Category: University of Mumbai BMS Notes

Penny stocks are a form of market traded security which attracts minimal pricing. These securities are mostly offered by companies with lower market capitalisation rates. Therefore, these are also called nano-cap stocks, micro-cap stocks, and small-cap stocks, depending on the company’s market capitalisation.

A company’s market capitalisation rate is determined based on the product of the current price of its shares or stocks and the number of outstanding shares i.e. NAV of shares x number of outstanding stocks.

Based on this factor, companies are indexed in recognised stock exchanges such as National Stock Exchange and Bombay Stock Exchange. Penny stock lists are often found in the lower sections of such stock exchanges or lesser-known stock exchanges.

The features of penny stocks are listed below:

• High-returns: These stocks provide much higher returns compared to other forms of securities. As such shares are issued by small and micro-cap companies, they have vast potential for growth. Consequently, penny stocks are risky, given its intensity of response to market fluctuations.
• Illiquid: Penny stocks in India are illiquid in nature, given the fact that the companies issuing them are relatively unpopular. It becomes challenging to find individuals who are willing to purchase these stocks, thus offering little aid during emergencies.
• Low-cost: In India, penny stocks are usually priced lower than Rs. 10. Therefore, you could purchase a substantial amount of stock units from penny stock list with a small scale investment.
• Unpredictable pricing: Penny stocks might not attract adequate pricing during the sale. It might result in a lower or non-existent profit margin. Similarly, these stocks could also attract a price significantly higher than your cost; therefore, resulting in a considerable profit.

Penny stocks should be included in your portfolio. Here are the following reasons as to why:

• Multibagger:

Some of these stocks have the potential to evolve into multi-baggers. It means shares which yield in multiples of the investment amount. If specific security reaps double its investment amount, it is called a double-bagger, and if it returns ten times its investment value, it is considered a ten-bagger.

Including them in your portfolio could exponentially increase your return prospects and might outperform the large and mid-cap funds. However, conduct thorough research into the penny stocks list to gauge which stocks have the potential to be multibaggers.

• Inexpensive:

Investing in these stocks is comparatively cheaper. Hence, you can invest in them without losing any significant portion of your investment finances. Allotting a small portion of your portfolio to purchase the best penny stocks for 2019 in India would still allow you the leeway to invest in other, more secure investment options while considerably reducing the risk factor associated.

Forms of risks associated with penny stocks. These are:

• Limited information: Given the fact that companies issuing penny stocks are start-ups, there exists a dearth of information on their financial soundness, past performance, growth prospects, etc. Individuals might end up investing in them half-wittingly. Therefore, conduct thorough research into the list of penny stocks in India before investing.
• Scams: Penny stock scams are commonplace in international financial history. One such popular method is “Pump and Dump”. Companies and scammers purchase a considerable amount of penny stocks resulting in value inflation which attracts other investors to follow the hype.

The Nasdaq Stock Market, also known as Nasdaq or NASDAQ, is an American stock exchange located at One Liberty Plaza in New York City. It is ranked second on the list of stock exchanges by market capitalization of shares traded, behind only the New York Stock Exchange. The exchange platform is owned by Nasdaq, Inc., which also owns the Nasdaq Nordic stock market network and several U.S. stock and options exchanges.

Nasdaq is a global electronic marketplace for buying and selling securities. Nasdaq was created by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) to enable investors to trade securities on a computerized, speedy and transparent system, and commenced operations on February 8, 1971. The term, “Nasdaq” is also used to refer to the Nasdaq Composite, an index of more than 3,000 stocks listed on the Nasdaq exchange that includes the world’s foremost technology and biotech giants such as Apple, Google, Microsoft, Oracle, Amazon, and Intel.

Origins of Nasdaq

Nasdaq officially separated from the NASD and began to operate as a national securities exchange in 2006. In 2007, it combined with the Scandinavian exchange group OMX to become the Nasdaq OMX group, which is the largest exchange company globally, powering 1 in 10 of the world’s securities transactions.

Headquartered in New York, Nasdaq OMX operates 25 markets – primarily equities, and also including options, fixed income, derivatives and commodities – as well as one clearinghouse and five central securities depositories in the U.S. and Europe. Its cutting-edge trading technology is used by 70 exchanges in 50 countries. It is listed on the Nasdaq under the symbol NDAQ and has been part of the S&P 500 since 2008.

The Nasdaq computerized trading system was initially devised as an alternative to the inefficient “specialist” system, which had been the prevalent model for almost a century. The rapid evolution of technology has made the Nasdaq’s electronic trading model the standard for markets worldwide.

As a leader in trading technology from the outset, it was only fitting that the world’s technology giants chose to list on the Nasdaq in their early days. As the technology sector grew in prominence in the 1980s and 1990s, the Nasdaq became the most widely followed proxy for this sector. The technology and dot-com boom and bust of the late 1990s is exemplified by the rise and fall of the Nasdaq Composite during this period. The index crossed the 1,000 mark for the first time in July 1995, soared in the following years and peaked at over 4,500 in March 2000, before slumping almost 80% by October 2002 in the subsequent correction.

