National income Analysis and Measurement

National income refers to the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders over a specific period, typically a year. It serves as a crucial indicator of a country’s economic performance and standard of living. In India, national income is measured using various methods, including the production approach, income approach, and expenditure approach.

A. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the most commonly used measure of national income and represents the total value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders during a specified period, usually a year. In India, GDP is calculated using both production and expenditure approaches.

Key Features of GDP:

• Domestic Focus: It includes only the goods and services produced within the country, regardless of the nationality of the producer.

• Final Goods Only: It counts only final goods and services to avoid double counting (intermediate goods are excluded).

• Market Value: Goods and services are evaluated at current market prices.

• Time-bound: GDP is always measured over a specific time period (quarterly or annually).

• Inclusive of All Sectors: It includes the output of the agriculture, industrial, and service sectors.

Methods of Calculating GDP:

There are three main methods to calculate GDP:

1. Production (Output) Method

• Measures the total value added at each stage of production across all sectors.
• GDP = Gross Value of Output – Value of Intermediate Consumption

2. Income Method

• Sums up all incomes earned by factors of production (wages, rent, interest, profit).
• GDP = Compensation to employees + Operating surplus + Mixed income

Expenditure Method

• Adds up all expenditures made on final goods and services.
• GDP = C + I + G + (X – M)
  Where:
  C = Consumption
  I = Investment
  G = Government Expenditure
  X = Exports
  M = Imports

Types of GDP:

1. Nominal GDP

• Measured at current market prices, without adjusting for inflation.

• It reflects price changes and not actual growth.

2. Real GDP

• Adjusted for inflation or deflation.

• Shows the true growth in volume of goods and services.

3. GDP at Market Price (GDPMP)

• Includes indirect taxes and excludes subsidies.

4. GDP at Factor Cost (GDPFC)

• GDPMP – Indirect Taxes + Subsidies

• Reflects the income earned by the factors of production.

Significance of GDP:

• Indicator of Economic Health: Higher GDP indicates a growing economy.

• Comparison Tool: Enables comparison of economies across countries or time periods.

• Policy Planning: Governments use GDP data to design fiscal and monetary policies.

• Investment Decisions: Investors rely on GDP trends for market analysis and forecasting.

Limitations of GDP:

• Ignores Income Distribution: Doesn’t show inequality or poverty levels.

• Non-Market Activities Excluded: Housework or informal sector contributions are not counted.

• Environmental Degradation: GDP growth may come at the cost of resource depletion.

• Underground Economy: Unrecorded economic activities are not included.

Components of GDP:

In India, GDP is composed of several components, including:

• Consumption (C)

Expenditure on goods and services by households, including spending on food, housing, healthcare, education, and other consumer goods.

• Investment (I)

Expenditure on capital goods such as machinery, equipment, construction, and infrastructure, including both private and public sector investment.

• Government Spending (G)

Expenditure by the government on goods and services, including salaries, public infrastructure, defense, and social welfare programs.

• Net Exports (NX)

The difference between exports and imports of goods and services. A positive value indicates a trade surplus, while a negative value indicates a trade deficit.

Sectorial Composition of GDP:

India’s GDP is composed of several sectors:

• Agriculture

This sector includes farming, forestry, fishing, and livestock, and contributes to food security, rural livelihoods, and raw material supply for industries.

• Industry

The industrial sector encompasses manufacturing, mining, construction, and utilities. It drives economic growth, employment generation, and technological advancement.

• Services

The services sector includes trade, transport, communication, finance, real estate, professional services, and government services. It accounts for a significant share of GDP and employment and plays a crucial role in supporting other sectors.

B. Gross National Product (GNP)

Gross National Product (GNP) is the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced by the residents (nationals) of a country in a given period (usually a year), regardless of where the production takes place—whether within the domestic economy or abroad.

In other words, GNP = GDP + Net Factor Income from Abroad (NFIA).

Net Factor Income from Abroad (NFIA) includes:

• Income earned by residents abroad (wages, dividends, interest, etc.)

• Minus income earned by foreigners within the domestic territory

GNP = GDP + (Income earned from abroad − Income paid to foreigners)

Key Characteristics of GNP:

• Nationality-Based: Focuses on ownership, not geography. It includes income earned by citizens and businesses of a country, even if earned outside its borders.

• Includes Net Factor Income: Takes into account factor incomes (wages, rent, interest, profits) earned internationally.

