Tag: Brand Management

Management Notes

Factor affecting Channel Selection

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Channel selection is influenced by several key factors that determine how effectively a product reaches the customer. One major factor is the nature of the product—perishable goods require faster, shorter channels, while durable goods can use longer ones. Market characteristics, such as geographic location and customer preferences, also shape the choice. Company resources play a role; firms with strong distribution networks may prefer direct channels. Competitor practices influence decisions to remain competitive. Cost and profitability considerations affect whether a business chooses wholesalers, retailers, or direct sales. Additionally, the nature of intermediaries, their reach, reputation, and willingness to cooperate, is crucial. Overall, channel selection aligns with company objectives, target market needs, and product type.

Factor affecting channel selection

(A) Considerations Related to Market

  • Number of Buyers: If the number of buyer is large then it is better to take the services of middlemen for the distribution of the goods. On the contrary, the distribution should be done by the manufacturer directly if the number of buyers is less.
  • Types of Buyers: Buyers can be of two types:- General Buyers and Industrial Buyers. If the more buyers of the product belong to general category then there can be more middlemen. But in case of industrial buyers there can be less middlemen.
  • Buying Habits: A manufacturer should take the services of middlemen if his financial position does not permit him to sell goods on credit to those consumers who are in the habit of purchasing goods on credit.
  • Buying Quantity: It is useful for the manufacturer to rely on the services of middlemen if the goods are bought in smaller quantity.
  • Size of Market: If the market area of the product is scattered fairly, then the producer must take the help of middlemen.

(B) Considerations Related to Manufacturer/Company

  • Goodwill: Manufacturer’s goodwill also affects the selection of channel of distribution. A manufacturer enjoying good reputation need not depend on the middlemen as he can open his own branches easily.
  • Desire to control the channel of Distribution: A manufacturer’s ambition to control the channel of distribution affects its selection. Consumers should be approached directly by such type of manufacturer. For example, electronic goods sector with a motive to control the service levels provided to the customers at the point of sale are resorting to company owned retail counters.
  • Financial Strength: A company which has a strong financial base can evolve its own channels. On the other hand, financially weak companies would have to depend upon middlemen.

(C) Considerations Related to Government

Considerations related to the government also affect the selection of channel of distribution. For example, only a license holder can sell medicines in the market according to the law of the government.

In this situation, the manufacturer of medicines should take care that the distribution of his product takes place only through such middlemen who have the relevant license.

(D) Others

  • Cost: A manufacturer should select such a channel of distribution which is less costly and also useful from other angles.
  • Availability: Sometimes some other channel of distribution can be selected if the desired one is not available.
  • Possibilities of Sales: Such a channel which has a possibility of large sale should be given weight age.

(E) Considerations Related to Product

When a manufacturer selects some channel of distribution he/she should take care of such factors which are related to the quality and nature of the product. They are as follows:

  • Unit Value of the Product: When the product is very costly it is best to use small distribution channel. For example, Industrial Machinery or Gold Ornaments are very costly products that are why for their distribution small distribution channel is used. On the other hand, for less costly products long distribution channel is used.
  • Standardised or Customised Product: Standardised products are those for which are pre-determined and there has no scope for alteration. For example: utensils of MILTON. To sell this long distribution channel is used. On the other hand, customised products are those which are made according to the discretion of the consumer and also there is a scope for alteration, for example; furniture. For such products face-to-face interaction between the manufacturer and the consumer is essential. So for these Direct Sales is a good option.
  • Perishability: A manufacturer should choose minimum or no middlemen as channel of distribution for such an item or product which is of highly perishable nature. On the contrary, a long distribution channel can be selected for durable goods.
  • Technical Nature: If a product is of a technical nature, then it is better to supply it directly to the consumer. This will help the user to know the necessary technicalities of the product.

Factors for the selection of channel of distribution

(i) Product:

Perishable goods need speedy movement and shorter route of distribution. For durable and standardized goods, longer and diversified channel may be necessary. Whereas, for custom made product, direct distribution to consumer or industrial user may be desirable.

Also, for technical product requiring specialized selling and serving talent, we have the shortest channel. Products of high unit value are sold directly by travelling sales force and not through middlemen.

(ii) Market:

(a) For consumer market, retailer is essential whereas in business market we can eliminate retailing.

(b) For large market size, we have many channels, whereas, for small market size direct selling may be profitable.

(c) For highly concentrated market, direct selling is preferred whereas for widely scattered and diffused markets, we have many channels of distribution.

(d) Size and average frequency of customer’s orders also influence the channel decision. In the sale of food products, we need both wholesaler and retailer.

Customer and dealer analysis will provide information on the number, type, location, buying habits of consumers and dealers in this case can also influence the choice of channels. For example, desire for credit, demand for personal service, amount and time and efforts a customer is willing to spend-are all important factors in channels choice.

(iii) Middlemen:

(a) Middlemen who can provide wanted marketing services will be given first preference.

(b) The middlemen who can offer maximum co-operation in promotional services are also preferred.

(c) The channel generating the largest sales volume at lower unit cost is given top priority.

(iv) Company:

(a) The company’s size determines the size of the market, the size of its larger accounts and its ability to set middlemen’s co-operation. A large company may have shorter channel.

(b) The company’s product-mix influences the pattern of channels. The broader the product- line, the shorter will be the channel.

If the product-mix has greater specialization, the company can favor selective or exclusive dealership.

(c) A company with substantial financial resources may not rely on middlemen and can afford to reduce the levels of distribution. A financially weak company has to depend on middlemen.

(d) New companies rely heavily on middlemen due to lack of experience.

(e) A company desiring to exercise greater control over channel will prefer a shorter channel as it will facilitate better co-ordination, communication and control.

(f) Heavy advertising and sale promotion can motivate middlemen in the promotional campaign. In such cases, a longer chain of distribution is profitable.

Thus, quantity and quality of marketing services provided by the company can influence the channel choice directly.

(v) Marketing Environment:

During recession or depression, shorter and cheaper channel is preferred. During prosperity, we have a wider choice of channel alternatives. The distribution of perishable goods even in distant markets becomes a reality due to cold storage facilities in transport and warehousing. Hence, this leads to expanded role of intermediaries in the distribution of perishable goods.

