Category: University of Mumbai BMS Notes

The organization of a sales department is usually based on the nature and size of the enterprise. No two companies have identical sales organizations, because no two have identical needs. The customers, the marketing channels, the company size, the product or production line, the practices of competitors and to personality and abilities of the personnel and different. This way numerous factors influence the individual sales departments.

The chain of command runs from the top sales executives down through subordinates. All executives exercise line authority, and each subordinate is responsible to one person on the next higher level. Responsibility is definitely fixed, and those charged with it also make decisions and take action.

In the following line organization, sales manager acts as the head of the sales department. In a big organization, he is considered as next to the top authority in the chain of command. Divisional, district, or branch managers are appointed to assist the sales manager in his sales functions. They are accountable to the sales manager directly. Salesmen (local and traveling) are appointed to assist these authorities in the selling activities.

1. Structure on Product Basis

When a number of products are to be marketed, the departmentalization of sales organization is based on the nature of the products. Each product is assigned to a department under the charge of a manager. For overall supervision, control and coordination, a General Manager (Sales) is appointed.

On product basis itself, two types of departments can be formed:

• Sales department with line authority subdivided by products (one staff officer for all the products)
• Sales department subdivided by different sales authority (one staff officer for each product).

In the first case, one line authority and staff organization has been formed for the entire sales organization. The General Manger (Sales) reports to Vice-President in charge of marketing. Six subordinates report to the General Manager (Sales). Staff authority for all the products remains with one person. But separate line authority for each product is appointed, namely sales manager, product ‘A’, and sales manager product ‘B’. Staff authority (specialist) is appointed on the basis of sales functions to be performed.

In the second case, for each product, line and staff authority are appointed separately for each product, because of the complexity and technical nature of the product. But it is not necessary always that for each product same number of staff specialist will be appointed.

Organization Structure on product basis has the following merits and demerits:

Merits

(i) Each product gets equal importance in the sales.

(ii) Advantages of specialization and division of work.

(iii) Unnecessary interference in different functions come to an end.

(iv) Easier to assign responsibility to everyone in the sales department.

(v) Comparative evaluation of efficiency of departments is possible.

(vi) The buyers get maximum satisfaction.

Demerits

(i) Difficulty in coordinating the activities of different products/departments.

(ii) Selling costs tend to be higher if the sales at the estimated level are not reached.

(iii) The operational costs will also be higher because of the larger number of employees.

Suitability

Departmentalization on the basis of product is suitable where:

(i) The number of products are many,

(ii) The prices of products are much higher to bear the expenses of different departments, and

(iii) The product are of technical nature.

2. Structure on the Basis of Customers

This type of departmentalization advisable when the nature and types of customers differ. For example, for nature and types of customers differ. For example, for industrial as well as consumer products, different departments can be formed, based on the nature of the departments can be formed, based on the nature of the costumers and the nature of the product.

In this type of structure, the staff authorities (specialist) for all types of customers are similar.

Merits

(i) Sufficient attention can be given to every category of customers.

(ii) Maximum services can be provided to the customers to their satisfaction.

(iii) Sales planning and policies can be made keeping in view of each category of customers.

(iv) Salesmen can be appointed keeping in view of the special features of the customers in each category.

Demerits

(i) The establishment expenses will be too high.

(ii) Controlling and coordination of sales activities create problem.

(iii) Market-oriented structure

(iv) The departmentalization of sales organization may be made on geographical/market basis also. The total sales territory is divided and sub-divided into segments and for each sub­division, a separate sales department is set up. The responsibility of each department is assigned to a Manager. To coordinate and control the activities of respective sub-divisions, a Gen. Manger (sales) is appointed.

3. Structure on the Basis of Market

Merits

(i) Better services can be made available to customers of individual marketing area.

(ii) New product requirements can be identified for each area.

(iii) Transportation cost can be minimized.

(iv) Necessary changes/modification in the products can be suitably made with the specific requirements of a particular market.

(v) Sales plans, policies and marketing efforts can be directed in accordance with the requirements of each market.

(vi) Marketing strategies for each market to deal with competition effectively can be formulated.

(vii) A comparative sales analysis between different zones/territories can be made possible.

(viii) Sales persons with specific qualities, belonging to particular zone, can be appointed keeping in view of the traditions existing in the particular market and can be controlled effectively.

Demerits

(i) Departmentalization of this type is too expensive.

(ii) It is difficult to coordinate the activities of different markets.

(iii) There are chances of conflicts for resources allocation and other facilities between departments.

Suitability

Territorial based departmentalization is suitable in the following situation where:

(i) The market territory is so extensive and substantial,

(ii) There are much difference in the characteristics of each market,

(iii) The products can be differentiated in quality according to market-wise, and

(iv) The total sales are much larger.

4. Structure on the Basis of Functions

In this type of departmentalization, the selling activities are divided according to the functions to be performed, such as, sales planning, management of sales personnel, sales and distribution, advertising and sales promotion, sales analysis, marketing research, etc. In this type of departmentalization, special attention is given to every aspect of the sales activities and, therefore, profits may increase.

Merits

(i) Specialization at different levels could be achieved.

(ii) The number of departmentalization may either be reduced or increased according to the needs.

(iii) Decision-making is quick as far as possible.

(iv) Easy to coordinate between sub-functions, with certain exceptions.

(v) Less expensive, compared to other types of departmentalization.

Demerits

(i) More attention on a particular product cannot be given.

(ii) Functions of sub-departments sometimes get delayed because of their dependence on the other departments.