Recent History of Nasdaq

In February, 2011, in the wake of an announced merger of NYSE Euronext with Deutsche Börse, speculation developed that NASDAQ OMX and Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) could mount a counter-bid of their own for NYSE. At the time, NYSE Euronext’s market value was $9.75 billion. Nasdaq was valued at $5.78 billion, while ICE was valued at $9.45 billion. Late in the month, Nasdaq was reported to be considering asking either ICE or the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to join in what would probably have to be, if it proceeded, an $11–12 billion counterbid.

The European Association of Securities Dealers Automatic Quotation System (EASDAQ) was founded as a European equivalent to the Nasdaq Stock Market. It was purchased by NASDAQ in 2001 and became NASDAQ Europe. Operations were shut down, however, as a result of the bursting of the dot-com bubble. In 2007, NASDAQ Europe was revived as Equiduct, and it is currently operating under Börse Berlin.

On June 18, 2012, Nasdaq OMX became a founding member of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchanges initiative on the eve of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. In November 2016, Nasdaq Chief Operating Officer Adena Friedman was promoted to the role of CEO, becoming the first woman to run a major exchange in the U.S. In 2016, Nasdaq earned $272 million in listings-related revenues.

Nasdaq achieved its highest-ever close on August 29, 2018, when its index peaked at 8109.69. In 2018, it was announced that the Nasdaq was planning to introduce cryptocurrency futures the next year in conjunction with a prominent investment firm.

Stress management starts with identifying the sources of stress in your life. This isn’t as easy as it sounds. Your true sources of stress aren’t always obvious, and it’s all too easy to overlook your own stress-inducing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Sure, you may know that you’re constantly worried about work deadlines. But maybe it’s your procrastination, rather than the actual job demands, that leads to deadline stress.

To identify your true sources of stress, look closely at your habits, attitude, and excuses:

• Do you explain away stress as temporary (“I just have a million things going on right now”) even though you can’t remember the last time you took a breather?
• Do you define stress as an integral part of your work or home life (“Things are always crazy around here”) or as a part of your personality (“I have a lot of nervous energy, that’s all”).
• Do you blame your stress on other people or outside events, or view it as entirely normal and unexceptional?

Until you accept responsibility for the role you play in creating or maintaining it, your stress level will remain outside your control.

Start a stress journal

A stress journal can help you identify the regular stressors in your life and the way you deal with them. Each time you feel stressed, keep track of it in your journal. As you keep a daily log, you will begin to see patterns and common themes. Write down:

• What caused your stress (make a guess if you’re unsure).
• How you felt, both physically and emotionally.
• How you acted in response.
• What you did to make yourself feel better.

Look at how you currently cope with stress

Think about the ways you currently manage and cope with stress in your life. Your stress journal can help you identify them. Are your coping strategies healthy or unhealthy, helpful or unproductive? Unfortunately, many people cope with stress in ways that compound the problem.

Unhealthy ways of coping with stress

These coping strategies may temporarily reduce stress, but they cause more damage in the long run:

• Smoking
  • Drinking too much
  • Overeating or undereating
  • Zoning out for hours in front of the TV or computer
  • Withdrawing from friends, family, and activities
  • Using pills or drugs to relax
  • Sleeping too much
  • Procrastinating
  • Filling up every minute of the day to avoid facing problems
  • Taking out your stress on others (lashing out, angry outbursts, physical violence)

Learning healthier ways to manage stress

If your methods of coping with stress aren’t contributing to your greater emotional and physical health, it’s time to find healthier ones. There are many healthy ways to manage and cope with stress, but they all require change. You can either change the situation or change your reaction. When deciding which option to choose, it’s helpful to think of the four As: avoid, alter, adapt, or accept.

Since everyone has a unique response to stress, there is no “one size fits all” solution to managing it. No single method works for everyone or in every situation, so experiment with different techniques and strategies. Focus on what makes you feel calm and in control.

Dealing with Stressful Situations: The Four A’s

Change the situation:

• Avoid the stressor.
• Alter the stressor

Change your reaction:

• Adapt to the stressor.
• Accept the stressor.

Pranayama

Pranayama state as “control of breath” calms the disturbed pattern of breathing which agitates the mind and senses. It is an important therapeutic method for promoting healing on all levels.

Mind and breath are linked together like a bird with two wings. In the same manner breath can be used as a rope to tie down the mind. If we concentrate on the breath, the mind becomes internalized. The process of Pratyahar means withdrawal from the senses and its external orientation on the outer world and made to turn inward. In this ways Pranayama is one of the best means of Pratyahar.

Awareness of breath is a door to the deeper levels of the mind. As the mind focuses on the breath, the deeper layers of consciousness gradually open, releasing the subconscious and all that is hidden within. The process of mind draws more energy during Pranayama, deeper thoughts come up, and emotional issues helps to deal or sit in meditation or their energy will disturb us and prevent us from going deeper. It should be never be attempted willfully or forcefully but as part of a process of deepening inner peace and equanimity. To deal with it properly requires the proper foundation of Yamas and Niyamas first.

Mantras

Mantra meditation is one of the simplest and easiest-to-learn meditation techniques. Like other forms of meditation, it can change your stress levels at the moment with a single session or can change the way you manage stress from now on with repeated practice. And it has the benefit of being simple to learn and customize to meet your specific needs for stress management.

Benefits of Mantra Meditation

If you are reading this, you have probably already heard that meditation is a powerhouse of a stress reliever because of all of the ways it can improve your outlook and overall health. 

