loans are taken for a period of more than 3 years and this can go up to a period of 30 years. Education loans can be taken by applicants who wish to go for higher studies in India as well as abroad. The loan amount limit and the rate of interest might differ according to the lending entity as well as according to the course for which loan is being sought.

Personal Loans

Personal loans that offer a repayment tenure of more than 3 years come under the category of long-term loans. However, even when these loans are longer in tenure, the rate of interest offered is not low because personal loans are mostly unsecured loans and as such borrower does not need to submit any collateral as security. Banks do not have any collateral to fall back on in case a borrower defaults to pay back his/her personal loan.

Car Loans

Car loans have slowly become the most necessary loan instrument in recent times. Since the time banks eased the process of obtaining credit for purchase of vehicles, taking car or auto loans have been on the rise. Cars are considered as luxurious items and as such rates offered on these loans are higher than those for home loans. However, stiff competition among lending entities have forced banks to lower the rate of interest for car loans. A typical car loan may have a long-term payment tenure of up to 7 years. Pre-payment of loan is available for car loans and is subject to a pre-closure fee in case of certain banks. On the other hand, some banks do not levy any penalty fee on pre-payment of car loan amount.

Mobile Banking

It has been predicted that by 2025, approximately 4 billion people will use mobile banking and the users will be able to use apps to track, transact and spend from their apps. Apart from just attracting customers with the ease with which the apps work, the exposure to these apps also attracts prospective employees. All employees want to work with an employer who is represented by cutting edge technology and attractive apps.

Mobile Payments

A large number of users are now using mobile apps to make bill payments for various utilities like phone use, electricity bill, credit card bill, etc. This can easily be done through apps for mobile services. Payments always involve some amount of confidentiality and privacy. Apps help the users to keep the information confidential and safe. As the connectivity across areas and platforms is increasing, the mobile apps help the customers to transact with minimal effort and maximum confidentiality. Apart from this, mobile apps also provide many different ways to make the payment:

• Netbanking
• Credit card Payment
• Debit card Payment
• Mobile Wallets

Increase Business

Mobile Apps also ensure that the financial sector enterprise has maximum business. By making the business more accessible, mobile apps have ensured that the business captures maximum market share and increases sales. By providing safe and secure transactions, mobile apps have strengthened the bond between existing customers and the business as well. This ensures continued patronage and work. Mobile applications from finance organizations can supply underserved clients with a means to manage and leverage investment or business opportunities.

Reduce Operational Costs

The use of mobile apps has also ensured that the operational cost of running the business has been reduced. Mobile apps provide one-stop shops for buying, returning, acquiring, exchanging, and remitting of goods and services. Apart from this, mobile apps have also ensured that there is a seamless, virtual transfer of data from the customer to management and vice versa. Mobile apps have made space for virtual customer help stations and have reduced costs further.

Following the markets

Mobile apps in financial categories may send real-time stock and market warnings to the users’ mobile devices via push notifications. Thus, users may be informed about the performances of the investments anytime. In the finance sector in which responding quickly is important, institutions which have their mobile apps may often be preferred by the users.

Current account

Current bank account is opened by businessmen who have a higher number of regular transactions with the bank. It includes deposits, withdrawals, and contra transactions. It is also known as Demand Deposit Account.

Current account can be opened in co-operative bank and commercial bank. In current account, amount can be deposited and withdrawn at any time without giving any notice. It is also suitable for making payments to creditors by using cheques. Cheques received from customers can be deposited in this account for collection.

In India, current account can be opened by depositing Rs.5000 to Rs. 25,000. The customers are allowed to withdraw the amount with cheques, and they usually do not get any interest. Generally, current account holders do not get any interest on their balance lying in current account with the bank.

Current account holder gets one important advantage of overdraft facility.

Features of Current Bank Account:

• Current bank accounts are operated to run a business.
• It is a non-interest-bearing bank account.
• It needs a higher minimum balance to be maintained as compared to the savings account.
• Penalty is charged if minimum balance is not maintained in the current account.
• It charges interest on the short-term funds borrowed from the bank.
• It is of a continuing nature as there is no fixed period to hold a current account.
• It does not promote saving habits with its account holders.
• Banker requires KYC (Know your Customers) norms to be completed before opening a current account.
• The main objective of current bank account is to enable the businessmen to conduct their business transactions smoothly.
• There is no restriction on the number and amount of deposits.
• There is also no restriction on the number and amount of withdrawals made, as long as the current account holder has funds in his bank account.
• Generally, bank does not pay any interest on current account. Nowadays, some banks do pay interest on current accounts.