(vi) Competitors:

Marketers closely watch the channels used by rivals. Many a time, similar channels may be desirables to bring about distribution of a company’s products. Sometimes, marketers deliberately avoid channels used by competitors. For example, company may by-pass retail store channel (used by rivals) and adopt door-to-door sales (where there is no competition).

(vii) Customer Characteristics:

This refers to geographical distribution, frequency of purchase, average quantity of purchase and numbers of prospective customers.

(viii) Channel Compensation:

This involves cost-benefit analysis. Major elements of distribution cost apart from channel compensation are transportation, warehousing, storage insurance, material handling distribution personnel’s compensation and interest on inventory carried at different selling points. Distribution Cost Analysis is a fast growing and perhaps the most rewarding area in marketing cost analysis and control.

Management Notes

Buying Decision Process and its Implication on Retailing

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

The buying decision process, also known as the consumer decision-making process, is a series of steps that individuals go through when making purchasing choices. Understanding this process is crucial for retailers as it helps them tailor their marketing strategies, enhance customer experiences, and influence consumers at each stage of the journey.

The buying decision process typically involves five stages: Problem recognition, Information search, Evaluation of alternatives, Purchase decision, and Post-purchase behavior.

Understanding the intricacies of the buying decision process is fundamental for retailers aiming to succeed in a competitive marketplace. By aligning marketing strategies, product offerings, and customer experiences with the various stages of consumer decision-making, retailers can enhance their appeal, build customer loyalty, and drive sustainable business growth. The integration of technology, the emphasis on personalization, and a commitment to ethical practices further contribute to a positive and impactful retailing experience.

1. Problem Recognition

This is the initial stage where consumers recognize a need or problem that can be satisfied by making a purchase. It could be triggered by internal stimuli (e.g., running out of a product) or external stimuli (e.g., advertising).

Implications for Retailing:

  • Retailers must understand the factors influencing problem recognition and identify triggers that prompt consumers to consider a purchase.
  • Effective advertising, promotions, and product displays can stimulate the recognition of needs.

2. Information Search

Once the need is recognized, consumers seek information to find possible solutions. This can involve internal sources (memory, past experiences) and external sources (friends, family, online reviews).

Implications for Retailing:

  • Retailers should provide accessible and relevant information through multiple channels, including websites, social media, and in-store displays.
  • Reviews and recommendations play a crucial role, so encouraging and showcasing positive customer feedback is beneficial.

3. Evaluation of Alternatives

Consumers evaluate various product options based on attributes such as quality, price, brand reputation, and features. They create a consideration set of alternatives.

Implications for Retailing:

  • Retailers need to ensure their products or services stand out in terms of quality, value, and uniqueness.
  • Creating product bundles, offering discounts, or providing personalized recommendations can influence the evaluation process.

4. Purchase Decision

At this stage, the consumer makes the final decision and selects a particular product or service. Factors like pricing, availability, and promotions influence this decision.

Implications for Retailing:

  • Retailers should optimize pricing strategies, provide transparent information about costs, and offer convenient purchasing options (online, in-store, mobile).
  • Promotions, discounts, and loyalty programs can be effective in nudging consumers towards a purchase.

 

5. Post-Purchase Behavior

After the purchase, consumers assess their satisfaction. If expectations are met or exceeded, it leads to positive post-purchase behavior; otherwise, dissatisfaction may occur.

Implications for Retailing:

  • Ensuring a positive post-purchase experience is critical for customer loyalty and repeat business.
  • Effective customer service, easy returns, and follow-up communication can enhance customer satisfaction.

Additional Considerations:

Digital and Omnichannel Influences:

  • The digital landscape has transformed the buying decision process. Consumers often use online channels for information search, reviews, and comparisons.
  • Retailers must have a strong online presence, ensuring that their websites are user-friendly and mobile-optimized.

Social Media Influence:

  • Social media platforms play a significant role in shaping consumer perceptions and decisions.
  • Retailers should engage with customers on social media, use influencers, and leverage user-generated content to enhance brand image.

Personalization and Customer Relationship Management (CRM):

  • Personalized experiences cater to individual preferences, enhancing the overall customer journey.
  • Retailers can use CRM systems to track customer interactions, personalize marketing messages, and offer targeted promotions.

Supply Chain and Inventory Management:

  • An efficient supply chain ensures product availability, reducing the likelihood of consumers choosing alternatives due to stockouts.
  • Retailers need robust inventory management systems to optimize stock levels and fulfill customer demands promptly.

Post-Purchase Communication:

  • Continued communication post-purchase, through newsletters or loyalty programs, can reinforce the customer’s decision.
  • Retailers should encourage customer feedback and address any concerns promptly to build trust.

Customer Reviews and Ratings:

  • Online reviews heavily influence the evaluation stage of the buying process.
  • Retailers should actively manage and respond to customer reviews, showcasing a commitment to customer satisfaction.

Sustainability and Ethical Considerations:

  • Growing consumer awareness about sustainability and ethical practices impacts purchasing decisions.
  • Retailers adopting sustainable practices and communicating these efforts can appeal to environmentally conscious consumers.

Challenges and Opportunities for Retailers:

  • Increased Consumer Empowerment

Consumers now have access to vast information and options, making it challenging for retailers to influence decisions. However, it also provides opportunities to engage and educate consumers through effective marketing and communication.

  • Rise of E-commerce

The growing prominence of online shopping has altered traditional retail dynamics. Retailers must invest in seamless online experiences and omnichannel strategies to remain competitive.

  • Data Privacy Concerns

While personalized experiences can enhance the buying process, concerns about data privacy and security are on the rise. Retailers need to be transparent about data usage and implement robust security measures.

  • Globalization and Cultural Sensitivity

Retailers expanding internationally must be mindful of cultural differences and adapt their strategies to resonate with diverse consumer preferences.

  • Dynamic Consumer Trends

Rapid changes in consumer preferences and trends require retailers to stay agile and responsive. Regular market research and monitoring of industry trends are essential.