Meditation has been linked to a reduction of chronic stress as well as decreases in heart rate and blood pressure, an increase in immune system functionality, and many other benefits.

Mantra meditation, in particular transcendental meditation, has also been linked with a decrease in intrusive thoughts, and an increase in meaning and quality of life in HIV patients.

 It has been linked to reduced stress, anxiety and anger and increases in quality of life in nurses. Another study on veterans found that mantra meditation reduces the occurrence of intrusive thoughts and minimizes stress as well.2 Many people find that mantra meditation is simpler to master when they are starting out because it provides an empowering focal point; many people find it difficult to keep redirecting their thoughts to the present moment and instead feel that it is easier to have something more specific to grasp onto.

The bottom line is, with mantra meditation, you may feel less stressed after one session. With repeated practice, you may find yourself less reactive to future stress. Practicing mantra meditation is easy. Here’s how:

1. Set Aside a Few Minutes and Get into a Comfortable Position

• At first, it’s best to have a quiet room, free of distractions. With repeated practice, you may find yourself able to practice mantra meditation anywhere and under more chaotic circumstances.

2. Choose a Mantra for Meditation

• A mantra is a word or phrase that you repeat to yourself out loud or silently. It can be a more classically significant spiritual word like the Hindu, ‘Aum,’ (aka Om) or it can be a word or phrase like, ‘Calm’ or ‘I am at peace.’ The words or sounds you choose aren’t important as long as they are simple and comfortable for you to repeat.

3. Close Your Eyes and Repeat Your Mantra to Yourself

• As you do so, try to focus only on the sound and feel of your mantra and nothing else. If you find other thoughts creeping into your head, thank yourself for noticing, and gently redirect your attention to your mantra.

4. Continue for Several Minutes

• That’s it. Just continue to repeat your mantra and focus on the sound and the way it feels to make the sound. Redirect your attention away from distractions, and back to your mantra. You can start with 5- or 10-minute sessions and work up to 20 or 30; with mantra meditation, any practice time is better than none.

Nutrition

Good nutrition is an important stress management tool. When our bodies are poorly fed, stress takes an even greater toll on our health. Nutrition and stress are interlinked. Here are some tips to eat well for academic success:

• Eat regularly. Your brain needs glucose to work at its best. Eating regularly throughout the day helps keep your blood glucose stable. Studies have shown that more stable blood sugar levels are associated with better academic performance.
• Get your healthy fats. Omega-3 fatty acids found in walnuts, flax seed and fish oil are associated with brain function. Deficiencies of this fatty acid can result in depression and/or anxiety.
• Eat your veggies. Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins and minerals like copper, zinc, manganese, and vitamins A, E and C. Leafy greens are especially good for you. These vitamins and minerals work to neutralize harmful molecules produced when your body is under stress.
• Add high-fiber foods. High fiber intake has been associated with greater alertness and decreased perceived stress. So add fiber-rich foods like oatmeal, nuts, beans, fruits and vegetables to your diet.
• Trade caffeine for more sleep. Caffeine leads to increased blood pressure and may make you anxious, especially if you are already prone to anxiety. While consuming caffeine may seem to help you concentrate better, some studies show that caffeine only restores what is lost through lack of sleep. Instead of turning to caffeine, try the natural grade booster – sleep!
• Stock up on healthy snacks. If you know that a stressful or busy time is approaching, prepare by stocking up on quick, healthy snacks. Healthy snacks are high in protein and/or fiber. Some examples are low fat granola, almonds, peanuts, carrots with hummus or yogurt with fresh fruit.

Music

The soothing power of music is well-established. It has a unique link to our emotions, so can be an extremely effective stress management tool.

Listening to music can have a tremendously relaxing effect on our minds and bodies, especially slow, quiet classical music. This type of music can have a beneficial effect on our physiological functions, slowing the pulse and heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and decreasing the levels of stress hormones. Music, in short, can act as a powerful stress management tool in our lives.

As music can absorb our attention, it acts as a distraction at the same time it helps to explore emotions. This means it can be a great aid to meditation, helping to prevent the mind wandering.

Musical preference varies widely between individuals, so only you can decide what you like and what is suitable for each mood. But even if you don’t usually listen to classical music it may be worth giving it a try when selecting the most calming music.

When people are very stressed, there is a tendency to avoid actively listening to music. Perhaps it feels like a waste of time, not helping to achieve anything. But as we know, productivity increases when stress is reduced, so this is another area where you can gain vast rewards. It just takes a small effort to begin with.

To incorporate music into a busy life, try playing CDs in the car, or put the radio on when in the bath or shower. Take portable music with you when walking the dog, or put the stereo on instead of the TV. A person with clinical depression or bipolar disorder might listen to music to help with their worst, lowest moods.

Singing (or shouting) along can also be a great release of tension, and karaoke is very enjoyable for some extroverts! Calming music before bedtime promotes peace and relaxation and helps to induce sleep.

Research on Music

Music has been used for hundreds of years to treat illnesses and restore harmony between mind and body. But more recently, scientific studies have attempted to measure the potential benefits of music.