(iii) Due to increased responsibility on the General Manager (Sales), problem of coordination may arise.

(iv) Problems like non-cooperation, difference of opinion, etc. may exist between departments.

(v) Mal-functioning of a department may affect the efficiency of the organization as a whole.

Suitability

Organization structure on functional basis is suitable in such situations where:

(i) The size of the organization is small,

(ii) There is only limited number of products, and

(iii) There are not much differences in the techniques of production.

5. Structure on Combined Basis

Many big business organizations which produce diversified products and having extensive markets use the combined type of sales department. Such a setup is essential for them to get specialization at every stage of marketing activities. Two or more types of departments (products, market or other types are combined together) are usually combined for this purpose.

Merits

(i) Careful attention to every need of the sales organization is possible.

(ii) There is advantage of specialization.

(iii) Better coordination is possible between products, sales territories, and sales functions.

Demerits

(i) Higher operating costs due to excessive specialization.

(ii) Problems of supervision and control on employees of different departments.

(iii) Problem of communication.

Suitability

The combined type of departmentalization is suitable where:

(i) The size of the sales debarment is so larger

(ii) There are extensive and substantial markets for the product, and

(iii) The company operates with a number of products.

Committee Sales Organization

The committee is never the sole basis for organizing a sales department. It is a method of organizing the executive group for planning and policy formulation; while leaving implementation of plans and policies to individual executives. The committees usually found in sales organizations include training committee, customer relations committee, personnel and merchandising committees, committee on new products, etc.

Merits

The use of committees in the sales department has many advantages:

(i) Before policies are made and action is taken, important problems can be deliberated by the committee members and are measured against varied viewpoints.

(ii) Committees promote coordination among members of the executive team.

(iii) Committees render most important service in providing focal points for discussion and for making good suggestions.

Demerits

There is wastage of time of executives, where the executives are not directly interested in the topics to be considered.

With the growth of technology, it’s crucial that you have an effective Internet marketing plan in place. Internet marketing helps you continue to grow your business. Here are seven reasons why marketing is so important.

1. Your customers are online

Internet marketing is so important because your customers are online. Considering that over 4.2 billion people are on the Internet, it’s a great opportunity for you to reach leads that are looking for your business. There are billions of people online just waiting to find your company.

People use the Internet to find all types of information. They’re constantly conducting searches to find relevant information about businesses, products, and services. By investing in Internet marketing, you’re helping your company reach those interested leads.

As a marketer, you want to reach potential customers where they live, work, shop, get information, and seek entertainment. All of this is wrapped up in one place: The Internet.

Even if you operate locally, your audience is online. That’s why organizations in the healthcare sector, like hospitals, orthopedic surgeons, and more use Internet marketing to promote their services and expand their care.

Internet marketing online is valuable to your business because it helps you connect with leads that are the most interested in your business.

2. It create two-way communication

With traditional advertising, the communication is one-way. You create a TV ad or print ad in a newspaper, and that’s it. You wait and hope that your audience will see your ad and visit your business.

So, what happens if your audience has questions or concerns? What if they want to learn more about your business, product, or service? It’s a hard task to complete when you don’t have a two-way conversation.

The importance of Internet marketing lies in the ability to create two-way communication.

You provide clients with a way to contact your business. Whenever you create a social media post, run a pay-per-click (PPC) ad, or create any form of marketing material, you create the opportunity for people to contact your business.

You can reach customers through several digital marketing channels. If someone sees your PPC ad and has questions, they can find your contact information and reach out to you. They can call, chat, or email your business with questions.

This helps you build a relationship with your audience. You get to know them and open the door of communication for them. It makes them feel more welcomed by your team and company.

This is valuable to your audience because they want to be seen as more than just a number. Customers want to be valued and know that their business matters to you. They choose companies that value them as an individual.

For example, if a consumer or a business is purchasing a brand-new HVAC system, which is a substantial investment, it’s important that they feel comfortable asking questions because it could make or break the sale.

An HVAC marketing strategy could make buyers more at ease by using social media to engage users casually and professionally. Social media would also provide consumers a convenient platform for asking questions, which could then lead to a quote request or one-on-one meeting with a salesperson.

When you have two-way communication, your audience doesn’t view it as you trying to sell them things. Instead, they will see you as a valuable source of information that helps them in the purchasing process.

By building a relationship and opening communication with your audience, you increase their likelihood of becoming customers. It also increases the chances that they will become repeat customers.

Internet marketing is important because it helps you communicate better with your audience.

3. It personalizes your audience’s experience

As we stated previously, your audience wants to feel like they matter to your business. They don’t want to just be another number. Effective Internet marketing creates a custom experience for each member in the audience.

Personalized marketing enables you to customize your audience’s experience. You can create a tailored experience that fits their interests best.

When people find your business, they’re going to come to your company for different reasons.

Some people are interested in one type of product, while others are interested in another type. Personalizing these customers’ experiences to their interests creates a better experience for them.

It’s best to create multiple, personalized marketing pieces than one, general marketing piece.

The ability to personalize your marketing strategy is why Internet marketing is so important to your business. It helps you deliver a better experience for your leads, which turns them into customers.

4. It allows you to drive quality traffic

One of the biggest hurdles with traditional advertising is obtaining interested leads.

When you use traditional advertising, you don’t know how many valuable leads you will reach. Your advertisements appear in front of interested and uninterested leads, which makes it difficult to drive an abundance of quality traffic.

Internet marketing is important because it helps you drive more qualified traffic. You reach more leads that are interested in your business. The ability to target specific leads helps you drive traffic that takes interest in your company.