Management Notes

Concept of New Product Development

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes4

New Product Development (NPD) is the process of bringing a new product to market, involving a series of stages from idea generation to commercialization. It includes researching customer needs, creating innovative product concepts, designing and testing prototypes, and launching the final product. NPD is crucial for companies to stay competitive, meet changing customer demands, and drive growth. The process ensures that the product is technically feasible, financially viable, and well-suited to the market. By following structured stages like idea screening, concept development, and market testing, businesses can minimize risks and enhance the chances of a successful launch.

Stages of New Product Development:

  • Idea Generation

This stage involves systematically searching for new product ideas. A company must generate a wide range of ideas to find those worth pursuing. Major sources include internal sources, customers, competitors, distributors, and suppliers. Approximately 55% of new product ideas come from internal sources, where employees are encouraged to contribute ideas through incentive programs. Around 28% come from customers, often through observing or engaging with them. For example, Pillsbury’s Bake-Off has provided several new product ideas that became part of their cake mix line.

  • Idea Screening

The purpose of idea screening is to filter out ideas generated in the first stage, retaining only those with genuine potential. Companies may use product review committees or formal market research for this process. A checklist can help evaluate each idea based on key success factors. This ensures management can assess how well each idea aligns with the company’s capabilities and resources before moving forward with the most promising options.

  • Concept Development and Testing

An attractive idea must be developed into a product concept. While a product idea is an initial notion, a product concept presents it in detailed terms that are meaningful to consumers. Once concepts are developed, they are tested with consumers through symbolic or physical presentations. Companies gather consumer feedback, asking them to respond to the concept and project potential market sales based on this input.

  • Marketing Strategy Development

The next step involves developing a marketing strategy. This strategy is typically divided into three parts: first, the target market and product positioning along with sales, market share, and profit goals; second, the planned product price, distribution, and marketing budget; and third, long-term goals and marketing mix strategies to ensure the product’s success over time.

  • Business Analysis

After developing a marketing strategy, business analysis reviews projected sales, costs, and profits to evaluate the business potential of the product. If these financial projections meet the company’s objectives, the product proceeds to development. This analysis helps the company gauge the overall viability of the product.

  • Product Development

In this stage, R&D or engineering teams develop the concept into a physical product. This involves significant investment and tests whether the product idea can become a practical, marketable solution. Prototypes are created and tested for safety, functionality, and consumer appeal. Laboratory and field testing ensures the product performs effectively before moving forward.

  • Test Marketing

Once the product passes development tests, it enters test marketing, where the product and marketing strategy are tested in real market settings. Test marketing helps refine the marketing mix before a full launch. While test marketing can be expensive, it provides valuable insights. However, some companies bypass this stage to avoid competitor intervention or reduce costs.

  • Commercialization

The final stage is commercialization, where the product is officially launched in the market. High costs are associated with manufacturing, advertising, and promotion. The company decides on the timing and location of the launch based on market readiness and distribution capabilities. Many companies now use a simultaneous development approach, where different departments collaborate to speed up the process, enhancing flexibility and effectiveness in product development.

Management Notes

Marketing Research, Types, Process Tools and Techniques

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes3

Marketing Research is the systematic process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information about a market, target audience, competition, or industry trends. It helps businesses identify opportunities, assess consumer needs, preferences, and behaviors, and evaluate the effectiveness of marketing strategies. Marketing research can be classified into primary research (collecting new data through surveys, interviews, or experiments) and secondary research (analyzing existing data like reports or publications). It provides critical insights that guide decision-making, enhance customer satisfaction, and improve product or service offerings. Effective marketing research ensures that organizations remain competitive and responsive in dynamic market environments.

Features of Marketing Research:

1. Systematic Process

Marketing research follows a structured and methodical approach. It begins with identifying the problem or opportunity, followed by designing the research plan, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This systematic process ensures accuracy and reliability in findings, which are critical for informed decision-making.

  • Example: A company launching a new product systematically conducts surveys and focus groups to evaluate consumer demand.

2. Objective-Oriented

The primary goal of marketing research is to provide solutions to specific marketing problems or to uncover opportunities. It focuses on collecting relevant data and generating actionable insights to achieve predefined objectives. By remaining goal-focused, marketing research helps avoid irrelevant or excessive data collection.

  • Example: A company may conduct research specifically to understand why sales of a product are declining.

3. Data-Driven

Marketing research relies on data, whether qualitative (opinions, emotions, or motivations) or quantitative (numbers, statistics, or trends). The quality of the research is directly tied to the accuracy, relevance, and timeliness of the data collected.

  • Example: A retailer analyzing customer purchase patterns uses sales data to design targeted promotions.

4. Analytical in Nature

Marketing research emphasizes rigorous analysis of collected data to derive meaningful insights. Various analytical tools and statistical techniques are used to interpret the data, identify trends, and make forecasts. This ensures that decisions are not based on guesswork but on factual evidence.

  • Example: A software company uses predictive analytics to estimate customer lifetime value based on historical behavior.

5. Continuous and Adaptive

Marketing research is not a one-time activity but an ongoing process. Markets are dynamic, with changing consumer behaviors, preferences, and competitive forces. Businesses must adapt their research efforts to stay relevant and updated with current trends.

  • Example: Social media platforms conduct regular research to understand user preferences and develop new features accordingly.

6. Problem-Solving Orientation

Marketing research aims to solve real-world problems by identifying issues and suggesting practical solutions. It provides actionable recommendations to enhance marketing strategies, product development, or customer engagement.

  • Example: Research findings may indicate the need for better customer service training to improve satisfaction levels.

Types of Marketing Research:

1. Exploratory Research

This type of research is conducted when the problem is not clearly defined, and the objective is to explore new ideas or insights. It is qualitative in nature and helps identify potential issues, opportunities, or solutions. Techniques like focus groups, in-depth interviews, and open-ended surveys are commonly used.

  • Example: A company exploring the viability of a new product concept by interviewing a small group of target customers.

2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics of a specific market or consumer group. It is often quantitative and provides information about consumer demographics, behaviors, and preferences. Surveys, observational studies, and data analysis are typical methods used.

  • Example: A retailer conducting a survey to understand the purchasing habits of millennials.

3. Causal Research

Also known as experimental research, causal research is conducted to identify cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It tests hypotheses to determine how changes in one variable (e.g., price) impact another (e.g., sales).