Advantages of having a Current Account

1. Current accounts allow handling of large volumes of receipts and/or payments systematically
2. Under these accounts, limitless withdrawals are allowed in line with the levied cash transaction fees.
3. There are no restrictions applied on the deposits made into the current accounts opened at the bank’s home branch. Additionally, account holders can also deposit cash at other branches upon paying small fees as applicable.
4. Cheques, pay-orders, or demand-drafts can be issued via a current account for making direct payments to creditors.
5. Overdraft facilities are also available for current account holders.
6. The presence of small interest earnings on account balance makes a current account all the more attractive for its users.
7. Businesses are further advantaged with various other benefits in the form of free inward remittances, deposit and withdrawals at any location, multi-location transfer etc.
8. The businessmen can withdraw from their current accounts without any limit, subject to banking cash transaction tax, if any levied by the government.
9. Assists creditors of the account holder who can have access to information on the account holder’s credit-worthiness through inter-bank connection.
10. It facilitates the industrial progress of the country. Without its help, businessmen would face difficulties in running their businesses.
11. Provides with Internet-banking and mobile-banking to enable businessmen carry out important business transactions promptly and with ease.
12. It also provides various other advantages (benefits) such as:

• Deposit and withdrawal of money (cash) at any location.
• Multi-location funds transfer.

Term Deposits

Term Deposits, popularly known as Fixed Deposit, is an investment instrument in which a lump-sum sum amount is deposited at an agreed rate of interest for a fixed period of time, ranging from 1 month to 5 years. Term Deposits can be availed at financial institutions like Banks, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFC), credit unions, post offices and building societies.

Characteristics of Term Deposits

Term Deposits have unique monetary features that have made them popular among the investment circles. The essential characteristics of term deposits are:

• Safety of investment: Since interest rates of the term deposit are not affected by the changes in the economy, it is one of the safest investment options available.
• Fixed rate of interest: The rate of interest for term deposits are fixed and are not subject to fluctuations in the market.
• Present investment period: The investor has the freedom to choose the tenor of the investment based on the plans offered by the financial institution. Normally the interest rate offered by the institution will be higher for a longer tenor. But it is advisable to compare the interest to tenor ratios before making the investment.
• Interest Payment: The investor has the option to choose to receive the interest income either on maturity or periodically; Monthly, quarterly or yearly.
• Rollover: An investor who does not require their money on the maturity of the term deposit has an option to roll over the deposit for a fresh term. ‘Rollover’ refers to the reinvesting of maturity proceeds in a new term deposit and adding on to the interest. So, an investor doesn’t have to utilize their money as soon as the term deposit matures.
• Wealth Generation: The stable interest received on the investment ensures that the investors’ wealth grows even during difficult times in the market.
• Penalty on premature withdrawal: Since term deposits come with a fixed tenor, it is considered ‘locked-in’. If the investor opts to withdraw from the deposit before the lock-in period ends they are liable to pay a penalty to the financial institution along with lowered interest income.
• Loan against deposit: If in a contingent situation the investor needs financial liquidity, they can avail a loan of up to 60-75% of the deposit amount.
• Taxation on interest: Under the Income Tax Act, the interest earned on the deposit is taxable income and can be subject to a Tax Deducted at the Source (TDS).
• Insurance on deposit: Under the RBI regulations, any deposit in a certified bank is eligible for an insurance cover of up to Rs 1 lakh under the Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC).
• Low investment limit: The lower limit of investment varies as per the financial institution, but the lower limit is generally Rs 1000. Although, there is no upper limit on how much can be invested in term deposits.

Types of Term Deposit

• Sweep-in facility term deposit: Sweep-in is a feature that financial institutions provide where the individual can set an upper limit on their savings account. Any amount higher than that limit will be converted into a term deposit. If the savings account faces deficit, then the funds will be withdrawn from the term deposit with a loss of interest only on the funds swept in. Sweep-in term deposits usually provide a higher interest rate.
• Cumulative and Non-Cumulative deposits: Cumulative term deposit is an option provided for investors who don’t need regular monetary income from the deposit. Hence, the interest earned is reinvested into the deposit and paid out as a lump sum at the end of the tenor. A non-cumulative term deposit is for investors who are looking for a regular interest payout. With a non-cumulative term deposit, the interest will be credited in the investor’s account at regular intervals; Monthly, quarterly or yearly.
• Short-term and Long-term deposits: These term deposits have been classified based on the holding period of the investment. A short term deposit has a lock-in period ranging from 1 to 12 months. Short term deposits are ideal for investors looking for quick returns. Long term deposits have a lock-in period ranging from 1 to 10 years. These deposits provide a higher interest rate than the short term deposits.
• Senior Citizen term deposits: An individual over the age of 60 years is considered a senior citizen. Most banks or financial institutions provide a higher interest rate on term deposits for senior citizens. Senior citizens are also eligible for tax-saving term deposits at some banks.
• Special deposit schemes for children: There are a few special deposit scheme aimed the welfare of children. ‘Sukanya Samriddhi Account’ launched by the government aims at improving the financial stability of girl children above the age of 10 years. Different banks have different schemes focussed on the financial welfare of children e.g., ‘Sishu Mangal’ deposit scheme by Allahabad Bank, Balika Shiksha Scheme by Punjab National Bank etc.
• Post Office Time Deposit: Post offices also provide certain financial services. One such service is the Post Office Term Deposit. It can either be opened as an individual or joint account. One can transfer their post office term deposit accounts from one post office to another or own multiple accounts in the same post office. The minimum limit for the deposit is Rs.200 and the current interest rate is 7.9% for 5 years. Any deposit for a tenor longer than 5 years is eligible for the tax benefits prescribed under Section 80C of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
• Tax-saver term deposits: Tax-saver deposits are eligible for a tax deduction of up to Rs 1.5 lakh under Section 80C of the Income Tax Act. These tax saver term deposits have a lock-in period of 5 years and any income above Rs 40,000 is taxable. The usual interest rates range between 5.5%-7.75%.