You can target leads specifically by different characteristics.

Internet marketing allows you to target by demographic information, socioeconomic status, hobbies, interests, or spending habits. You can get very precise with your targeting to ensure that you’re only reaching leads you know will be interested in your business.

Effective Internet marketing will help you reach the right leads at the right time.

5. It increases your business’s visibility

When you want more people to check out your business, you must increase your business’s visibility. It can be challenging to do this through offline tactics because you don’t have much control over who sees your marketing materials.

With online marketing, you expose your business to hundreds of people.

The Internet is constantly marketing for your business. People can access your website or your social media 24/7. This means that your business is visible to your audience at all times.

In addition, you can use other digital marketing methods to reach your audience and increase your brand’s visibility. A few strategies include content marketing, social media marketing, and even video marketing.

Brand visibility means that more people are getting familiar with your business.

When people are more familiar with your business, they’re more likely to choose your business when they’re ready to convert. People choose brands they’re familiar with, so this brand exposure guides them towards choosing your business when they’re ready to convert.

6. It allows you to multitask

The importance of online marketing also includes its ability to run multiple campaigns at once. The Internet makes it easy for you to take on a high level of customers and provide them with a quality experience.

You can handle millions of customers at one time when they’re on your website. Your website can take on multiple transactions, which allows you to obtain more conversions for your business. It’s a great opportunity to grow your business.

In addition, you can run multiple marketing campaigns at once. This means you can reach leads through multiple channels at the same time, maximizing your business’s reach. You’ll earn more valuable leads by investing in Internet marketing.

7. Your competitors are doing it

If you want to remain in competition with your competitors, you must invest in Internet marketing. Your competitors are already investing in different Internet marketing methods and working to obtain new leads.

If you aren’t investing in Internet marketing, you’re falling behind your competition.

To keep up with your competitors, you must establish an effective online marketing campaign. It will help you obtain leads and prevent you from losing them to your competitors.

The term “burnout” was coined in the 1970s by the American psychologist Herbert Freudenberger. He used it to describe the consequences of severe stress and high ideals in “helping” professions. Doctors and nurses, for example, who sacrifice themselves for others, would often end up being “burned out”, exhausted, listless, and unable to cope. There is no clear definition of what burnout really is. As a result, it’s not clear what burnout is exactly and how it can be diagnosed. This also makes it impossible to say how common it is. Various figures appear in the press; some German health insurance companies say that up to nine million people are affected in Germany. These figures should, however, be met with caution: there are no reliable scientific data about how many people have burnout in Germany.

Occupational burnout is a syndrome resulting from chronic work-related stress, with symptoms characterized by “feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one’s job; and reduced professional efficacy.” While burnout may influence health and can be a reason for people contacting health services, it is not itself classified by the WHO as a medical condition.

Subtypes

In 1991, Barry A. Farber in his research on teachers proposed that there are three types of burnout:

• “Wearout” and “brown-out,” where someone gives up having had too much stress and/or too little reward
• “Classic/frenetic burnout,” where someone works harder and harder, trying to resolve the stressful situation and/or seek suitable reward for their work
• “Underchallenged burnout“. where someone has low stress, but the work is unrewarding.

Farber found evidence that the most idealistic teachers who enter the profession are the most likely to suffer burnout.

Risk factors

Evidence suggests that the etiology of burnout is multifactorial, with dispositional factors playing an important, long-overlooked role. Cognitive dispositional factors implicated in depression have also been found to be implicated in burnout. One cause of burnout includes stressors that a person is unable to cope with fully.

Burnout is thought to occur when a mismatch is present between the nature of the job and the job the person is actually doing. A common indication of this mismatch is work overload, which sometimes involves a worker who survives a round of layoffs, but after the layoffs the worker finds that he or she is doing too much with too few resources. Overload may occur in the context of downsizing, which often does not narrow an organization’s goals, but requires fewer employees to meet those goals. The research on downsizing, however, indicates that downsizing has more destructive effects on the health of the workers who survive the layoffs than mere burnout; these health effects include increased levels of sickness and greater risk of mortality.

The job demands-resources model has implications for burnout, as measured by the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI). Physical and psychological job demands were concurrently associated with the exhaustion, as measured by the OLBI. Lack of job resources was associated with the disengagement component of the OLBI.

Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter identified six risk factors for burnout: mismatch in workload, mismatch in control, lack of appropriate awards, loss of a sense of positive connection with others in the workplace, perceived lack of fairness, and conflict between values.

Effects

Some research indicates that burnout is associated with reduced job performance, coronary heart disease, and mental health problems.[citation needed] Examples of emotional symptoms of occupational burnout include a lack of interest in the work being done, a decrease in work performance levels, feelings of helplessness, and trouble sleeping. With regard to mental health problems, research on dentists and physicians suggests that what is meant by burnout is a depressive syndrome. Thus reduced job performance and cardiovascular risk could be related to burnout because of burnout’s tie to depression. Behavioral signs of occupational burnout are demonstrated through cynicism within workplace relationships with coworkers, clients, and the organization itself.

Other effects of burnout can manifest as lower energy and productivity levels, with workers observed to be consistently late for work and feeling a sense of dread upon arriving. They can suffer concentration problems, forgetfulness, increased frustration, and/or feelings of being overwhelmed. They may complain and feel negative, or feel apathetic and believe they have little impact on their coworkers and environment. Occupational burnout is also associated with absenteeism, other time missed from work, and thoughts of quitting.