  • Example: A business running A/B tests on two different ad campaigns to measure their impact on customer engagement.

4. Qualitative Research

This research focuses on understanding consumer emotions, motivations, and behaviors through non-numerical data. It uses methods like focus groups, interviews, and ethnographic studies to gather in-depth insights.

  • Example: A luxury brand conducting interviews to understand how customers perceive exclusivity.

5. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research collects and analyzes numerical data to identify trends, patterns, and relationships. It relies on large sample sizes and uses techniques like surveys, statistical analysis, and structured questionnaires.

  • Example: A telecom company analyzing customer satisfaction scores through large-scale surveys.

6. Primary Research

Primary research involves collecting original data directly from respondents. It provides specific insights tailored to the research objectives and is conducted through surveys, experiments, and direct observations.

  • Example: A startup conducting an online poll to gauge interest in its new app.

7. Secondary Research

This type of research involves analyzing existing data from sources like reports, studies, industry publications, and government statistics. It is cost-effective and useful for understanding broader trends.

  • Example: A business using market reports to understand industry growth rates.

8. Product Research

Product research focuses on understanding consumer preferences and feedback related to a product’s features, packaging, or usability. It helps in product development and enhancement.

  • Example: A beverage company testing different flavors with a focus group.

9. Market Segmentation Research

This research identifies distinct consumer segments within a broader market based on demographics, behaviors, or preferences. It helps businesses target the right audience effectively.

  • Example: A fashion retailer segmenting its market into groups based on age and lifestyle.

10. Competitive Analysis Research

This type examines competitors’ strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. It provides insights into the competitive landscape and helps businesses differentiate themselves.

  • Example: A software company analyzing its competitors’ pricing and features.

Process of Marketing Research:

1. Identifying the Problem or Opportunity

The first step in the marketing research process is clearly defining the problem or identifying the opportunity. This step is critical, as it sets the foundation for the entire research process. A poorly defined problem may lead to irrelevant or misleading results. Businesses need to determine what they want to achieve, whether it is understanding declining sales, evaluating a new product’s potential, or exploring customer preferences. For instance, a company may want to know why customer satisfaction levels have decreased over the past quarter.

2. Developing the Research Plan

Once the problem is identified, the next step is to design a comprehensive research plan. This involves selecting the type of research (exploratory, descriptive, or causal) and determining the research approach (qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both). Additionally, researchers decide on the methods for data collection, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, or experiments. The plan should also outline the sampling method, sample size, and research budget. A well-thought-out research plan ensures that the process is efficient and cost-effective.

3. Collecting Data

Data collection is a crucial step that involves gathering information from primary or secondary sources. Primary data is collected firsthand through methods like questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Secondary data is obtained from existing sources such as market reports, government publications, and industry databases. The choice of data collection method depends on the objectives and available resources. For instance, if a business wants real-time customer feedback, it may use online surveys or social media polls.

4. Analyzing the Data

After data collection, the next step is to organize, analyze, and interpret the information to derive meaningful insights. Statistical tools, software, and techniques like regression analysis, correlation, and data visualization are often employed. This step involves identifying patterns, trends, and relationships within the data. For example, analysis may reveal that customers prefer specific product features or that price sensitivity is affecting sales.

5. Presenting the Findings

Once the data is analyzed, the results need to be compiled into a clear and concise report. The report typically includes an executive summary, research objectives, methodology, key findings, and actionable recommendations. Visual aids like graphs, charts, and tables are often used to make the findings easier to understand. This presentation helps decision-makers grasp the key insights and make informed choices based on the research.

6. Taking Action and Monitoring Results

The final step in the marketing research process is to implement the recommendations and monitor the outcomes. Businesses use the insights gained to develop strategies, improve products, or enhance customer experiences. Continuous monitoring ensures that the implemented actions are achieving the desired results and allows for adjustments if necessary. For instance, if a marketing campaign based on research insights shows positive results, it validates the research process.

Tools and Techniques of Marketing Research:

1. Data Collection Tools

a. Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys are one of the most popular tools for collecting primary data. They involve structured questions designed to gather quantitative or qualitative insights.

  • Example: Online surveys using platforms like Google Forms, SurveyMonkey, or Qualtrics.
  • Benefit: Cost-effective and scalable for large audiences.

b. Interviews

Interviews provide in-depth insights by engaging participants in detailed discussions. They can be conducted face-to-face, via phone, or online.

  • Example: One-on-one interviews with key customers to explore their motivations.
  • Benefit: Allows for probing and clarifying responses.

c. Focus Groups

Focus groups involve moderated discussions with a small group of participants to gather opinions and ideas.

  • Example: A retailer organizing focus groups to test new store layouts.
  • Benefit: Reveals group dynamics and diverse perspectives.

d. Observation

Observation involves monitoring consumer behavior in real-world settings without direct interaction.

  • Example: Watching how shoppers navigate a store.
  • Benefit: Captures actual behavior rather than self-reported data.

e. Experiments

Experiments test specific variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

  • Example: A/B testing two versions of a website landing page.
  • Benefit: Provides reliable data for decision-making.

2. Data Analysis Tools

a. Statistical Software

Statistical tools like SPSS, SAS, and R help analyze large datasets and uncover trends, correlations, and patterns.

  • Example: A company using SPSS to analyze survey results.
  • Benefit: Ensures accurate and sophisticated data analysis.

b. Data Visualization Tools

Tools like Tableau, Power BI, and Excel create visual representations of data, such as charts and graphs.

  • Example: A marketer using Tableau to create dashboards for campaign performance.
  • Benefit: Makes complex data easy to understand and interpret.

c. Predictive Analytics

Predictive tools use algorithms and machine learning to forecast future trends and behaviors.

  • Example: An e-commerce platform predicting customer purchase likelihood.
  • Benefit: Enables proactive decision-making.

3. Online Tools

a. Social Media Analytics

Platforms like Hootsuite and Brandwatch analyze consumer sentiment and behavior on social media.

  • Example: Tracking brand mentions and hashtags to measure campaign effectiveness.
  • Benefit: Provides real-time insights into public opinion.

b. Web Analytics

Google Analytics and similar tools track website traffic, user behavior, and conversion rates.