• Reflects Economic Strength Globally: Measures a nation’s economic contribution globally, especially helpful for countries with high overseas employment or investments.

• Measured Annually or Quarterly: Like GDP, GNP is also calculated over a specific time period.

Example to Understand GNP

Suppose:

• India’s GDP = ₹250 lakh crore

• Income earned by Indian citizens abroad = ₹15 lakh crore

• Income earned by foreigners in India = ₹10 lakh crore

Then:

GNP = ₹250 + ₹15 − ₹10 = ₹255 lakh crore

Types of GNP:

• GNP at Market Prices (GNPMP): Includes indirect taxes and excludes subsidies.

• GNP at Factor Cost (GNPFC):

  GNP at Factor Cost = GN at Market Price − Indirect Taxes + Subsidies

Importance of GNP:

• Measures National Income Globally: Indicates the economic strength of a nation including overseas activities.

• Helps in Policy Formulation: Useful for countries with significant remittances or foreign business operations.

• Comparative Analysis: Helpful for comparing resident income versus domestic production (GNP vs GDP).

• Better Measure for Some Economies: For countries with many overseas workers (e.g., Philippines, India), GNP may reflect actual income inflow more accurately than GDP.

Limitations of GNP:

• Neglects Domestic Productivity: May overstate or understate true economic strength if NFIA is volatile.

• Difficulties in Measuring NFIA: Tracking international incomes can be inaccurate or delayed.

• Not a Welfare Indicator: Like GDP, GNP doesn’t reflect inequality, environmental damage, or well-being.

• Ignores Informal Economy: Unregistered businesses and informal work are excluded.

C. Net National Product (NNP)

Net National Product (NNP) is the monetary value of all final goods and services produced by the residents of a country in a given period (usually one year), after accounting for depreciation (also known as capital consumption allowance).

It is derived from Gross National Product (GNP) by subtracting the depreciation of capital goods.

NNP = GNP − Depreciation

Features of NNP:

• Reflects Net Output: It shows the net production of an economy after maintaining the existing capital stock.

• Depreciation-Adjusted: More accurate than GNP or GDP because it adjusts for capital consumption.

• Residents’ Contribution: Includes production by nationals both domestically and abroad.

• Indicates Sustainability: Provides insight into how sustainable a country’s production is over time.

Example

Let’s say:

• GNP of a country = ₹280 lakh crore

• Depreciation = ₹30 lakh crore

Then:

NNP = ₹280 − ₹30 = ₹250 lakh crore

If Indirect Taxes = ₹12 lakh crore, Subsidies = ₹2 lakh crore:

Then:

NNPFC = ₹250 − ₹12 + ₹2 = ₹240 lakh crore

This ₹240 lakh crore is also called the National Income.

D. Personal Income (PI)

Personal Income refers to the total income received by individuals or households in a country from all sources before the payment of personal taxes. It includes all earnings from wages, salaries, investments, rents, interest, and transfer payments such as pensions, unemployment benefits, and subsidies.

In simple terms, Personal Income is the income available to individuals before paying taxes, but after adding transfer incomes and excluding undistributed profits and other non-receivable incomes.

Formula to Calculate Personal Income

Personal Income = National Income − Corporate Taxes − Undistributed Corporate Profits + Transfer Payments

Where:

• National Income (NI) is the total income earned by a country’s residents.
• Corporate Taxes are taxes paid by companies on their profits.
• Undistributed Corporate Profits are profits retained by companies.
• Transfer Payments include pensions, subsidies, and social security benefits.

Components of Personal Income:

• Wages and Salaries: Earnings from employment.

• Rent: Income from letting out property or land.

• Interest: Returns from savings or investments in bonds.

• Dividends: Income from shares in corporations.

• Transfer Payments: Pensions, unemployment benefits, welfare payments, etc.

• Proprietors’ Income: Profits from unincorporated businesses.

Importance of Personal Income:

• Indicator of Economic Well-Being: Personal Income reflects how much money people actually receive, indicating living standards and household purchasing power.
• Guides Taxation Policies: Governments use PI to design progressive tax policies and to decide on tax brackets for individuals.
• Helps in Consumption Analysis: Since consumption is closely linked with income, PI helps in forecasting demand patterns and consumer spending trends.
• Useful in Social Welfare Planning: Helps to identify income disparities and plan welfare programs such as subsidies or unemployment benefits.