The Eurobond market is made up of investors, banks, borrowers, and trading agents that buy, sell, and transfer Eurobonds. Eurobonds are a special kind of bond issued by European governments and companies, but often denominated in non-European currencies such as dollars and yen. They are also issued by international bodies such as the World Bank. The creation of the unified European currency, the euro, has stimulated strong interest in euro-denominated bonds as well; however, some observers warn that new European Union tax harmonization policies may lessen the bonds’ appeal.

Eurobonds are unique and complex instruments of relatively recent origin. They debuted in 1963, but didn’t gain international significance until the early 1980s. Since then, they have become a large and active component of international finance. Similar to foreign bonds, but with important differences, Eurobonds became popular with issuers and investors because they could offer certain tax shelters and anonymity to their buyers. They could also offer borrowers favourable interest rates and international exchange rates.

Notes Market

The primary objective of the issuance of Euro notes is to structure a debt instrument with short term maturities, generally 3, 6 or 9 months, tenors (duration) and place it in the market. However, the borrowing programme could be for medium or long term (say), 5-7 years or more. Banks that act as financial Market intermediaries agree to underwrite the paper (instrument). In reality, a borrower is able to borrow at short-term interest rates for short periods by issuing the “notes” ‘to investors. At the same time the borrower avails of the benefits and comfort of having a committed medium to long tern borrowing facility (underwritten by banks). The funding portion is divided into two separate components. The first, is a long term committed standby lending facility provided by banks. The second is a mechanism for the distribution of short-term debt instruments (the Euro note). The former component gives the borrower the long term assurance of availability of funds. The latter is the means by which cost-competitive funding can be achieved (since at any specific time, short term funding is usually cheaper than medium-long term funding).

Types of Euro Bonds

Straight Bond: Bond is one having a specified interest coupon and a specified maturity date. Straight bonds may issue with a floating rate of interest. Such bonds may have their interest rate fixed at six-month intervals of a stated margin over the LIBOR for deposits in the currency of the bond. So, in the case of a Eurodollar bond, the interest rate may base upon LIBOR for Eurodollar deposits.

Convertible Eurobond: The Eurobond is a bond having a specified interest coupon and maturity date. But, it includes an option for the hold to convert its bonds into an equity share of the company at a conversion price set at the time of issue.

Medium-term Eurobond: Medium-term Euro notes are shorter-term Eurobonds with maturities ranging from three to eight years. Their issuing procedure is less formal than for large bonds. Interest rates on Euro notes can fix or variable. Medium-term Euro-notes are similar to medium-term roll-over Eurodollar credits. The difference is that in the Eurodollar market lenders hold a claim on a bank and not directly on the borrower.

Benefits to Investors

The main benefit to local investors in purchasing a Eurobond is that it provides exposure to foreign investments staying in the home country. It also gives a sense of diversification, spreading out the risks.

As mentioned previously, Eurobonds are pretty cheap, with a small face value and are highly liquid.

If a Eurobond is denominated in a foreign currency and issued in a country with a strong economy (and currency), then the bond liquidity rises.

Benefits to Issuers

A list of benefits to Eurobond issuers consists of the following:

• A country choice with lower interest rates.
• Flexibility to choose a favorable country to originate bonds and currency.
• Avoidance of currency risk or forex risk by using Eurobonds.
• International bond trade despite being issued in a certain country that broadens potential investor base.
• Access to a huge range of bond maturity periods that can be chosen by the issuer.

IMPS (Immediate Payment Service) is a real-time interbank electronic funds transfer system that enables instant money transfers 24/7, including on holidays. Launched by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) in 2010, IMPS allows users to transfer funds using mobile phones, internet banking, and ATMs, making it one of the most convenient modes of payment in India.

IMPS offers several advantages over traditional banking systems like NEFT or RTGS, such as immediate processing, 24-hour accessibility, and the ability to transfer funds to both bank accounts and mobile wallets. It supports both intra-bank and inter-bank transfers, making it suitable for sending money across different financial institutions. Users need only a mobile number linked with the bank account (via MMID or mobile number) to send funds, and the entire process is completed within minutes.

IMPS is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and supports small-value transactions as well as high-value ones, depending on the customer’s bank policies. The system is accessible through multiple platforms such as SMS, mobile apps, and online banking. One of its key features is that the sender and recipient do not need to have the same bank account, as long as the transaction is routed through IMPS-enabled bank networks.

IMPS has revolutionized digital payments in India, offering a secure, fast, and efficient means for individuals and businesses to conduct real-time financial transactions without the usual delays seen in traditional banking methods.