Chronic burnout is also associated with cognitive impairments in memory and attention.

Research suggests that burnout can manifest differently between genders, with higher levels of depersonalisation among men and increased emotional exhaustion among women.

Burnout as Medical Condition

A stressful lifestyle can put people under extreme pressure, to the point that they feel exhausted, empty, burned out, and unable to cope. Stress at work can also cause physical and mental symptoms. Possible causes include feeling either permanently overworked or under challenged, being under time pressure, or having conflicts with colleagues. Extreme commitment that results in people neglecting their own needs may also be at the root of it. Problems caused by stress at work are a common reason for taking sick leave. But, sometimes changes in the working environment and more concrete support in everyday life can already help with things like problems at the workplace or the stress of caring for ill relatives.

Signs and Symptoms of Burnout

Burnout is considered to have a wide range of symptoms. One example of a source of stress outside of work is caring for a family member.

There are three main areas of symptoms that are considered to be signs of burnout:

• Exhaustion: In exhaustion, physical symptoms include things like pain and stomach or bowel problems where individuals are affected emotionally and sometimes exhaustive, lack of willpower and down with energy.
• Alienation from (work related) activities: Natives who have burnout find their jobs increasingly stressful and frustrating. They may start being pessimistic about their working conditions and their colleagues. At the same time, they may increasingly distance themselves emotionally, and start feeling numb about their work.
• Compact performance: Burnout mainly affects everyday tasks at work, at home or when caring for family members. People with burnout are very negative about their tasks, find it hard to concentrate, are listless and lack creativity.

Diagnosis of Burnout

The symptoms that are said to be a result of burnout include depression, anxiety disorders or chronic fatigue syndrome. But, physical illnesses or certain medications can cause symptoms such as exhaustion and tiredness, too. So it is significant to think other potential causes together with a doctor, and not to conclude you have burnout straight away.

Physiological

The Physiological effects of stress are not always obvious to others, but they can be just as serious as the physical symptoms of stress, of they are not addressed. It can affect your relationships, your productivity at work, and even your ability to function normally.

Physiological symptoms that can be related to stress include illnesses such as strokes, backaches, headaches, ulcers and heart disease. Backaches are the body’s reaction to preparing for fight or flight. Headaches are from the constriction of muscles in the neck and head due to stress.

Pshychological

Physiological stress can include illnesses such as strokes, backaches, headaches, ulcers and heart disease. Psychological symptoms, such as burnout, rust-out, psychosomatic issues or depression, are also caustic to work environments. Sometimes, these changes are associated with anxiety, mood swings and feelings of distress. Thus menopause can be a stressor in and of itself. Some of the physical changes associated with menopause, especially hot flashes, can be difficult to cope with. Furthermore, emotional distress may cause the physical symptoms to be worse.

In psychology, stress is a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a type of psychological pain. Small amounts of stress may be desired, beneficial, and even healthy. Positive stress helps improve athletic performance. It also plays a factor in motivation, adaptation, and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, may lead to bodily harm. Stress can increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers, and mental illnesses such as depression and also aggravation of a pre-existing condition.

General adaptive syndrome occurs in three stages:

• The alarm reaction. This stage occurs when the stressor is first presented. The body begins to gather resources to deal with the stressor. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system are activated, resulting in the release of hormones from the adrenal gland such as cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), and norepinephrine into the bloodstream to adjust bodily processes. These hormonal adjustments increase energy levels, increase muscle tension, reduce sensitivity to pain, slow down the digestive system, and cause a rise in blood pressure. In addition, the Locus coeruleus, a collection of Norepinephrine-containing neurons in the pons of the brainstem whose axons project to various regions of the brain, is involved in releasing Norepinephrine directly onto neurons. High levels of Norepinephrine acting as a neurotransmitter on its receptors expressed on neurons in brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex is thought to be involved in the effects of stress on executive functions, such as impaired working memory.
• The stage of resistance. The body continues building up resistance throughout the stage of resistance, until either the body’s resources are depleted, leading to the exhaustion phase, or the stressful stimulus is removed. As the body uses up more and more of its resources people become increasingly tired and susceptible to illness. This stage is where psychosomatic disorders first begin to appear.
• The stage of exhaustion. The body is completely drained of the hormones and resources it was depending on to manage the stressor. The person now begins to exhibit behaviors such as anxiety, irritability, avoidance of responsibilities and relationships, self-destructive behavior, and poor judgment. If someone is experiencing these symptoms they have a much greater chance of lashing out, damaging relationships, or avoiding social interaction at all.

Behavioural Symtptoms

Behavioural Stress are observed in the form of sudden or unexpected changes in an individual. The earlier you spot stress, the easier it is to rectify the situation.

Some symptoms are observed such as:

1. Sleeping difficulties: There are multiple ways where they get irritated due to sleeping difficulties. Break-up, missing ex, Toxic Relationships, overworking end up with sleepless nights. Therefore we find it difficult to sleep with some peace of mind. Nowadays, our generation is phone lovers where 24*7 they are busy in social apps and selfie which end up with sleep difficulties.
2. Lack of Punctuality: Many people get affected by lack of being perfect on time. This not only helps them to come lack but effects to their own performance due to their own behaviour.
3. Withdrawal: Sometimes we get tired from the pains what we go through. And if the same pain we see every time, we prefer to withdraw from the situation.
4. Exhaustion: Tiredness, overworking gives exhaustion. Just like, a car engine needs some time to cool, the same way our body and mind needs to cool down. If we work continuously, without taking some rest, we can land up with exhaustion.
5. Risk-taking behaviour: There is no Risk, there is no Gain. We often believe this proverb, but we have not realise that we don’t give importance to our health. Therefore, Risk taking behaviour also includes Stress.
6. Unhealthy eating habits: Eating Frankie’s, Pastas, Burgers, Soft Drinks, etc are the unhealthy eating habits. It’s ok to consume once a week but on regular route, it causes weight gain and other diseases.