The word meditation is derived from the Latin word Meditari, meaning “to think, “contemplate”, “devise”, or “ponder”. Today, meditation has become extremely popular all over the world. In general, most of the time it has been used to reduce stress, to promote wellness and healing. There are more than 2500 research studies available on meditation. In the last 200 years, different meditation techniques are derived from the traditional Yoga texts and promoted by the Yoga masters and spiritual leaders.

Although the ultimate goal of meditation is same (calming the mind) the paths are different. However, in the west, meditation is considered as a relaxation technique to promote wellness and healing. The Upanisads emphasis on selfanalysis through intellect and establish the mind on self. Lord Krishna in Bhagavad Geeta says, ‘meditate on the Supreme Self by directing all the senses towards inside using the intellect’. Perhaps, the most profound description of meditation is found in Patanjali Yoga Sutra. Sage Patanjali describes Añöäìga Yoga (eight limbs of Yoga) to realize the ultimate. The sixth and the seventh limb of añöäìga Yoga are pertaining to meditation.

Dharana and Dhyana may be considered as the last two of four stages, which form a continuum in the process and practice of meditation. Hatha Yoga gives the description of the practice of meditation and its benefits. Tantra presents 112 of meditation techniques to realize the ultimate.

Meditation is a distinct practice in Indian philosophy and it is mentioned in many Indian traditional texts. The first description of meditation occurs in Vedas which is one of the oldest scriptures of Hindu culture. Meditation was a part of daily life and known to everyone during Vedic age. Recently, the archaeologists have discovered the sculptures in meditative pose in the ancient civilization, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Specific meditation techniques have been developed for the convenience in the later period.

A restless mind is like a lake, constantly agitated by the winds of desires, creating thought-waves of diverse nature. Because of this constant agitation, our true Self at the bottom of the lake cannot be perceived. To subside all thought-waves, a single thought is consciously cultivated by the repeated and uninterrupted practice of meditation. Then, the lake (mind) becomes calm and bottom of lake (ätman) becomes visible.

Meditation is keeping the mind focused uninterruptedly on a subject for a certain length of time. It is a mental process by which meditator becomes one with the object of meditation. Meditation is the seventh stage in Astanga Yoga of Patanjali.

Meditation is an antidote to stress

• The Neuro chemistry and Neuro physiology of meditation is just the reverse of stress. Stress: Over activity of Sympathetic system.
• Meditation: Over activity of Parasympathetic system.

Caution

• However, it is not a push button system, one need patience. Hence there is a 90 to 95% -drop out rate. One needs to have right guide, right method, correct understanding, appropriate place, constant practice, extreme faith and full conviction.
• Please do not sleep.
• Meditation industry is at height, because of commercialization, so one should be careful.
• Not to make comparisons, all systems are great

It means Meditation is the art of living in the present. Human beings normally choose to recollect past or predict future rather than think about present. This attitude leads to the vicious circle of hopes, failures, regrets and tensions. Meditation leads us to stay with the time thereby keeping us away from past or future.

The Physiological Response

The process of physiological stress response starts from the moment the body realizes the presence of the stressor, followed by the sending of signals to the brain, and to the specific sympathetic and hormonal responses to eliminate, reduce or cope with the stress.

The Nervous System

When your body senses that a particular stressor is present, signals about that stimulus are sent to your brain. The master gland called the hypothalamus is then alerted to arouse the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The ANS is the system which controls most of the major organs of your body: the heart, lungs, stomach, glands and even the blood vessels. With these organs, you’ll readily notice that the ANS is responsible for the unconscious regulation of the heart beat and breathing.

Sympathetic Response

The SNS surely likes things to go very quickly when you are faced with stress. The neurotransmitter noradrenaline is released by the nerve endings and is sent to the SNS so that the latter can:

• Enhance the strength of your skeletal muscles. Have you heard news about people who were able to carry heavy furniture or equipments outside their house during fire? Well, fire is a very stressful situation, and thankfully we have our sympathetic response to aid us during these circumstances.
• Increase heart rate. During stressful moments, your heart beats faster than it usually does so that the parts of your body which are needed to cope up with the stress would be supplied by enough oxygenated blood to remain functional until the stressful situation subsides.
• Shoot up sugar and fat levels. We all know that sugar and fat provides our body with energy. During stressful situations, we need more energy to cope up, and so the SNS assists us to have more energy.

Hormonal Response

Other than the nervous system, the body’s stress response also includes the help of the adrenal glands. Situated on top of each kidney, the adrenal glands are also included in the physiologic stress response because the adrenal medulla (the centre part of the glands) has nerves that connect the gland to the SNS. The SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla to start releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood circulation. This action results in the “fight or flight” response, which is manifested by the increase in heart rate, dilation of bronchial airways and enhancement of the metabolic rate so more of the stored energy can be used.

The Cognitive Response

Despite evidence that psychological stress is an important risk factor for age-related cognitive loss, little research has directly evaluated psychological and physiological mediators of the relationship between stressful experiences and cognitive function. A key objective of the ESCAPE (Effects of Stress on Cognitive Aging, Physiology, and Emotion) project is to evaluate whether engaging in stress-related unconstructive repetitive thought (URT) is a pathway through which stressful experiences negatively affect cognitive health over the short- and long-term. Over the short-term, we hypothesize that engaging in URT will deplete attentional resources and result in worse cognitive performance in daily life. Over the long-term, we expect that the effects of chronic stress, from repeated exposure to stressors and regular engagement in URT, will be apparent in dysregulated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function and inflammation. Over time, stress-related physiological dysregulation will result in accelerated cognitive decline.