  • Example: Monitoring the effectiveness of an ad campaign through website traffic spikes.
  • Benefit: Helps optimize digital marketing strategies.

c. CRM Systems

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) tools like Salesforce and HubSpot track customer interactions and preferences.

  • Example: Analyzing customer purchase history to identify upselling opportunities.
  • Benefit: Enhances customer relationship strategies.

4. Secondary Research Tools

a. Industry Reports and Publications

Reports from organizations like Nielsen, Gartner, or McKinsey provide valuable secondary data.

  • Example: Using market trends from a Nielsen report to strategize.
  • Benefit: Saves time and resources on primary research.

b. Government Data

Government databases, like Census data or economic reports, offer comprehensive and reliable information.

  • Example: Analyzing population trends for market expansion.
  • Benefit: Provides credible data for broad insights.

5. Qualitative Techniques

a. SWOT Analysis

This technique assesses a business’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

  • Example: A company analyzing its competitive edge in a new market.
  • Benefit: Supports strategic planning.

b. Ethnographic Research

This involves observing consumers in their natural environments to understand their habits and lifestyles.

  • Example: Studying how rural communities use a product.
  • Benefit: Offers deep, contextual insights.

Advantages of Marketing Research

(i) Marketing research helps the management of a firm in planning by providing accurate and up- to-date information about the demands, their changing tastes, attitudes, preferences, buying.

(ii) It helps the manufacturer to adjust his production according to the conditions of demand.

(iii) It helps to establish correlative relationship between the product brand and consumers’ needs and preferences.

(iv) It helps the manufacturer to secure economies in the distribution о his products.

(v) It makes the marketing of goods efficient and economical by eliminating all type of wastage.

(vi) It helps the manufacturer and dealers to find out the best way of approaching the potential.

(vii) It helps the manufacturer to find out the defects in the existing product and take the required corrective steps to improve the product.

(viii) It helps the manufacturer in finding out the effectiveness of the existing channels of distribution and in finding out the best way of distributing the goods to the ultimate consumers.

(ix) It guides the manufacturer in planning his advertising and sales promotion efforts.

(x) It is helpful in assessing the effectiveness of advertising programmes.

(xi) It is helpful in evaluating the relative efficiency of the different advertising media.

(xii) It is helpful in evaluating selling methods.

(xiii) It reveals the causes of consumer resistance.

(xiv) It minimizes the risks of uncertainties and helps in taking sound decisions.

(xv) It reveals the nature of demand for the firm’s product. That is, it indicates whether the demand for the product is constant or seasonal.

(xvi) It is helpful in ascertaining the reputation of the firm and its products.

(xvii) It helps the firm in determining the range within which its products are to be offered to the consumers. That is, it is helpful in determining the sizes, colours, designs, prices, etc., of the products of the firm.

(xviii) It would help the management to know how patents, licensing agreements and other legal restrictions affect the manufacture and sale of the firm’s products.

(xix) It is helpful to the management in determining the actual prices and the price ranges.

(xx) It is helpful to the management in determining the discount rates.

Limitations of Marketing Research

1. High Costs

Conducting marketing research can be expensive, especially for small businesses with limited budgets. Expenses for hiring research agencies, designing surveys, collecting data, and using analytical tools can add up quickly. This financial constraint may force companies to compromise on the quality or scope of the research.

  • Example: A startup may avoid conducting large-scale surveys due to high costs, leading to limited insights.

2. Time-Consuming Process

Marketing research is a time-intensive process that involves multiple steps, including planning, data collection, analysis, and reporting. In fast-moving markets, by the time the research is complete, the insights may already be outdated, rendering them less useful.

  • Example: A company taking months to complete research for a new product launch may lose its first-mover advantage.

3. Risk of Inaccurate Data

The accuracy of marketing research depends on the quality of data collected. If the data is incorrect, biased, or incomplete, the insights derived from it will also be flawed. Poor sampling techniques, respondent dishonesty, or misinterpretation can lead to unreliable results.

  • Example: Customers providing false responses in a survey to avoid revealing their true preferences.

4. Limited Scope

Marketing research often focuses on specific issues, making it difficult to gain a holistic view of the market. Additionally, certain qualitative factors, like emotional responses or cultural nuances, may be difficult to quantify or measure accurately.

  • Example: Research that examines customer satisfaction but overlooks external factors like economic conditions influencing buying behavior.

5. Dependency on Respondents

Marketing research relies heavily on respondents’ participation and honesty. If respondents are unwilling to engage, provide inaccurate information, or exhibit bias, the results can be compromised. Non-response or low response rates can also affect the validity of the study.

  • Example: Online surveys often experience low response rates, leading to insufficient data for meaningful analysis.

6. Rapid Market Changes

Markets are dynamic, with trends, consumer preferences, and competition evolving rapidly. Research findings may become irrelevant by the time they are implemented, especially in industries like technology or fashion where changes occur frequently.

  • Example: A company basing its advertising strategy on outdated research results may fail to connect with current consumer trends.
Management Notes

Market Segmentation

indiafreenotesby indiafreenotes0

Market Segmentation is the process of dividing a broad consumer base into smaller, more manageable groups based on shared characteristics like demographics, behavior, geography, or psychographics. This helps businesses tailor products, messaging, and strategies to meet specific customer needs, improving targeting, efficiency, and customer satisfaction. Effective segmentation enhances marketing ROI and competitive advantage.

Market Segmentation

  • Market segmentation is a marketing concept which divides the complete market set up into smaller subsets comprising of consumers with a similar taste, demand and preference.
  • A market segment is a small unit within a large market comprising of like minded individuals.
  • One market segment is totally distinct from the other segment.
  • A market segment comprises of individuals who think on the same lines and have similar interests.
  • The individuals from the same segment respond in a similar way to the fluctuations in the market.

Basis of Market Segmentation

1. Gender

  • The marketers divide the market into smaller segments based on gender. Both men and women have different interests and preferences, and thus the need for segmentation.
  • Organizations need to have different marketing strategies for men which would obviously not work in case of females.
  • A woman would not purchase a product meant for males and vice a versa.
  • The segmentation of the market as per the gender is important in many industries like cosmetics, footwear, jewellery and apparel industries.