Benefits of IMPS (Immediate Payment Service)

• Instant Fund Transfers

IMPS is designed for real-time processing, meaning that fund transfers are completed almost instantly, unlike other systems like NEFT or RTGS that may take hours or even days. This immediacy is particularly valuable for emergency situations and urgent business payments4/7 Availability

One of the most significant advantages of IMPS is its round-the-clock availability, including on weekends and holidays. This ensures that transactions can be made at any time, offering unmatched convenience compared to traditional banking services which have specific operating hours .

• Across Multiple Channels

IMPS can be accessed through multiple platforms: mobile apps, internet banking, SMS, and even ATMs. This multi-channel accessibility makes it easy for users to initiate transactions from virtually anywhere and at any time .

• Low-Cost

IMPS offers affordable transaction charges compared to other payment systems like RTGS. This makes it a cost-effective option for both individuals and businesses, especially for small-value transfers.

• Mobile Number Bases

IMPS allows users to send funds using a mobile number linked to a bank account (through MMID), reducing the need for complicated bank account details. This simplifies the process, especially for those who are not as familiar with traditional banking systems.

• Secure Transactions

Highly secure, leveraging the latest encryption and security protocols. This ensures that all payments are safeguarded against fraud and unauthorized access, which is crucial for maintaining trust in the system.

• Supports Both Small and Large Transactions:

Accommodates a wide range of transaction values, from small remittances to larger business payments. Banks may have their own limits, but the flexibility of the system allows for scalability across diverse user needs.

• Convenient for Bill Payments

IMPS can also be used payments, such as utility bills, mobile recharges, and subscription payments, offering users a fast, easy way to handle their recurring payments without delays.

Features of IMPS

The IMPS payment facility offers a number of features that are highly beneficial in the digital world. These are listed as follows:

• Supports dual platforms:

IMPS payment transfer facility can be accessed as per the user’s convenience on the dual platforms of mobile and the web. This means that IMPS can be used through a mobile app or through accessing the internet through any other medium. However, it must be noted that using IMPS via the web might require you to provide additional details.

• Instant Fund Transfer:

IMPS transactions are quick and fast. This is because the IMPS transactions are made instantly, without any hindrance. Even in case of technical errors, it doesn’t take more than an hour for the successful transfer of funds via IMPS.

• Availability:

The best part about IMPS payments is that funds can be transferred anytime. Thus, the user is not bound to remember the bank or public holidays to make a transfer of funds. IMPS payments are available 24*7 and 365 days in a year, irrespective of a Sunday or any holiday.

• Safe and Secure:

IMPS transactions are safe and secure in comparison to physical transfer of funds using deposit slips. This is because IMPS can be accessed at the comfort of one’s privacy, while transferring funds via deposit slips might prompt frauds to misuse various information. In addition to that, it must be noted the IMPS transactions are protected on the internet using the end-to-end encryptions and firewalled servers. Thus, they are safe and secure in every sense.

• Multiple Confirmations:

On successful payment of funds via IMPS, the user gets a confirmation from the bank as well as from the mobile banking application. Further, the details regarding the credit and debit of funds are sent to both the receiver and the sender. Thus, there is the least chance of confusion.

Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a real-time payment system developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to facilitate instant fund transfers between bank accounts using mobile devices. UPI enables users to send and receive money, pay bills, and make online purchases without requiring traditional banking details like account numbers or IFSC codes. Transactions are initiated through mobile applications using a Virtual Payment Address (VPA), ensuring security and convenience. UPI supports multiple banks within a single interface, allowing interoperability and 24/7 instant settlement. It integrates features like QR code scanning, recurring payments, and peer-to-peer transfers, making it highly versatile for both individuals and businesses. With strong authentication, encrypted communication, and real-time processing, UPI has transformed digital payments in India, promoting cashless transactions and financial inclusion nationwide.

Characteristics of Unified Payments Interface (UPI):

• Real-Time Transactions

UPI enables instant fund transfers between bank accounts, 24/7, including holidays. Payments are processed in real time, allowing users to send or receive money immediately. This eliminates delays associated with traditional methods like NEFT or RTGS. Real-time processing enhances convenience for peer-to-peer transfers, online shopping, bill payments, and merchant transactions. It supports instant confirmation and notifications, improving transparency and user experience. Businesses benefit from faster settlement, while consumers enjoy immediate access to funds. The speed and reliability of real-time transactions are key characteristics that make UPI a highly efficient digital payment system.

• Single Mobile Application

UPI integrates multiple bank accounts into a single mobile application, allowing users to manage all transactions from one platform. Instead of switching between different bank apps, users can view balances, transfer funds, and pay bills through a unified interface. This simplifies financial management, improves accessibility, and reduces complexity. Users can link accounts from different banks, making UPI a convenient tool for both personal and business use. The single-app model enhances usability, streamlines transaction processes, and provides a centralized platform for monitoring and executing secure digital payments efficiently.

• Virtual Payment Address (VPA)

UPI uses a Virtual Payment Address (VPA) as a unique identifier, eliminating the need to share sensitive banking details like account numbers or IFSC codes. VPAs simplify transactions and improve security by allowing users to link their bank accounts with an easily memorable ID, such as “name@bank.” This reduces the risk of errors during fund transfers and ensures confidentiality of financial information. VPA acts as a proxy for the bank account, enabling smooth, secure, and fast payments. It is central to UPI’s ease of use and wide adoption in digital payment ecosystems.