E. Personal Disposable Income (PDI)

Personal Disposable Income (PDI) refers to the amount of money left with individuals or households after paying all personal direct taxes such as income tax. It is the net income available for consumption and savings.

In simple terms, PDI = Personal Income – Personal Taxes.

It represents the real purchasing power of households and is a crucial indicator of consumer behavior and economic demand.

Components of PDI:

• Wages and Salaries – After-tax income from employment.

• Transfer Payments – Net of any taxes (e.g., pensions, unemployment benefits).

• Investment Income – Interest, dividends, and rent received after taxes.

• Proprietors’ Income – Profits earned by individuals in business, minus personal tax.

Importance of Personal Disposable Income:

• Measures Purchasing Power: PDI directly reflects how much individuals can spend or save, making it a key driver of consumer demand in the economy.
• Helps in Demand Forecasting: Analysts use PDI trends to predict changes in consumption patterns, which guide production and marketing strategies.
• Supports Economic Planning: Government can design policies like stimulus packages or tax reliefs based on changes in PDI to boost spending.
• Indicates Economic Welfare: Rising PDI is a sign of improved living standards, while declining PDI may indicate growing tax burdens or inflation effects.

F. Gross Value Added (GVA)

Gross Value Added (GVA) is a measure of the value added by various sectors of the economy in the production process. It represents the difference between the value of output and the value of intermediate consumption. GVA provides insights into the contribution of different sectors to the overall economy.

G. Gross National Income (GNI)

Gross National Income (GNI) measures the total income earned by a country’s residents, including both domestic and international sources. It includes GDP plus net income from abroad, such as remittances, interest, dividends, and other payments received from overseas.

H. Net National Income (NNI)

Net National Income (NNI) is derived from GNI by subtracting depreciation or the value of capital consumption. NNI reflects the net income generated by a country’s residents after accounting for the depreciation of capital assets.

I. Per Capita Income

Per Capita Income is calculated by dividing the total national income (such as GDP or GNI) by the population of the country. It represents the average income earned per person and serves as a measure of the standard of living and economic welfare.

Trends and Challenges:

India’s national income and its aggregates have witnessed significant growth and transformation over the years. However, the country faces various challenges:

• Income Inequality

Disparities in income distribution persist, with a significant portion of the population facing poverty and economic deprivation.

• Sectoral Disparities

There are wide gaps in development and productivity across different sectors and regions, with disparities between rural and urban areas.

• Unemployment and Underemployment

India grapples with high levels of unemployment and underemployment, particularly among youth and marginalized communities.

• Infrastructure Deficit

Inadequate infrastructure, including transportation, energy, and digital connectivity, hampers economic growth and competitiveness.

• Environmental Sustainability

Rapid economic growth has led to environmental degradation, pollution, and resource depletion, necessitating sustainable development practices.

• Policy Reforms

Structural reforms and policy initiatives are required to address bottlenecks, promote investment, boost productivity, and enhance competitiveness.

Government Initiatives:

The Indian government has introduced various policies and initiatives to promote economic growth, employment generation, and inclusive development:

• Make in India

A flagship initiative aimed at boosting manufacturing, promoting investment, and enhancing competitiveness.

• Digital India

A program focused on digital infrastructure, e-governance, and digital empowerment to drive technological advancement and digital inclusion.

• Skill India

A skill development initiative aimed at enhancing the employability of the workforce and bridging the skills gap.

• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

A financial inclusion program aimed at expanding access to banking services, credit, and insurance for marginalized communities.

• Goods and Services Tax (GST)

A comprehensive indirect tax reform aimed at simplifying the tax structure, promoting transparency, and boosting tax compliance.

Methods of Measuring National Income

• Product Approach

In product approach, national income is measured as a flow of goods and services. Value of money for all final goods and services is produced in an economy during a year. Final goods are those goods which are directly consumed and not used in further production process. In our economy product approach benefits various sectors like forestry, agriculture, mining etc to estimate gross and net value.

• Income Approach

In income approach, national income is measured as a flow of factor incomes. Income received by basic factors like labor, capital, land and entrepreneurship are summed up. This approach is also called as income distributed approach.

• Expenditure Approach

This method is known as the final product method. In this method, national income is measured as a flow of expenditure incurred by the society in a particular year. The expenditures are classified as personal consumption expenditure, net domestic investment, government expenditure on goods and services and net foreign investment.

These three approaches to the measurement of national income yield identical results. They provide three alternative methods of measuring essentially the same magnitude.