2. Age Group

Division on the basis of age group of the target audience is also one of the ways of market segmentation.

The products and marketing strategies for teenagers would obviously be different than kids.

  • Age group (0 – 10 years) – Toys, Nappies, Baby Food, Prams
  • Age Group (10 – 20 years) – Toys, Apparels, Books, School Bags
  • Age group (20 years and above) – Cosmetics, Anti-Ageing Products, Magazines, apparels and so on

3. Income

Marketers divide the consumers into small segments as per their income. Individuals are classified into segments according to their monthly earnings.

The three categories are:

  • High income Group
  • Mid Income Group
  • Low Income Group

Stores catering to the higher income group would have different range of products and strategies as compared to stores which target the lower income group.

Pantaloon, Carrefour, Shopper’s stop target the high income group as compared to Vishal Retail, Reliance Retail or Big bazaar who cater to the individuals belonging to the lower income segment.

4. Marital Status

Market segmentation can also be as per the marital status of the individuals. Travel agencies would not have similar holiday packages for bachelors and married couples.

5. Occupation

Office goers would have different needs as compared to school / college students.

A beach house shirt or a funky T Shirt would have no takers in a Zodiac Store as it caters specifically to the professionals.

Types of Market Segmentation

  • Psychographic segmentation

The basis of such segmentation is the lifestyle of the individuals. The individual’s attitude, interest, value help the marketers to classify them into small groups.

  • Behaviouralistic Segmentation

The loyalties of the customers towards a particular brand help the marketers to classify them into smaller groups, each group comprising of individuals loyal towards a particular brand.

  • Geographic Segmentation

Geographic segmentation refers to the classification of market into various geographical areas. A marketer can’t have similar strategies for individuals living at different places.

Nestle promotes Nescafe all through the year in cold states of the country as compared to places which have well defined summer and winter season.

McDonald’s in India does not sell beef products as it is strictly against the religious beliefs of the countrymen, whereas McDonald’s in US freely sells and promotes beef products.

Not all individuals have similar needs. A male and a female would have varied interests and liking towards different products. A kid would not require something which an adult needs. A school kid would have a different requirement than an office goer. Market Segmentation helps the marketers to bring together individuals with similar choices and interests on a common platform.

  • Market Segmentation helps the marketers to devise appropriate marketing strategies and promotional schemes according to the tastes of the individuals of a particular market segment. A male model would look out of place in an advertisement promoting female products. The marketers must be able to relate their products to the target segments.
  • Market segmentation helps the marketers to understand the needs of the target audience and adopt specific marketing plans accordingly. Organizations can adopt a more focussed approach as a result of market segmentation.
  • Market segmentation also gives the customers a clear view of what to buy and what not to buy. A Rado or Omega watch would have no takers amongst the lower income group as they cater to the premium segment. College students seldom go to a Zodiac or Van Heusen store as the merchandise offered by these stores are meant mostly for the professionals. Individuals from the lower income group never use a Blackberry. In simpler words, the segmentation process goes a long way in influencing the buying decision of the consumers.

An individual with low income would obviously prefer a Nano or Alto instead of Mercedes or BMW.

  • Market segmentation helps the organizations to target the right product to the right customers at the right time. Geographical segmentation classifies consumers according to their locations. A grocery store in colder states of the country would stock coffee all through the year as compared to places which have defined winter and summer seasons.
  • Segmentation helps the organizations to know and understand their customers better. Organizations can now reach a wider audience and promote their products more effectively. It helps the organizations to concentrate their hard work on the target audience and get suitable results.

Steps in Market Segmentation

1. Identify the target market

The first and foremost step is to identify the target market. The marketers must be very clear about who all should be included in a common segment. Make sure the individuals have something in common. A male and a female can’t be included in one segment as they have different needs and expectations.

Burberry stocks separate merchandise for both men and women. The management is very clear on the target market and has separate strategies for product promotion amongst both the segments.

A Garnier men’s deodorant would obviously not sell if the company uses a female model to create awareness.

Segmentation helps the organizations decide on the marketing strategies and promotional schemes.

Maruti Suzuki has adopted a focused approach and wisely created segments within a large market to promote their cars.

  • Lower Income Group – Maruti 800, Alto.
  • Middle Income Group – Wagon R, Swift, Swift Dzire, Ritz.
  • High Income Group – Maruti Suzuki Kizashi, Suzuki Grand Vitara.

Suzuki Grand Vitara would obviously have no takers amongst the lower income group.

The target market for Rado, Omega or Tag Heuer is the premium segment as compared to Maxima or a Sonata watch.

2. Identify expectations of Target Audience

Once the target market is decided, it is essential to find out the needs of the target audience. The product must meet the expectations of the individuals. The marketer must interact with the target audience to know more about their interests and demands.

Kellogg’s K special was launched specifically for the individuals who wanted to cut down on their calorie intake.

Marketing professionals or individuals exposed to sun rays for a long duration need something which would protect their skin from the harmful effects of sun rays. Keeping this in mind, many organizations came with the concept of sunscreen lotions and creams with a sun protection factor especially for men.

3. Create Subgroups

The organizations should ensure their target market is well defined. Create subgroups within groups for effective results.

Cosmetics for females now come in various categories.

  • Creams and Lotions for girls between 20-25 years would focus more on fairness.
  • Creams and lotions for girls between 25 to 35 years promise to reduce the signs of ageing.

4. Review the needs of the target audience

It is essential for the marketer to review the needs and preferences of individuals belonging to each segment and sub-segment. The consumers of a particular segment must respond to similar fluctuations in the market and similar marketing strategies.

5. Name your market Segment

Give an appropriate name to each segment. It makes implementation of strategies easier.

A kids section can have various segments namely new born, infants, toddlers and so on.

6. Marketing Strategies

Devise relevant strategies to promote brands amongst each segment. Remember you can’t afford to have same strategies for all the segments. Make sure there is a connect between the product and the target audience. Advertisements promoting female toiletries can’t afford to have a male model, else the purpose gets nullified.

A model promoting a sunscreen lotion has to be shown roaming or working in sun for the desired impact.