Some other Behavioural symptoms of stress include:

• Changes in appetite either not eating or eating too much
• Procrastinating and avoiding responsibilities
• Increased use of alcohol, drugs, or cigarettes
• Exhibiting more nervous behaviours, such as nail biting, fidgeting, and pacing

Social impact

Communication

When someone is stressed, many challenges can arise; a recognized challenge being communication difficulties. Here are some examples of how stress can hinder communication.

The cultures of the world generally fall into two categories; individualistic and collectivistic.

• An individualistic culture, like that of the United States, where everyone is an independent entity defined by their accomplishments and goals.
• A collectivistic culture, like that of many Asian countries, prefers to see individuals as interdependent on each other. They value modesty and family.

These cultural differences can affect how people communicate when they are stressed. For example, a member of an individualistic culture would be hesitant to ask for pain medication for fear of being perceived as weak. A member of a collectivistic culture would not hesitate. They have been brought up in a culture where everyone helps each other and is one functional unit whereas the member of the individualistic culture is not as comfortable asking others for aid.

Language barriers

Language barriers can cause stress by making people feel uncomfortable because differences in syntax, vocabulary, different ways of showing respect, and different use of body language can make things difficult, and along with a desire for successful social interactions, being uncomfortable with the communication around a person can discourage them from communicating at all.

The System 1 – System 2 model of Daniel Kahneman (Thinking Fast and Slow) and others would distinguish between automatic responses, such as one’s native language would be, and a foreign language that required System 2 work to translate. System 2 can become “depleted” by conscious mental effort, making it more difficult and stressful.

Changes in the home

Divorce, death, and remarriage are all disruptive events in a household. Although everyone involved is affected by events such as these, it can be most drastically seen in children. Due to their age, children have relatively undeveloped coping skills. For this reason a stressful event may cause some changes in their behavior. Falling in with a new crowd, developing some new and sometimes undesirable habits are just some of the changes stress may trigger in their lives.

A particularly interesting response to stress is talking to an imaginary friend. A child may feel angry with a parent or their peers who they feel brought this change on them. They need someone to talk to but it definitely would not be the person with whom they are angry. That is when the imaginary friend comes in. They “talk” to this imaginary friend but in doing so they cut off communication with the real people around them.

There are 3 categories of Potential Sources of Stress mentioned as follows:

1. Environmental Stress
2. Organizational Stress
3. Individual Stress

Environmental Stress

Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an organization. Changes in the business cycle crate economic uncertainties. Political uncertainties can be stress inducing. Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an employee’s skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time. Heat, Cold, Noise, Traffic, Pollution are the examples of Environmental Stress.

Types of Environmental Stressors

• Major Disturbance Stressor
  • Natural disasters
  • Major life changes
  • Tragic events
• Climate Stressors
• Chemical Stressors
• Anthropogenic Stressors
  • Crowds
  • Excess and loud noise
  • Changes to the natural environment
• Energetic Stress
  • Ionizing radiation (Ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays)
  • Non-ionizing radiation (microwaves, radio waves, visible light)
• Physical Environment Stressors
  • Too much or not enough light
  • Colors
  • The location of items in your environment
• Ergonomic Stressors
  • Poor posture from work environments
  • Heavy labor or exercise
  • Intellectual stress
• Biological Stressors
  • Pathogens
  • Allergens
  • Illness

Organizational Stress

Stress can be caused by a wide variety of things. Positive stress may result in an increase in energy, enthusiasm, and motivation. Negative stress has more serious consequences. The common causes are organizational stressors and life stressors.

Organizational Stressors

Organizational stressors may relate to task demands, physical demands, role demands, or inter-personal demands.

1. Task demands are stressors associated with the specific task or job the person is performing. Some occupations are naturally more stressful than others.
2. Physical demands are stressors associated with the job setting. Environmental temperatures, poorly designed offices, and threats to health can lead to stress.
3. Role demands are stressors associated with a particular position in a group or organization. Examples are role ambiguity and the various role conflicts that people experience in groups.
4. Inter-personal demands are stressors associated with the characteristics of the relationships that confront people in organizations. Examples are group pressure, personality style, and leadership style.

Individual Stress

Stress can adversely affect an individual. Individual stress has direct consequences for organizations. The performance level declines and withdrawal behaviours such as absenteeism and turnover may occur if there is too much stress. People may exhibit poor attitudes when they are under too much stress. This affects their mental health and wellbeing as well as their physiological well-being.

Type A and Type B Personality Profiles

Type A individuals are extremely competitive and very devoted to work. They have a strong sense of timing and urgency. They are likely to be aggressive, impatient, and very work-oriented. It is because of these personality traits that a Type A person is more likely to experience stress than a Type B person.

The Type B individuals tend to be less competitive and less devoted to their work. They have a weaker sense of timing and urgency. The Type B person is less likely to experience stress than the Type A person. Few people are either purely Type A or purely Type B.

A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism. Psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that individuals might consider demanding, challenging, and/or threatening individual safety.