Cognitive symptoms of stress include:

• Constant worrying
• Racing thoughts
• Forgetfulness and disorganization
• Inability to focus
• Poor judgment
• Being pessimistic or seeing only the negative side

The Behavioural Response

Behavioural responses to stress are evoked from underlying complex physiological changes that arise consequently from stress.

Real or perceived threat in the environment elicits stress response in animals, which disrupts internal homeostasis. Physiological changes cause behavioural responses in animals, including: impairment of response inhibition and lack of motivation, as well as changes in social, sexual, aggression and nurture behaviour in animals. The extent of the impact is dependent upon the type and duration of the stress, as well as the animal’s past experiences. Behavioural responses to prolonged stress can also be transferred across generations.

Behavioural responses

Behavioural responses to stress are evoked from some underlying complex physiological changes that arise consequently from stress.

Impairment of response inhibition and lack of motivation

According to a study conducted by Mika and his colleagues, prolonged stress in rats causes response inhibition. It was evident through their experiment that stressed rats had inhibited premature responses (decreased timing of intervals to food), along with decreased intrinsic motivation to initiate a response. They link the decreased motivation to the stress-associated reduction in incentive motivation, as presented by another study conducted by Kleen and his colleagues. Decreased motivation was also seen in a study conducted by Beery and Kaufer, where they explained that stressed rodents are less likely to be motivated to interact with one another.

Change in social behaviours

Beery and Kaufer noted that social withdrawal and general reduction in social interaction after an exposure to a stressor are evident in rodents. They argue that this is due to the underlying physiological changes that the rodent goes through in response to stress. For instance, the changes that occur to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) hormonal axis is directly related to the changes in social behaviour. Social avoidance is another consequence of stress that can be seen in rodents. Rodents are more likely to avoid dominant rats and avoid social interactions amongst each other after the exposure to a stressor.

Sexual behaviours

Sexual interests change in many species when exposed to stressors. For instance, stressed male and female rats express inhibited mating behaviour, which is evident through the clear increase in the inhibitory hormone RF-amide. Another study suggests that masculine sexual behaviour in male rats is subject to changes in accordance to the type of stressors that the rats were subjected to. The female zebra finch’s mating choice is determined by the stressors that they are exposed to early in life, which remain consistent throughout adulthood. A study about stress effects on female songbird’s response to sexual signal for mating indicated that the response to this specific signal can be impaired if the female is exposed to developmental stress. Behavioural changes as a result from developmental stress impairs neural responses to sexual signals, which reduces mating.

Aggressive behaviours and anti-predator responses

Stressed animals would choose to avoid a novel situation rather than confront it. Aggressive behaviour is associated with sex hormones, such as testosterone, and specific brain regions and systems, such as the medial preoptic nucleus, prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition, and anterior hypothalamus. Stress negatively impacts sex hormones, which results in an imbalance and reduction in aggression related hormones and function. Also, chronic stress results in prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition. This results in reduction in aggression, thus promoting anti-predator responses.

Prolonged stress reduces parental behaviour toward offspring

Prolonged stress alters parental behaviour toward offspring and promotes parental neglect. According to a study performed by Tilgar and associates, predation stress alters parents’ behaviours, such as the reduction in provisioning rates, which negatively impacts the offspring’s performance. The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are generally responsible for affiliative and pair-bonding behaviours in many species. Stress alters the level of both hormones, resulting in an abnormal behaviour from parents towards offspring. For instance, levels of oxytocin decrease as a result of prolonged stress, which has been shown to reduce pair-bonding behaviour and increase withdrawal behaviour. Prolactin is another important hormone that is associated with nurture by parents to offspring, and levels of this hormone can be altered as a result of stress. Reduced levels of prolactin as a result of stress decreases behaviours such as suckling, licking, and brooding.

Stress is a common occurrence. While you can’t remove every single stressor from your life, it’s possible to manage stress and maintain your health. This is important because stress can cause mental fatigue, irritability, and insomnia.

But even if you know the physical effects of stress, you may be unaware of the different stages of stress, known as general adaptation syndrome (GAS). When you understand the different stages of stress and how the body responds in these stages, it’s easier to identify signs of chronic stress in yourself.

GAS is the three-stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. Hans Selye, a medical doctor and researcher, came up with the theory of GAS. During an experiment with lab rats at McGill University in Montreal, he observed a series of physiological changes in the rats after they were exposed to stressful events.

With additional research, Selye concluded that these changes were not an isolated case, but rather the typical response to stress. Selye identified these stages as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Understanding these different responses and how they relate to each other may help you cope with stress.

General adaptation syndrome stages

1. Alarm reaction stage

The alarm reaction stage refers to the initial symptoms the body experiences when under stress. You may be familiar with the “fight-or-flight” response, which is a physiological response to stress. This natural reaction prepares you to either flee or protect yourself in dangerous situations. Your heart rate increases, your adrenal gland releases cortisol (a stress hormone), and you receive a boost of adrenaline, which increases energy. This fight-or-flight response occurs in the alarm reaction stage.