7. Review the behavior

Review the behavior of the target audience frequently. It is not necessary individuals would have the same requirement (demand) all through the year. Demands vary, perceptions change and interests differ. A detailed study of the target audience is essential.

8. Size of the Target Market

It is essential to know the target market size. Collect necessary data for the same. It helps in sales planning and forecasting.

Management Notes

Relationship Marketing, Meaning, Functions, Benefits and Examples

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Relationship Marketing is a strategic approach aimed at building long-term connections with customers, based on trust, satisfaction, and loyalty. Unlike traditional marketing, which focuses primarily on individual transactions, relationship marketing emphasizes customer retention, interaction, and ongoing engagement. It fosters stronger customer relationships by delivering personalized experiences and meeting the evolving needs of consumers. The ultimate goal is to transform satisfied customers into loyal advocates of the brand, creating a sustainable and profitable customer base.

In today’s competitive marketplace, businesses that excel at relationship marketing tend to outperform those that focus solely on short-term sales. By developing meaningful relationships with customers, companies can reduce churn, increase customer lifetime value, and generate positive word-of-mouth marketing.

Functions of Relationship Marketing

  • Customer Segmentation

The first step in relationship marketing is identifying and segmenting customers based on shared characteristics, preferences, and behaviors. This allows businesses to create targeted marketing strategies that address the specific needs and interests of each group.

  • Personalized Communication

Relationship marketing thrives on personalized communication. Companies use data to understand customer preferences and tailor their messages accordingly. Whether through email, social media, or direct interactions, personalized communication makes customers feel valued and understood.

  • Loyalty Programs

Loyalty programs are a key function of relationship marketing, designed to reward customers for repeat business. These programs incentivize customers to stay loyal to the brand, often by offering discounts, exclusive offers, or points that can be redeemed for future purchases.

  • Customer Feedback Systems

Gathering and acting on customer feedback is essential in relationship marketing. By understanding customer experiences and satisfaction levels, companies can make improvements and address pain points, ultimately enhancing the relationship with their customers.

  • Customer Support and After-Sales Service

Providing excellent customer support is critical to relationship marketing. Effective customer service helps resolve issues quickly, ensuring that customers remain satisfied and are more likely to continue doing business with the company.

  • Cross-Selling and Upselling

Relationship marketing involves identifying opportunities to offer complementary products or services to customers based on their previous purchases. Cross-selling and upselling increase customer value while meeting more of their needs.

  • Customer Retention Strategies

A major function of relationship marketing is focusing on customer retention. This involves developing strategies to maintain strong relationships, such as regular communication, exclusive offers, and personalized experiences that keep customers engaged.

  • Building Emotional Connections

Relationship marketing aims to create emotional bonds between customers and brands. By understanding customers’ values, aspirations, and emotions, companies can create experiences that resonate on a deeper level, fostering long-term loyalty.

Benefits of Relationship Marketing

  • Increased Customer Loyalty

One of the most significant benefits of relationship marketing is improved customer loyalty. By consistently providing value and personalized experiences, businesses can turn satisfied customers into loyal ones who continue to choose the brand over competitors.

  • Higher Customer Retention Rates

Relationship marketing leads to higher retention rates, as customers who feel valued and supported are more likely to stay with a company over time. This reduces customer churn and the need for constant acquisition efforts.

  • Enhanced Customer Lifetime Value (CLV)

By fostering long-term relationships, businesses can increase the overall value each customer brings over the course of their relationship. Loyal customers tend to spend more, purchase more frequently, and refer others, boosting profitability.

  • Positive Word-of-Mouth

Customers who have positive relationships with a brand are more likely to recommend it to friends, family, and colleagues. Positive word-of-mouth is a powerful marketing tool, often leading to new customer acquisitions at no additional cost to the company.

  • Cost Efficiency

Relationship marketing is more cost-effective than constantly acquiring new customers. Retaining existing customers is generally cheaper than attracting new ones, as loyal customers require less marketing spend and tend to purchase more frequently.

  • Improved Customer Insights

Ongoing engagement with customers provides businesses with valuable insights into their preferences, behaviors, and needs. This data can be used to refine marketing strategies and improve product offerings, resulting in better customer experiences.

  • Stronger Brand Reputation

Relationship marketing contributes to a stronger brand reputation. Satisfied, loyal customers often speak positively about a company, enhancing its credibility and reputation in the marketplace.

  • Resilience Against Competitors

When customers have a strong relationship with a brand, they are less likely to switch to competitors, even if they offer lower prices or similar products. Relationship marketing creates a competitive advantage by solidifying customer trust and loyalty.

Examples of Relationship Marketing

  • Amazon Prime

Amazon’s Prime membership program is an excellent example of relationship marketing. By offering fast shipping, exclusive deals, and streaming services, Amazon builds long-term relationships with customers. The loyalty program encourages repeat purchases and enhances customer retention.

  • Starbucks Rewards

Starbucks has effectively implemented relationship marketing through its rewards program. Customers earn points with every purchase, which can be redeemed for free products. Personalized offers based on buying behavior help deepen the relationship with each customer.

  • NikePlus

NikePlus is a loyalty program designed to engage customers by offering personalized recommendations, exclusive products, and early access to sales. By connecting with customers through their fitness journeys and lifestyle choices, Nike strengthens brand loyalty.

  • Apple’s Customer Service

Apple is known for its exceptional customer service and support. Whether through its Genius Bar in stores or online assistance, Apple focuses on maintaining long-term relationships by ensuring customer satisfaction and providing solutions to any issues that arise.

  • Zappos

Zappos, the online shoe and clothing retailer, is famous for its customer-centric approach. The company goes above and beyond to provide outstanding customer service, often exceeding customer expectations, which helps foster strong, long-lasting relationships.

  • Tesco Clubcard

Tesco’s Clubcard loyalty program provides personalized discounts and offers based on customers’ shopping habits. By rewarding customers for their loyalty and tailoring promotions to individual preferences, Tesco builds strong relationships with its shoppers.

  • Sephora Beauty Insider

Sephora’s Beauty Insider program is another example of relationship marketing. Customers earn points with every purchase, which can be redeemed for exclusive products and services. Sephora also offers personalized beauty tips and recommendations, enhancing the customer experience.