Events or objects that may trigger a stress response may include:

• Environmental stressors (hypo or hyper-thermic temperatures, elevated sound levels, over-illumination, overcrowding)
• Daily “stress” events (e.g., traffic, lost keys, money, quality and quantity of physical activity)
• Life changes (e.g., divorce, bereavement)
• Workplace stressors (e.g., high job demand vs. Low job control, repeated or sustained exertions, forceful exertions, extreme postures, office clutter)
• Chemical stressors (e.g., tobacco, alcohol, drugs)
• Social stressor (e.g., societal and family demands)

Stressors can cause physical, chemical and mental responses internally. Physical stressors produce mechanical stresses on skin, bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles and nerves that cause tissue deformation and (in extreme cases) tissue failure. Chemical stresses also produce biomechanical responses associated with metabolism and tissue repair. Physical stressors may produce pain and impair work performance. Chronic pain and impairment requiring medical attention may result from extreme physical stressors or if there is not sufficient recovery time between successive exposures. A recent study shows that physical office clutter could be an example of physical stressors in a workplace setting.

Psychological Stressors

Stressors occur when an individual is unable to cope with the demands of their environment (such as crippling debt with no clear path to resolving it). Generally, stressors take many forms, such as: traumatic events, life demands, sudden medical emergencies, and daily inconveniences, to name a few. There are also a variety of characteristics that a stressor may possess (different durations, intensity, predictability, and controllability).

Measuring Psychological Stress

Due to the wide impact and the far-reaching consequences of psychological stressors (especially their profound effects on mental well-being), it is particularly important to devise tools to measure such stressors. Two common psychological stress tests include the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) devised by American psychologist Sheldon Cohen, and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) or the Holmes-Rahe Stress Scale. While the PSS is a traditional Likert scale, the SRRS assigns specific predefined numerical values to stressors.

Biological Responses to Stressors

Traumatic events or any type of shock to the body can cause an acute stress response disorder (ASD). The extent to which one experiences ASD depends on the extent of the shock. If the shock was pushed past a certain extreme after a particular period in time ASD can develop into what is commonly known as Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There are two ways that the body responds biologically in order to reduce the amount of stress an individual is experiencing. One thing that the body does to combat stressors is to create stress hormones, which in turn create energy reservoirs that are there in case a stressful event were to occur. The second way our biological components respond is through an individuals cells. Depending on the situation our cells obtain more energy in order to combat any negative stressor and any other activity those cells are involved in seize.

Predictability and controllability

When individuals are informed about events before they occur, the magnitude of the stressor is less than when compared to individuals who were not informed of the stressor.

For example, an individual would prefer to know when they have a deadline ahead of time in order to prepare for it in advance, rather than find out about the deadline the day of. In knowing that there is a deadline ahead of time, the intensity of the stressor is smaller for the individual, as opposed to the magnitude of intensity for the other unfortunate individual who found out about the deadline the day of. When this was tested, psychologists found that when given the choice, individuals had a preference for the predictable stressors, rather than the unpredictable stressors.

Additionally, the degree to which the stressor can be controlled plays a variable in how the individual perceives stress. Research has found that if an individual is able to take some control over the stressor, then the level of stress will be decreased. During this study, it was found that the individuals become increasingly anxious and distressed if they were unable to control their environment.

As an example, imagine an individual who detests baths in the Middle Ages, taking a bath. If the individual was forced to take the bath with no control over the temperature of the bath (one of the variables), then their anxiety and stress levels would be higher than if the individual was given some control over the environment (such as being able to control the temperature of the water).

Based on these two principles (predictability and control), there are two hypotheses that attempt to account for these preferences; the preparatory response hypothesis and safety hypothesis attempt to accommodate these preferences.

Preparatory response hypothesis

The idea behind this hypothesis is that an organism can better prepare for an event if they are informed beforehand, as this allows them to prepare for it (biologically). In biologically preparing for this event beforehand, the individual is able to better decrease the event’s aversiveness. In knowing when a potential stressor will occur (such as an exam), the individual could, in theory, prepare for it in advance, thus decreasing the stress that may result from that event.

Safety hypothesis

In this hypothesis, there are two time periods, one in which is deemed safe (where there is no stressor), and one which is deemed unsafe (in which the stressor is present). This is similar to procrastination and cramming; during the safe intervals (weeks before an exam) the individual is relaxed and not anxious, and during the unsafe intervals (the day or night before the exam) the individual most likely experiences stress and anxiety.

Relation between Stressors and Stress

Stressors	Stress
Stressors are the factors such as event, experience, or environmental stimulus that causes stress.	Stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances
An event that triggers the stress response may include: environmental stressors (hypo or hyper-thermic temperatures, elevated sound levels, over-illumination, overcrowding).	It is an occurrence in response to situations that are perceived as being difficult to handle or threatening.
Eustress and Distress are the types of Stressors.	Acute, Chronic and Episodic are the types of Stress
Major life events such as loss of a loved one, retrenchment or divorce are the part of Stressors life.	Stress can be positive or negative, depend on the circumstances.

 

The workplace is an important source of both demands and pressures causing stress, and structural and social resources to counteract stress. Long hours, tight deadlines, and ever-increasing demands can leave you feeling worried, drained, and overwhelmed. And when stress exceeds your ability to cope, it stops being helpful and starts causing damage to your mind and body as well as to your job satisfaction.

Pending work, target completion, tensions can cause stress. Job insecurity plays a major role. In Mumbai, there are many offices where there is a large number of politics. It is the politics which plays an important role. A little mistake, you are fired that is the only reason. Besides, there are two other sources of stress, or buffers against stress: relationships at work, and the organisational culture. Managers who are critical, demanding, unsupportive or bullying create stress, whereas a positive social dimension of work and good team work reduces it.