• Interoperability

UPI supports interoperability across multiple banks, allowing seamless fund transfers between accounts held at different financial institutions. Users are not restricted to a single bank, promoting convenience and flexibility. Interoperability ensures that merchants and consumers can transact easily without worrying about bank compatibility. It also facilitates integration with third-party apps, e-commerce platforms, and payment service providers. This characteristic enhances financial inclusion, expands user access, and creates a robust ecosystem for digital payments. Interoperability is a core feature that distinguishes UPI from other traditional banking methods.

• Security and Authentication

UPI employs strong security measures, including two-factor authentication, PINs, and encrypted communication, to protect user accounts and transactions. Each transaction is authenticated using a UPI PIN, ensuring that only authorized users can execute payments. Sensitive information, such as account details and VPA data, is securely encrypted during transmission. These security protocols reduce the risk of fraud, unauthorized access, and data breaches. The combination of encryption, authentication, and secure network channels ensures that UPI transactions are safe, reliable, and trustworthy, making it a preferred method for digital payments.

• Versatility in Payments

UPI supports multiple types of transactions, including peer-to-peer transfers, bill payments, online purchases, merchant payments, and QR code-based payments. Users can send money to friends, pay utility bills, or shop online without needing separate apps or payment methods. UPI’s versatility makes it suitable for individuals, businesses, and service providers. It also allows recurring payments and integration with e-commerce platforms. This characteristic enhances convenience, reduces the need for cash, and promotes adoption across diverse digital payment scenarios. UPI’s ability to handle varied transaction types makes it a comprehensive solution for modern commerce.

• 24/7 Availability

UPI operates round-the-clock, including weekends and bank holidays, allowing users to initiate and receive payments at any time. Unlike traditional banking channels, UPI transactions are not restricted to business hours. This availability ensures uninterrupted financial operations, supporting both personal and business needs. Continuous access enhances customer satisfaction, improves cash flow management, and encourages adoption in daily commerce. The 24/7 service characteristic is crucial for instant payments, global transactions, and emergency fund transfers, making UPI a highly flexible and reliable digital payment system.

• Cost–Effective and Efficient

UPI transactions are usually free or incur minimal charges, making it a cost-effective alternative to traditional banking methods like NEFT or RTGS. It reduces the need for cash handling, paperwork, and manual reconciliation. Efficiency is achieved through instant settlement, automation, and integration with multiple banks in a single interface. Cost-effectiveness and efficiency make UPI attractive for individuals, small businesses, and large enterprises alike. These characteristics encourage widespread adoption, enhance financial inclusion, and streamline both peer-to-peer and business-to-consumer digital transactions across India.

Working of Unified Payments Interface (UPI):

• Initiation by User

The UPI transaction begins when the user opens a UPI-enabled app and initiates a payment. They enter the recipient’s Virtual Payment Address (VPA), scan a QR code, or use account/IFSC details. The user confirms the amount and authorizes the transaction using their UPI PIN. This ensures authentication and consent for the transfer. The app encrypts transaction details before sending them to the user’s bank, maintaining confidentiality and security. By initiating payment through a secure platform, the user ensures the transaction starts safely, laying the foundation for secure, real-time fund transfer.

• Bank Validation

The user’s bank (remitting bank) receives the encrypted transaction request and validates it. The bank verifies the UPI PIN, account balance, and transaction details. Authentication ensures that only authorized users can initiate payments. The bank then sends the request securely to the NPCI’s central switch for routing to the beneficiary bank. During this stage, encryption ensures that sensitive information remains confidential, preventing interception or fraud. Validation is critical to ensure accuracy, legitimacy, and security of the transaction before the funds are processed for transfer.

• Routing via NPCI

The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) acts as a central switch to route the transaction from the remitting bank to the beneficiary bank. It ensures interoperability across multiple banks and handles transaction messaging securely and efficiently. NPCI verifies the transaction format, encryption, and authentication, forwarding the request to the recipient’s bank. This central routing allows seamless transactions regardless of the banks involved. By acting as a neutral intermediary, NPCI guarantees that funds reach the correct beneficiary account while maintaining security, real-time processing, and transaction integrity throughout the UPI payment flow.

• Beneficiary Bank Processing

The beneficiary bank receives the transaction request and verifies account validity, ensuring that the funds can be credited. The bank confirms the recipient details, credit availability, and transaction authenticity. Once verified, the amount is credited to the recipient’s account immediately. Both the sending and receiving banks update their records and generate transaction confirmations. Secure encryption and authentication at this stage maintain confidentiality and integrity. This step completes the fund transfer, ensuring accuracy and reliability. The instant settlement is a key feature of UPI, providing immediate confirmation to both parties.

• Confirmation and Notification

After successful transfer, both the sender and recipient receive confirmation messages via the UPI app or SMS. The notification includes transaction details like amount, time, and reference ID. This ensures transparency, accountability, and traceability. Users can verify the successful completion of the transaction and reconcile records. Instant notifications also alert users in case of any errors or failures, reducing the risk of disputes. By providing real-time updates and confirmations, UPI strengthens trust, ensures clarity, and enhances the user experience in digital payment processes.