2. Resistance stage

After the initial shock of a stressful event and having a fight-or-flight response, the body begins to repair itself. It releases a lower amount of cortisol, and your heart rate and blood pressure begin to normalize. Although your body enters this recovery phase, it remains on high alert for a while. If you overcome stress and the situation is no longer an issue, your body continues to repair itself until your hormone levels, heart rate, and blood pressure reach a pre-stress state.

Some stressful situations continue for extended periods of time. If you don’t resolve the stress and your body remains on high alert, it eventually adapts and learns how to live with a higher stress level. In this stage, the body goes through changes that you’re unaware of in an attempt to cope with stress.

Your body continues to secrete the stress hormone and your blood pressure remains elevated. You may think you’re managing stress well, but your body’s physical response tells a different story. If the resistance stage continues for too long of a period without pauses to offset the effects of stress, this can lead to the exhaustion stage.

Signs of the resistance stage include:

• Irritability
• Frustration
• Poor concentration

3. Exhaustion stage

This stage is the result of prolonged or chronic stress. Struggling with stress for long periods can drain your physical, emotional, and mental resources to the point where your body no longer has strength to fight stress. You may give up or feel your situation is hopeless. Signs of exhaustion include:

• Fatigue
• Burnout
• Depression
• Anxiety
• Decreased stress tolerance

The physical effects of this stage also weaken your immune system and put you at risk for stress-related illnesses.

GAS can occur with any type of stress. Stressful events can include:

• A job loss
• Medical problems
• Financial troubles
• Family breakdown
• Trauma

But while stress is unpleasant, the upside is that GAS improves how your body responds to stressors, particularly in the alarm stage.

The fight-or-flight response that occurs in the alarm stage is for your protection. A higher hormone level during this stage benefits you. It gives you more energy and improves your concentration so you can focus and tackle the situation. When stress is short-term or short-lived, the alarm stage isn’t harmful.

Yoga is a system of mental and spiritual development with a scope of mental transformation. In India, the concept and practice of Yoga originated several millennia ago. Its founders were great saints and Sages, the great yogis gave rational interpretation to their experiences of Yoga and brought about a scientific and practical method within everyone‘s reach. Today is modern time, Yoga no longer is restricted to hermits of saints; it has taken its place in everyday life and has aroused the world wide awakening and acceptance in the last decade.

The science of Yoga and its techniques have now been re-oriented to suit physiological needs and lifestyles. Experts of various branches of medicine including modern science are realizing the role of these techniques in the prevention and management of lifestyle disorders.

The literal meaning of the Sanskrit word “Yoga is to Yoke”. Accordingly, Yoga can be defined as a means of uniting the individual spirit with the universal spirit. This is the primary objective of Yoga i.e. spiritual advancement.

All the diseases arise at mental level and then get manifested physically. Therefore

way to win over diseases is to destroy unnatural lifestyle. In fact, people have some

bad habits which do not let them stay healthy. Some of these habits are-

1. Food related habits
2. Laziness
3. Least use of fine elements
4. Affection with unnatural things
5. Unregulated use up
6. Futile treatment
7. Bad thoughts.

Yoga philosophy is one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. It is the philosophy, science and art of holistic living where the ignoble in man is transformed into the noble. Unlike so many other philosophies of the world, it is a philosophy which completely practical. It is an exact science based on certain immutable Laws of Nature.

Yoga is a process of rejoicing. It is not a suffering. It is a movement through happiness. From one state of joy, we move to another state of joy. It is not that Yoga starts with sorrow, or that it is a kind of prison-house into which we are thrown. We have sometimes a feeling that Yoga is a torture, a suffering, to the normal life of man. Sadhana means a fear, and indicates an unnatural seriousness.

Body needs a certain amount of exercise for its proper function. Lack of, exercise or wrong physical activity can aggravate or cause psychological problems. Asana is the third limb of Astanga Yoga. It consists of the performance of physical postures that release physical stress and tension. The correct postures increase the vital force, which gets blocked by wrong posture, and calms the mind, which is stressed by wrong posture. It refers to sitting postures for meditation, which are the main Asanas mentioned in yogic texts. For any real self-examination, we must be able to sit still and comfortable with an erect spine. This scientifically seen that it allows the ascending flow of energy through which the mind can empty itself out and open up the deeper layers of consciousness. Its regular practicing can aid in releasing psychological tension through releasing the physical and Pranic blocks sustaining it.

Yogic management for stress

Asanas/postures can help to relive stress, tension and anxiety. By expelling the excess negative emotions and adrenaline through physical activity, one can enter a more relaxed, calm state of being. It is one of the most important coping medium to combat anxiety and stress. It acts as a buffer against stress and may thus help protect the cardiovascular and immune systems from the consequences of stressful events. The yogic practices are:

Kriyas: Jalneti, Sutraneti, Kapalbhati, Suryanamaskar

Brisk exercise: Nadisanchlana, Butterfly asana, Pagchalana, Nabichalan.

Yogicasanas: Tadaasana, Katichakarasana, Pavanmuktasana, Sarvangasana, Matsyasana, Gomukhasana, Vakrasana, Ardhamatsyendrasana, Ushtrasana, Shashankasana, Paschimottanasana, Makrasana, Bhujangasana, Dhanurasana,  Shalbhasana, Shavasana.