  • Delta SkyMiles

Delta Airlines’ SkyMiles loyalty program rewards frequent flyers with miles that can be redeemed for flights, upgrades, and other perks. By focusing on customer retention and providing exclusive benefits to loyal customers, Delta strengthens its relationship with travelers.

Lucknow University BBA Notes

Types of Intermediaries

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Unless customers are buying a product directly from the company that makes it, sales are always facilitated by one or more marketing intermediaries, also known as middlemen. Marketing intermediaries do much more than simply take a slice of the pie with each transaction. Not only do they give customers easier access to products, they can also streamline a manufacturer’s processes. Four types of traditional intermediaries include agents and brokers, wholesalers, distributors and retailers.

Types of Intermediaries

  • Wholesalers

Wholesalers typically are independently owned businesses that buy from manufacturers and take title to the goods. These intermediaries then resell the products to retailers or organizations. If they’re full-service wholesalers, they provide services such as storage, order processing and delivery, and they participate in promotional support. They generally handle products from several producers but specialize in particular products. Limited-service wholesalers offer few services and often serve as drop shippers where the retailer passes the customer’s order information to the wholesaler, who then packages the product and ships it directly to the customer.

  • Retailers

Retailers work directly with the customer. These intermediaries work with wholesalers and distributors and often provide many different products manufactured by different producers all in one location. Customers can compare different brands and pick up items that are related but aren’t manufactured by the same producer, such as bread and butter. Purchasing bread or medications directly from a manufacturer or pharmaceutical company would be time-consuming and expensive for a customer. But buying these products from a local retail “middleman” is simple, quick and convenient.

  • Distributors

Distributors are generally privately owned and operated companies, selected by manufacturers, that buy product for resale to retailers, similar to wholesalers. These intermediaries typically work with many businesses and cover a specific geographic area or market sector, performing several functions, including selling, delivery, extending credit and maintaining inventory. Although main roles of distributors include immediate access to goods and after-sales service, they typically specialize in a narrower product range to ensure better product knowledge and customer service.

  • Agents and Brokers

Agents and brokers sell products or product services for a commission, or a percentage of the sales price or product revenue. These intermediaries have legal authority to act on behalf of the manufacturer or producer. Agents and brokers never take title to the products they handle and perform fewer services than wholesalers and distributors. Their primary function is to bring buyers and sellers together. For example, real estate agents and insurance agents don’t own the items that are sold, but they receive a commission for putting buyers and sellers together. Manufacturers’ representatives that sell several non-competing products and arrange for their delivery to customers in a certain geographic region also are agent intermediaries.

Role of Intermediaries

  • Purchasing

Wholesalers purchase very large quantities of goods directly from producers or from other wholesalers. By purchasing large quantities or volumes, wholesalers are able to secure significantly lower prices.

Imagine a situation in which a farmer grows a very large crop of potatoes. If he sells all of the potatoes to a single wholesaler, he will negotiate one price and make one sale. Because this is an efficient process that allows him to focus on farming (rather than searching for additional buyers), he will likely be willing to negotiate a lower price. Even more important, because the wholesaler has such strong buying power, the wholesaler is able to force a lower price on every farmer who is selling potatoes.

The same is true for almost all mass-produced goods. When a producer creates a large quantity of goods, it is most efficient to sell all of them to one wholesaler, rather than negotiating prices and making sales with many retailers or an even larger number of consumers. Also, the bigger the wholesaler is, the more likely it will have significant power to set attractive prices.

  • Warehousing and Transportation

Once the wholesaler has purchased a mass quantity of goods, it needs to get them to a place where they can be purchased by consumers. This is a complex and expensive process. McLane Company operates eighty distribution centers around the country. Its distribution center in Northfield, Missouri, is 560,000 square feet big and is outfitted with a state-of-the art inventory tracking system that allows it to manage the diverse products that move through the center. It relies on its own vast trucking fleet to handle the transportation.

  • Grading and Packaging

Wholesalers buy a very large quantity of goods and then break that quantity down into smaller lots. The process of breaking large quantities into smaller lots that will be resold is called bulk breaking. Often this includes physically sorting, grading, and assembling the goods. Returning to our potato example, the wholesaler would determine which potatoes are of a size and quality to sell individually and which are to be packaged for sale in five-pound bags.

  • Risk Bearing

Wholesalers either take title to the goods they purchase, or they own the goods they purchase. There are two primary consequences of this, both of which are both very important to the distribution channel. First, it means that the wholesaler finances the purchase of the goods and carries the cost of the goods in inventory until they are sold. Because this is a tremendous expense, it drives wholesalers to be accurate and efficient in their purchasing, warehousing, and transportation processes.

Second, wholesalers also bear the risk for the products until they are delivered. If goods are damaged in transport and cannot be sold, then the wholesaler is left with the goods and the cost. If there is a significant change in the value of the products between the time of the purchase from the producer and the sale to the retailer, the wholesaler will absorb that profit or loss.

  • Marketing

Often, the wholesaler will fill a role in the promotion of the products that it distributes. This might include creating displays for the wholesaler’s products and providing the display to retailers to increase sales. The wholesaler may advertise its products that are carried by many retailers.

Wholesalers also influence which products the retailer offers. For example, McLane Company was a winner of the 2016 Convenience Store News Category Captains, in recognition for its innovations in providing the right products to its customers. McLane created unique packaging and products featuring movie themes, college football themes, and other special occasion branding that were designed to appeal to impulse buyers. They also shifted the transportation and delivery strategy to get the right products in front of consumers at the time they were most likely to buy. Its convenience store customers are seeing sales growth, as is the wholesaler.

  • Distribution

As distribution channels have evolved, some retailers, such as Walmart and Target, have grown so large that they have taken over aspects of the wholesale function. Still, it is unlikely that wholesalers will ever go away. Most retailers rely on wholesalers to fulfill the functions that we have discussed, and they simply do not have the capability or expertise to manage the full distribution process. Plus, many of the functions that wholesalers fill are performed most efficiently at scale. Wholesalers are able to focus on creating efficiencies for their retail channel partners that are very difficult to replicate on a small scale.

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