Types of UPI Payments:

• Peer–to–Peer (P2P) Payments

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) payments allow individuals to transfer money directly from one bank account to another using UPI. Users can send funds to friends, family, or acquaintances instantly by entering a Virtual Payment Address (VPA), mobile number, or scanning a QR code. This type of payment is widely used for personal transactions, bill sharing, or splitting expenses. P2P payments are fast, secure, and require minimal details, eliminating the need for traditional banking information. Real-time processing and instant notifications make P2P transfers convenient, transparent, and reliable for everyday digital transactions.

• Peer–to–Merchant (P2M) Payments

Peer-to-Merchant (P2M) payments enable consumers to pay businesses or merchants using UPI for goods and services. Users can scan merchant QR codes or enter merchant VPAs to complete payments instantly. This method eliminates cash handling and card payments, promoting digital transactions. P2M payments are widely used in retail stores, e-commerce platforms, restaurants, and service providers. They provide convenience, security, and real-time confirmation for both customers and merchants. By facilitating instant settlements, P2M payments improve business cash flow while offering a seamless, contactless payment experience for consumers.

• Bill Payments

UPI allows users to pay recurring bills such as electricity, water, mobile recharge, and subscription services directly through the app. Users can schedule payments or make one-time transactions using UPI-enabled platforms. This type of payment simplifies bill management, reduces delays, and ensures timely settlement. Secure authentication and encryption protect sensitive account details during transactions. Bill payments via UPI eliminate the need for multiple apps or physical visits, streamlining financial management for individuals and households. Real-time confirmation and reminders enhance convenience, reliability, and trust in digital payments for routine expenses.

• Merchant Payments via QR Code

UPI supports payments through QR codes, allowing consumers to pay merchants quickly without entering details manually. Merchants generate a unique QR code linked to their bank account, which customers scan using their UPI app. The transaction amount is entered, authenticated with a UPI PIN, and processed instantly. QR-based payments are secure, reduce errors, and speed up transactions in retail shops, restaurants, and service outlets. This method promotes contactless payments, improves efficiency, and simplifies reconciliation for merchants. It also enhances user convenience, supporting faster adoption of digital commerce and cashless transactions.

• Recurring Payments

UPI allows users to set up recurring or automated payments for subscriptions, EMIs, or periodic services. Once authorized, payments are automatically deducted on scheduled dates without manual intervention. This ensures timely settlement, reduces missed payments, and improves convenience for both consumers and service providers. Secure authentication and encryption maintain privacy and prevent unauthorized access. Recurring payments via UPI simplify financial management, help track expenses, and ensure uninterrupted service for subscription-based services. This feature enhances efficiency and user experience while promoting widespread adoption of digital payment methods.

• International Payments (UPI Cross–Border)

UPI is expanding to support cross-border transactions, enabling users to pay or receive funds internationally. Through partnerships with foreign banks and payment networks, UPI allows seamless currency conversion and instant transfers abroad. International UPI payments provide convenience, real-time processing, and lower transaction costs compared to traditional remittance methods. Secure encryption, authentication, and compliance with regulations ensure safe global transactions. This feature supports e-commerce, freelancers, and businesses dealing with overseas clients, extending UPI’s usability beyond domestic boundaries and promoting digital financial inclusion on an international scale.

Blockchain is a decentralized digital ledger technology that records transactions across a distributed network of computers. It enables secure, transparent, and tamper-resistant record-keeping by grouping transactions into “blocks,” which are then linked in a chronological order to form a chain. Each block contains a list of transactions, and once data is entered into the blockchain, it becomes virtually immutable. This makes blockchain highly secure, as altering any single block would require changing all subsequent blocks, which is computationally infeasible without consensus from the majority of the network.

Blockchain technology gained prominence as the underlying structure for Bitcoin, the first decentralized cryptocurrency introduced by an anonymous individual or group of people under the pseudonym “Satoshi Nakamoto” in 2008. Nakamoto’s whitepaper, Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System, laid out the idea of a blockchain that would secure and verify transactions without the need for a central authority, such as a bank.

Since the inception of Bitcoin, blockchain has evolved beyond cryptocurrencies and is now being applied in various sectors, including supply chain management, voting systems, and healthcare, due to its ability to provide transparent, secure, and efficient solutions.

Uses of Block Chain:

• Cryptocurrency:

The most well-known use of blockchain is in cryptocurrency, particularly Bitcoin. Blockchain allows decentralized transactions, ensuring that users can transfer funds securely without the need for a central authority like a bank. Other cryptocurrencies, like Ethereum and Ripple, also use blockchain to facilitate peer-to-peer payments.

• Supply Chain Management:

Blockchain provides an immutable record of transactions, making it ideal for tracking goods throughout the supply chain. By recording each step of the supply chain process, from raw materials to finished products, blockchain ensures transparency, reduces fraud, and improves efficiency.