Pranayama: Nadishodan, Ujjayi, Shitali, Shitkari, Bhastrika, Bhramari.

Meditation: Breath awareness, Om chanting, Om meditation.

Yoga Nidra, with this regular practice is believed to act on the subconscious level to bring about a state of homoestasis in the body and mind.

Behaviour change for reducing stress

• Keep a positive attitude. One should adopt middle path in all dealings. Avoid extremes.
• Accept that there are events that you can control.
• Be assertive instead of aggressive. Assert your feelings, opinions, or beliefs instead of becoming angry, defensive, or passive.
• Learn and practice relaxation techniques; try meditation & Yoga.
• Exercise regularly. Your body can fight stress better when it is fit.
• Eat healthy, well-balanced meals. Always take food after digestion of previous meal, according to suitability & in limited quantity.
• Learn to manage your time & speak more effectively according to the occasion with good, true & pleasing words.
• Set limits appropriately and say no to requests that would create excessive stress in your life.
• Make time for hobbies and interests.
• Get enough rest and sleep. Your body needs time to recover from stressful events.
• Don’t rely on alcohol, drugs, or food to reduce stress. Ease up on caffeine, too.
• Seek out social support. Spend enough time with those you love.

New methods for stress assessment were developed in the last years as a result of an unprecedented evolution in consumer electronics and miniaturization. Others were made possible from a better understanding of stress and its effects on the Human being at several levels: physiological, behavioral or physical. The diversity of alternatives, asshown in this section, allows for solutions to be used in specific scenarios with increased accuracy and commodity (e.g. driving vehicles, working at the computer). In this section we analyze in detail the characteristics of each of these new methods and in Section 6 we provide a critical analysis and a comparison between them.

Wearables

One of the latest trends in stress management is being fostered by wearable devices. Indeed, in the last years there was a major development in consumer electronics, with devices being used for acquiring physiological signs.

Smartphones

The evolution witnessed in the field of smartphones in the last years also led to the emergence of a new paradigm: wellness mobiles. Technological developments make it possible for health-care professionals to have access to comprehensive real-time patient data. Likewise, users can also continuously track their health on the go, build a comprehensive history and receive real-time advice or warning.

Indeed, mobile phones have a growing number and variety of sensors that can nowadays be leveraged to produce, in the near future, what can be called as personal wellness dashboards: devices with the ability to measure our heart rate or body temperature and quickly analyze our state of health. This may make personal health care cost-effective, decreasing the use of emergency care.

Some mobile apps take advantage, to some extent, of the sensors currently present in smartphones.

Although, in many cases, some of these apps lack proven scientific validity, their low cost and their availability makes them easily reach a significant number of users.

The majority of existing apps use the smartphones’ builtin sensors. Azumio’s Stress Check uses the camera and light features of the smartphone to measure heart rate. A similar approach is followed by other apps (e.g. StressViewer). There is also a significant number of apps dedicated not to measuring stress but to decreasing or coping with it, namely through breathing exercises, with visual or sound aids. Stress Releaser is one such app. Another example is DeStressify, that is based on music and specific exercises. There are also apps that use specific hardware, such as PIP Relax and Race, which is based on an electrodermal activity sensor. In this specific app, the user takes part in a race where victory is achieved only by out-relaxing the opponents. A generally competitive activity is thus changed into a relaxing one, with real-time biofeedback. Similar apps exist for this specific hardware. DroidJacket requires the use of VitalJacket – a shirt that embeds an electrocardiogram sensor, allowing a continuous monitoring of the patient.

The work described in also uses a specific sensor platform (Personal Biomonitoring System), in parallel with the smartphone, to monitor the level of stress of the smartphone user.

Other smartphone-based approaches are based on the changes in the speech production process, that happen during stress. To this end, these applications use the microphones embedded in the mobile phones. StressSense is one of such applications, based on a classifier that can robustly identify stress across multiple individuals in diverse acoustic environments. There are also authors who look at the behavior of smartphone users for stress indicators. Although not in a conclusive manner, in the authors find significant differences in location traces, visible bluethooth devices and phone call patterns when comparing stressful with stress free periods.

Computer Vision

Many different image sources can be used to monitor stress, the most frequently used being the Human face. Although cultural differences can intensify facial expression of emotions, there is considerable scientific evidence that emotions are communicated in distinct facial displays across cultures, age and gender. These approaches can be classified as two-dimensional or three-dimensional. Their main difference is that the first tries to recognize features directly from a two-dimensional decomposition/transformation of the image, and is generally not sensible to rotations and translations of the face.

The authors apply optical computer recognition algorithms to detect facial changes due to low and highstressor performance demands, with the aim to develop an approach suitable to be used by astronauts. This approach takes as input images from the whole face. On a similar approach but on a different field of application, Gao et al. present a system for detecting stress from facial expressions

in car drivers, on the other hand, consider only pupil diameter (together with physiological signals), to assess stress. To this end, they make use of a specific camera-based eye-tracking system. Speech and Other Linguistic Features

This section describes approaches for stress assessment based on vocal cues such as speed, rhythm or intonation. Interestingly, the variability introduced by stress or emotion can severely reduce speech recognition accuracy. Thus, the importance of techniques for detecting or assessing the presence of stress to improve the robustness of speech recognition systems.