If stress on the job is interfering with your work performance, health, or personal life, it’s time to take action. No matter what you do for a living, or how stressful your job is, there are plenty of things you can do to reduce your overall stress levels and regain a sense of control at work.

Common causes of workplace stress include:

• Fear of being laid off
• More overtime due to staff cutbacks
• Pressure to perform to meet rising expectations but with no increase in job satisfaction
• Pressure to work at optimum levels.
• Lack of control over how you do your work

Reasons of Stress at Work Place

• Fear of being laid off: Due to heavy competition, it is very difficult to get a job who pays a good salary. However, once you are inside the organisation, the fear comes is the fear of being laid off? Every year, more than 57% of people in Mumbai are being laid off due to employee available in lesser pay and more qualified than the current employees, or being suppressed by the boss, or for some other reasons. Thus the stress amount increases of losing a job or just being laid off.
• More overtime due to staff cutbacks: Sometimes, due to shortage of staff, employees has to work more than their actual hours. Sitting in the front of the Computer for more than 9 hours not only give them the eye stress, but back pain, shoulder pain and tiredness where they cannot focus on their family life. In the end, whatever they earn in the month end, the expenses are more towards the medical bills then the investments.
• Pressure to perform to meet rising expectations but with no increase in job satisfaction: Sometimes to seek a promotion, an individual works 24*7 which not only decreases the promotion chances but also puts him to medical stress.
• Pressure to work at optimum level. There are hardly few organisations who has less stress load than the actual one. There are organisations who provide gym, indoor and outdoor games facilities, meditation rooms, etc. so that the employee should not feel stressed all the time. But when there is the time for appraisal, the pressure is always there to achieve the goal.
• Lack of control over how you do your work: Sometimes excessive work gives you more stress and due to which you feel irritation, suffocation and even isolation no matter you are with your family or friends. Thus planning is needed, exercise is in need as well as proper nutrition is expected to do proper and a productive work.

Stress at work warning signs

When you feel overwhelmed at work, you lose confidence and may become angry, irritable, or withdrawn. Other signs and symptoms of excessive stress at work include:

• Feeling anxious, irritable, or depressed
• Apathy, loss of interest in work
• Problems sleeping
• Fatigue
• Trouble concentrating
• Muscle tension or headaches
• Stomach problems
• Social withdrawal
• Loss of sex drive
• Using alcohol or drugs to cope

Beat workplace stress by reaching out

Sometimes the best stress-reducer is simply sharing your stress with someone close to you. The act of talking it out and getting support and sympathy bespecially face-to-face can be a highly-effective way of blowing off steam and regaining your sense of calm. The other person doesn’t have to “fix” your problems; they just need to be a good listener.

Turn to co-workers for support. Having a solid support system at work can help buffer you from the negative effects of job stress. Just remember to listen to them and offer support when they are in need as well. If you don’t have a close friend at work, you can take steps to be more social with your coworkers. When you take a break, for example, instead of directing your attention to your smartphone, try engaging your colleagues.

Lean on your friends and family members. As well as increasing social contact at work, having a strong network of supportive friends and family members is extremely important to managing stress in all areas of your life. On the flip side, the lonelier and more isolated you are, the greater your vulnerability to stress.

Considering stress as a response led to some of the confusion in terms: originally the term “response to stressors” was used, to be shortened to the more convenient “stress response.”  It was then an easy step to further shorten this to “stress,” thereby effectively moving stress to refer to the response rather than the stimulus. There is then a logical circularity in explaining a person’s response to stressors, which are usually defined as anything that elicits a response. There is a tautology if stress is defined as a response to something that is stressful.

Harold G. Wolff (1898-1962).  In 1953, Harold Wolff published “Stress and Disease”, an early book on psychosomatics. He did not fully define stress, seeing it as “man’s response to many sorts of noxious agents and threats.” The term “response” suggests something active, and should not be equated with passive strain. “I have used the word [stress] in biology to indicate that state within a living creature which results from the interaction of the organism with noxious stimuli or circumstances, i.e., it is a dynamic state within the organism; it is not a stimulus, assault, load, symbol, burden, or any aspect of environment, internal, external, social or otherwise.”

Martin Seligman.  Seligman’s studies on rats further contributed to freeing stress literature from a mechanistic view of stress as a stimulus – response process.  “Exposing animals to inescapable, uncontrollable electric shocks seriously impairs the avoidance or escape behaviours of the same animals when they are re-exposed in an environment in which the shocks are controllable by the animal. It seemed to be the animal’s perception of the event that makes it stressful”.  Seligman here uses “perception” to refer to recognition and interpretation of stimuli based on the animal’s memory.  Recall, also, the work on “executive monkeys.”

Hans Selye originated using the word stress after completing his medical training at the University of Montreal in the 1920s. He observed that no matter what his hospitalised patients suffered from, they all had one thing in common as they all had fever. In his view, they all were under physical stress.

He recommended that stress was a nonspecific strain on the body caused by irregularities in normal body functions. This stress resulted in the release of stress hormones. He called this the “General Adaptation Syndrome” (a closer look at general adaptation syndrome, our body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress).

In short, stress is the body’s reaction to harmful situations whether they’re real or perceived. When you feel helpless, a chemical reaction occurs in your body that allows you to act in a way to prevent injury. This reaction is known to be as “fight or flight,” or the stress response. During stress response, your heart rate increases, breathing quickens, muscles tighten, and blood pressure rises. Stress can also benefit you to rise to meet challenges.