• Smart Contracts:

Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into lines of code. These contracts automatically execute and enforce the terms once predefined conditions are met. This application is commonly used on platforms like Ethereum to ensure secure transactions and agreements without intermediaries.

• Voting Systems:

Blockchain can be used to create tamper-proof electronic voting systems. By recording votes on a blockchain, the voting process becomes more transparent and secure, helping to reduce fraud and ensuring that each vote is counted accurately.

• Healthcare:

Blockchain can improve data management in healthcare by providing a secure, centralized database for patient records. It ensures that patient data is encrypted, accessible only to authorized users, and immutable, which enhances privacy and prevents data tampering.

• Identity Verification:

Blockchain can be used to create secure digital identities. These identities are encrypted and stored on a blockchain, allowing individuals to control their personal data and share it securely without relying on a centralized authority, thus reducing identity theft and fraud.

• Intellectual Property Protection:

Blockchain helps in protecting intellectual property by recording ownership and transactions related to creative works. Artists, musicians, and other creators can use blockchain to prove ownership of their work and ensure they receive royalties when their work is used or sold.

• Financial Services and Banking:

Blockchain enables faster, cheaper, and more secure cross-border payments by eliminating intermediaries. It can also streamline processes like loan disbursements, fraud detection, and regulatory compliance, enhancing efficiency within the financial sector.

Scope of Blockchain:

• User Control:

With decentralization, users now have control over their properties. They don’t have to rely on any third party to maintain their assets. All of them can do it simultaneously by themselves.

• Less Failure:

Everything in the blockchain is fully organized, and as it doesn’t depend on human calculations it’s highly fault-tolerant. So, accidental failures of this system are not a usual output.

• Less Prone to Breakdown:

As decentralized is one of the key features of blockchain technology, it can survive any malicious attack. This is because attacking the system is more expensive for hackers and not an easy solution. So, it’s less likely to breakdown.

• Zero Scams:

As the system runs on algorithms, there is no chance for people to scam you out of anything. No one can utilize blockchain for their personal gains.

• No Third-Party:

Decentralized nature of the technology makes it a system that doesn’t rely on third-party companies; No third-party, no added risk.

• Authentic Nature:

This nature of the system makes it a unique kind of system for every kind of person. And hackers will have a hard time cracking it.

• Transparency:

The decentralized nature of technology creates a transparent profile of every participant. Every change on the blockchain is viewable and makes it more concrete.

Cheque Truncation System (CTS) is an electronic clearing system introduced by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in 2010 to streamline and digitize the cheque clearing process. CTS eliminates the physical movement of cheques between banks and clearinghouses, replacing it with a digital image and associated data transmitted electronically. This system significantly enhances efficiency, reduces processing time, minimizes the risk of cheque fraud, and ensures faster fund settlements.

CTS system involves truncating, or stopping, the physical flow of a cheque from the presenting bank to the paying bank. Instead of physically transferring the cheque, the presenting bank captures its digital image along with necessary details like the Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) data and transmits it to the paying bank electronically.

Paper to Follow (PTF) was initially introduced as part of CTS in cases requiring physical cheque verification. However, over time, the reliance on PTF has diminished as banks and systems became more adept at handling digital processes, and most transactions are now entirely paperless.

Key Objectives of CTS:

1. Efficiency in Clearing: By digitizing the process, CTS ensures faster clearing of cheques compared to the traditional manual system.
2. Fraud Prevention: Secure transmission of images and associated data reduces the risk of cheque fraud and tampering.
3. Cost Reduction: Eliminating physical cheque movement reduces transportation and processing costs.
4. Enhanced Customer Service: Faster processing leads to quicker fund availability for customers.
5. Standardization: Promotes uniform cheque issuance and processing standards across all banks.

How CTS Works?

1. Cheque Presentation:

   • The customer deposits the cheque at the bank.
   • The presenting bank captures a high-quality scanned image of the cheque along with relevant data.

2. Image and Data Transmission:

   • The scanned image and associated data, including MICR details, are securely transmitted to the clearinghouse.
   • The clearinghouse validates and processes the data before sending it to the paying bank.

3. Verification and Settlement:

   • The paying bank reviews the digital image and associated data to verify the cheque’s authenticity and funds availability.
   • If valid, the payment is processed, and funds are transferred electronically.

Role of Paper to Follow (PTF)

When CTS was introduced, Paper to Follow (PTF) acted as a fallback mechanism. In certain cases where additional verification was required, the physical cheque was sent to the paying bank after the initial electronic transmission.

However, with advancements in digital imaging and improved cheque standards, the reliance on PTF has decreased. Today, banks primarily rely on digital images for clearing, making the process faster and more secure. PTF is now considered only in exceptional cases, such as disputes or legal proceedings.

Features of CTS

• Truncation:

Eliminates the physical movement of cheques between banks and clearinghouses.

• Secure Data Transmission:

Uses encryption and digital signatures to ensure data integrity and confidentiality.

• Standardized Formats:

All cheques follow a standardized format for easier image capturing and processing.

• MICR Encoding:

Mandatory MICR code facilitates easy and quick identification of the bank branch.

• Image Exchange:

High-resolution images are exchanged electronically between banks and clearinghouses.