The present a hierarchical framework, which consists of three layers of classifiers, for automatic stress detection in English speech utterances: a linguistic classifier, an acoustic classifier and an AdaBoost classifier. The paper presents accuracy rates higher than 90%. In a related approach, Imoto et al. address sentence-level stress detection of English for Computer-Assisted Language Learning by Japanese students. Stress models are set up by considering syllable structure and position of the syllable in a phrase, providing diagnostic information for students.

Eustress means beneficial stress either psychological, physical (e.g. exercise), or biochemical/radiological (hormesis).

The term was coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, consisting of the Greek prefix eu- meaning “good”, and stress, literally meaning “good stress”.

It is the positive cognitive response to stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfilment or other positive feelings. Selye created the term as a subgroup of stress to differentiate the wide variety of stressors and manifestations of stress.

Eustress is not defined by the stressor type, but rather how one perceives that stressor (e.g. a negative threat versus a positive challenge). Eustress refers to a positive response one has to a stressor, which can depend on one’s current feelings of control, desirability, location, and timing of the stressor. Potential indicators of eustress may include responding to a stressor with a sense of meaning, hope, or vigor. Eustress has also been positively correlated with life satisfaction and well-being.

Eustress occurs when the gap between what one has and what one wants is slightly pushed, but not overwhelmed. The goal is not too far out of reach but is still slightly more than one can handle. This fosters challenge and motivation since the goal is in sight. The function of challenge is to motivate a person toward improvement and a goal. Challenge is an opportunity-related emotion that allows people to achieve unmet goals. Eustress is indicated by hope and active engagement. Eustress has a significantly positive correlation with life satisfaction and hope. It is typically assumed that experiencing chronic stress, either in the form of distress or eustress, is negative. However, eustress can instead fuel physiological thriving by positively influencing the underlying biological processes implicated in physical recovery and immunity.

Measurement

Occupational eustress may be measured on subjective levels such as of quality of life or work life, job pressure, psychological coping resources, complaints, overall stress level, and mental health. Other subjective methodological practices have included interviews with focus groups asking about stressors and stress level. In one study participants were asked to remember a past stressful event and then answer questionnaires on coping skills, job well-being, and appraisal of the situation (viewing the stressful event as a challenge or a threat).

Common subjective methodologies were incorporated in a holistic stress model created in 2007 to acknowledge the importance of eustress, particularly in the workplace. This model uses hope, positive affect, meaningfulness, and manageability as a measure of eustress, and negative psychological states, negative affect, anxiety, and anger as a measure of distress.

Objective measures have also been used and include blood pressure rate, muscle tension, and absenteeism rates. Further physiological research has looked for neuroendocrine changes as a result of eustress and distress. Research has shown that catecholamines change rapidly to pleasurable stimuli. Studies have demonstrated that eustress and distress produce different responses in the neuroendocrine system, particularly dependent on the amount of personal control one feels over a stressor.

Factors

There are several factors that may increase or decrease one’s chances of experiencing eustress and, through eustress, experiencing flow.

• Stress is also influenced by hereditary predispositions and expectations of society. Thus, a person could already be at a certain advantage or disadvantage toward experiencing eustress.
• If a person enjoys experiencing new things and believes they have importance in the world, they are more likely to experience flow.
• Flow is negatively related to self-directedness, or an extreme sense of autonomy.
• Persistence is positively related to flow and closely related to intrinsic motivation.
• People with an internal locus of control, have an increased chance of flow because they believe they can increase their skill level to match the challenge.
• Perfectionism, however, is negatively related to flow. A person downplays their skill levels therefore making the gap too big, and they perceive the challenge to be too large to experience flow. On the opposite end of perfectionism, however, there are increased chances of flow.
• Active procrastination is positively related to flow. By actively delaying work, the person increases the challenge. Then once the challenge is matched with the person’s high skill levels, the person can experience flow. Those who passively procrastinate or do not procrastinate do not have these same experiences. It is only with the purposeful procrastination that a person is able to increase the challenge.
• Mindset is a significant factor in determining distress versus eustress. Optimistic people and those with high self-esteem contribute to eustress experiences. The positive mindset increases the chances of eustress and a positive response to stressors. Currently, the predominant mindset toward stress is that stress is debilitating. However, mindsets toward stress can be changed.

Examples

Eustress is common in the examples below. However, the examples depend on how an individual perceives the stress. The examples below are most often perceived as eustress:

• Meeting or engaging in a challenge
• Desired physical exercise (e. g. weight training, running, biking)
• Intentional exposure to cold water
• Playing sports
• Watching a suspenseful or scary movie
• Riding a roller coaster
• Competing in a tournament
• Gambling
• Wim Hof breathing
• People (e. g. Coaches, Parents)

Factors affecting eustress

In daily life, we often use the term “stress” to describe negative situations. This leads many people to believe that all stress is bad for you, which is not true. Eustress, or positive stress, has the following characteristics:

• Motivates, focuses energy
• Is short-term
• Is perceived as within our coping abilities
• Feels exciting
• Improves performance

In contrast, Distress, or negative stress, has the following characteristics:

• Causes anxiety or concern
• Can be short- or long-term
• Is perceived as outside of our coping abilities
• Feels unpleasant
• Decreases performance
• Can lead to mental and physical problems