Features of Stress

Stress can affect all aspects of your life, including your emotions, behaviours, thinking ability, and physical health. No part of the body is immune. But, because people handle stress differently, symptoms of stress can vary. Some of the features of stress are mentioned as follows:

• Mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders
• Cardiovascular disease, including heart disease, high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, heart attacks, and stroke
• Obesity and other eating disorders
• Menstrual problems
• Sexual dysfunction, such as impotence and premature ejaculation in men and loss of sexual desire in both men and women
• Skin and hair problems, such as acne, psoriasis, and eczema, and permanent hair loss
• Gastrointestinal problems, such as GERD, gastritis, ulcerative colitis, and irritable colon

Types of Stress

Acute Stress

Acute stress is the greatest common method of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the current past and estimated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is inspiring and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. Acute stress symptoms are recognised by most people. Going home from the office by waiting to leave on time so that food can be cooked and can be served to the family or going to attend the parents meeting of the child in the school. Acute stress doesn’t have enough time to do the wide damage associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:

• Emotional distress includes three emotions and it is a mixture of anger or irritability, anxiety and depression.
• Muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw pain and the muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems.
• Stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhoa, constipation and irritable bowel syndrome.
• Acute stress can happen to anyone which is curable and manageable.

Episodic Acute Stress

Episodic acute stress leads to the people who are always in hurry. In reality, they are lazy who love to do the work at the end moment. They make big promises, try to reach the sky, but somewhere the landing gets stuck where there is no way to be either on the earth or in the sky.

It is absolute for the people with acute stress reactions to be over aroused, short-tempered, irritable, anxious and tense. Often, they describe themselves as having “a lot of nervous energy”. Always in a hurry, they tend to be sudden, and sometimes their irritability comes across as hostility. Interpersonal relationships decline rapidly when others respond with real hostility. The workplace becomes a very stressful place for them.

There is a “free-floating, but well rationalised form of hostility, and almost always a deep-seated insecurity”. Such personality characteristics would seem to create frequent episodes of acute stress for the Type A individual. Friedman and Rosenman found Type A’s to be much more likely to develop coronary heart disease than Type B’s, who show an opposite pattern of behaviour.

Another form of episodic acute stress comes from ceaseless worry. “Worry warts” see disaster around every corner and pessimistically forecast catastrophe in every situation. The world is a dangerous, unrewarding, punitive place where something awful is always about to happen. These “awfulisers” also tend to be over aroused and tense, but are more anxious and depressed than angry and hostile.

The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal:

Persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension, chest pain and heart disease. Treating episodic acute stress requires intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional help, which may take many months.

Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and habitual with these individuals that they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct their lives. They blame their woes on other people and external events. Frequently, they see their lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with others, and their ways of perceiving the world as part and parcel of who and what they are.

Chronic Stress

Chronic stress is not as thrilling and exciting as acute stress. This is the grinding stress that wears people away day after day, year after year.

Chronic stress spoils body, minds and lives. It causes chaos through long-term abrasion. This type of stress is found in failure of marriage, job stress, extra marital affairs, etc. It’s the stress that the never-ending “troubles” have brought.

Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation. It’s the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions.

Some chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences that become internalised and remain forever painful and present. Some experiences profoundly affect personality.

The worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They forget it’s there. People are immediately aware of acute stress because it is new; they ignore chronic stress because it is old, familiar, and sometimes, almost comfortable.

Chronic stress is harmful and it spoils one through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke and, perhaps, even cancer. People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are exhausted through long-term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and may require extended medical as well as behavioural treatment and stress management.

Burnout may be as a result of excessive stress but they do not mean the same thing. Burnout is a cycle of negative emotions, paralysis and withdrawal. It is the body’s response to putting too much effort into something without taking in what you require to restore yourself. It is mental, emotional and physical exhaustion that leads to diminished interest in performing tasks.

Physical symptoms of burnout include having low energy, headaches, muscle tension, digestive disorders, frequent colds and changes in one’s sleep patterns. Its mental symptoms include feeling sad, inadequate, frustrated, unappreciated and irritable. These symptoms can result in withdrawal, accidents, increased sick days and crying. One may increase their consumption of food or alcohol to soothe themselves.

Stress on the other hand, involves too many pressures that demand too much from you either physically or psychologically. Stressed people though can still see a light at the end of the tunnel, they just often can’t figure a way to get to it.

Stress is just a day-to-day experience but burnout is a more serious consequence of the build-up of too much stress which causes the individual person to shut down.

If stress persists on a full scale for a long period of time, there are increased risks of burnout. Although stress is an essential pre-requisite for burnout, burnout is not necessarily the result of too much stress. For burnouts to occur there must be an additional psychological factor.

People who are stressed can often still function and do all that the tasks or jobs required of them. This is due to the fact that different people can bear different levels of stress for different lengths of time. This is quite a contrast to people experiencing a burnout. Burnout most times leads to a total shutdown of all systems in the body and it causes a person to become completely nonfunctional. Burnout causes people to experience long-term exhaustion and diminished interest in life as a whole.

Burnout

• It is characterized by disengagement
• The person’s emotions are blunted
• It gives one a feeling of helplessness and hopelessness
• It makes one lose motivation, ideals, and hope
• It leads to detachment and depression
• Its primary damage is emotional

Stress

• It is characterized by over engagement
• The person’s emotions are over reactive
• It gives one a feeling of urgency and hyperactivity
• It leads to loss of energy