Benefits of CTS

• Time-Saving:

Traditional cheque clearing took 2–3 days, while CTS enables same-day or next-day clearing.

• Cost-Effective:

Reduces transportation and manual handling costs associated with physical cheque clearing.

• Enhanced Security:

Secure electronic transmission minimizes the risk of fraud or unauthorized alterations.

• Convenience for Customers:

Faster processing ensures quicker fund availability for cheque holders.

• Uniform Standards:

Cheque standardization improves processing efficiency and reduces errors.

Challenges of CTS

• Technological Dependency:

Requires robust IT infrastructure and skilled personnel at all participating banks.

• Initial Setup Costs:

Investment in scanners, software, and training for bank staff.

• Fraud Risks in Image Manipulation:

Although minimized, risks of image forgery or tampering remain a concern.

• Adoption Resistance:

Smaller banks and rural branches may face challenges in adopting the system.

Impact of CTS on the Banking Sector

The implementation of CTS has revolutionized cheque clearing in India, making it faster, more reliable, and cost-efficient. It has streamlined the operations of banks by reducing manual interventions and standardizing processes. The system also enhances the customer experience by ensuring quick fund transfers and improved fraud detection mechanisms.

Legal Framework

CTS operates under the provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, amended to support electronic cheque clearing. Banks must adhere to RBI guidelines regarding cheque imaging, transmission, and security standards.

Cyberspace

Cyberspace is a concept describing a widespread interconnected digital technology. “The expression dates back from the first decade of the diffusion of the internet. It refers to the online world as a world ‘apart’, as distinct from everyday reality. In cyberspace people can hide behind fake identities, as in the famous The New Yorker cartoon.” The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, government, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a national environment in which communication over computer networks occurs. The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term cyberspace was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging.

As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. They are sometimes referred to as cybernauts. The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The United States government recognizes the interconnected information technology and the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics. Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically, when opinions are involved with online social experiences.

While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to “exist in cyberspace”. According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but “in cyberspace”. The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias, to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental.

Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not “real”, since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object, and clearly “real” in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity were enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between “online” and “offline” forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the “real” and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool but a social destination and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through “hidden” identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture.

Cyberspace brings in many uses. It lets you do everything possible through the internet. Be it education, military, finance, or even education today everything is connected to what is known as cyberspace. There is not a single sphere in our life that is not connected to social media.

The internet has made it efficient to store and to handle data. It has made man’s life organized and more systematic. Be it for e-banking or booking tickets or even to work online, cyberspace is everywhere.

Private hands mostly develop and maintain cyberspace infrastructure. We are all online but no international or centralized authority contains what occurs on the internet or how cyberspace is managed and structured. There are submarine cables that transmit the data making use of fiber optic technology. These submarine cables are the major carriers of data and they transmit lots of data cheaply and quickly.

Digital Signature

A digital signature is a mathematical technique used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a message, software or digital document. It’s the digital equivalent of a handwritten signature or stamped seal, but it offers far more inherent security. A digital signature is intended to solve the problem of tampering and impersonation in digital communications.

Digital signatures can provide evidence of origin, identity and status of electronic documents, transactions or digital messages. Signers can also use them to acknowledge informed consent.

A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for verifying the authenticity of digital messages or documents. A valid digital signature, where the prerequisites are satisfied, gives a recipient very strong reason to believe that the message was created by a known sender (authentication), and that the message was not altered in transit (integrity).

Digital signatures are a standard element of most cryptographic protocol suites, and are commonly used for software distribution, financial transactions, contract management software, and in other cases where it is important to detect forgery or tampering.

Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, which includes any electronic data that carries the intent of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures. In some countries, including Canada, South Africa, the United States, Algeria, Turkey, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Uruguay, Switzerland, Chile and the countries of the European Union, electronic signatures have legal significance.

Digital signatures employ asymmetric cryptography. In many instances, they provide a layer of validation and security to messages sent through a non-secure channel: Properly implemented, a digital signature gives the receiver reason to believe the message was sent by the claimed sender. Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional handwritten signatures in many respects, but properly implemented digital signatures are more difficult to forge than the handwritten type. Digital signature schemes, in the sense used here, are cryptographically based, and must be implemented properly to be effective. They can also provide non-repudiation, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret. Further, some non-repudiation schemes offer a timestamp for the digital signature, so that even if the private key is exposed, the signature is valid. Digitally signed messages may be anything representable as a bitstring: examples include electronic mail, contracts, or a message sent via some other cryptographic protocol.

There are several reasons to sign such a hash (or message digest) instead of the whole document.

For efficiency

The signature will be much shorter and thus save time since hashing is generally much faster than signing in practice.

For compatibility

Messages are typically bit strings, but some signature schemes operate on other domains (such as, in the case of RSA, numbers modulo a composite number N). A hash function can be used to convert an arbitrary input into the proper format.

For integrity

Without the hash function, the text “to be signed” may have to be split (separated) in blocks small enough for the signature scheme to act on them directly. However, the receiver of the signed blocks is not able to recognize if all the blocks are present and in the appropriate order.