Author: indiafreenotes

Non-Governmental Organization is a broad term, which includes charity organizations, advisory committees and various other professional organizations. NGOs in India are spread across the country and they have close contacts with communities.

They are involved in the whole spectrum of developmental activities from creating environ­mental awareness to undertaking watershed development: from disaster management to sustainable livelihoods; from joint forest management to giving inputs to policies. They range from clubs, which encourage nature camping to agencies, which undertake research and monitoring.

There are large number of NGOs in India and other countries that are exclusively working for environmental, protection, conservation, and aware­ness. The number of these non-governmental organizations which are actively involved in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more than in any of the develop­ing country. Increasingly, the government is viewing NGOs not only as agencies that will help them to implement their programs, but also as partners shaping policy and programs.

NGOs are now playing an important role in framing the environmental policy, mobi­lizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting the endangered species of forests and animals. Environmental organizations such as Earth watch and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society have been successful in creating awareness about the environmental dangers in using drift nets in the commercial fishing industry.

Through driftnet monitoring, public education and action they were successful in banning drift- net system internationally. The issues like future of environmental protection, sustain­able development and zero population growth are some of the major concerns of the environmental NGOs.

Environmental policies will achieve positive results only when they are addressed to local issues and solve the problems of local people. The policymakers should keep in mind the needs of the people while framing the policies and implementing the envi­ronment-friendly projects.

Unless the needs of the people are identified and supported, sustainable development cannot be achieved. Policymakers and administrators should take care in selecting, financing, and implementing projects, which are aimed at pro­moting social welfare. They should not encourage the enterprises that promote private ownership and cooperation.

Some of the international environmental organizations are Greenpeace, Worldwide Fund for Nature’ (WWF), Earth First, etc. Let us now have a detailed dis­cussion on some of the environmental organizations and their efforts in protecting environment.

Greenpeace:

Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims at promoting environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning organiza­tion, addressing the environmental abuse through direct, non-violent confrontations with governments and companies. It exposes the global environmental problems and provides solutions for a healthy environment.

Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planets biodiver­sity and environment.

It campaigns to:

1. Stop Climate Change:

The extensive use of oil, gas, fuel, and other energy resources leads to climatic changes, which results in global warming. In order to stop climate change, Greenpeace is campaigning on various fronts. It has been researching to stop climate change and to promote clean energy solutions.

2. Protect Ancient Forests:

Many forests of the world are in crisis. The plants and animals are facing the threat of extinction. People living in forests and depend­ing on them for their livelihood are also under threat. Greenpeace takes up the responsibility to save the forests and provides solutions for the same.

3. Save the Oceans:

Greenpeace’s save the oceans campaign currently focuses on four major threats to the world’s oceans: overfishing, pirate fishing, whaling, and intensive shrimp aquaculture.

4. Stop Whaling:

Commercial Whaling has resulted in the decline of the world’s whale population. In order to stop commercial whaling, Greenpeace is working on many fronts. Through political work public outreach and by adopting non­violent direct, action against the whalers at sea. Greenpeace is fighting against commercial whaling.

5. Say No to Genetic Engineering:

Genetic engineering enables creation of plants, animals and micro-organisms through the manipulation of genes. The organisms, which are produced through genetic engineering when interbred with the natural organisms lead to new environments, which are uncontrolled.

Their release into the environment leads to “genetic pollution”, as once released they cannot be recalled back. Greenpeace believes that “organisms,” which are genetically engineered, should not be released into the environment without adequate knowledge of their impact on the health and environment. It advo­cates taking immediate measures such as labeling of genetically engineered ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops from conven­tional ones.

6. Stop the Nuclear Threat:

Greenpeace campaigns against the use of nuclear power as its use has never been peaceful. It leads to accidents, deaths, and disasters. Radiation released into the environment through the nuclear tests has led to the contamination of soil, air, rivers, and oceans, causing cancer and other diseases in people.

7. Eliminate Toxic Chemicals:

Greenpeace also campaigns against toxic chemicals, as they prove to be a global threat to the health and environment.

8. Encourage Sustainable Trade:

Greenpeace opposes the current form of glo­balization that is increasing corporate power. It demands that the World Trade Organization (WTO) adopt a policy of trade, which works for all and that pre­serves and restores the environment. Governments must work toward achieving sustainable development, which means integrating three things: environmental, social, and economic priorities.

Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, and in order to maintain its independence it does not accept funds from governments or from the corporate sector. It depends mainly on the voluntary contributions of individuals and grants from foundations. Greenpeace was founded in 1971 to oppose US nuclear testing in Alaska.

The organization has fought to protect the endangered species, stop the dumping of hazardous waste, and strengthen national and international laws that regulate environmental affairs. French intelligence agents blew up Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace ship scheduled to protest French nuclear weapons tests, in Auckland Harbor, New Zealand, on 10 July 1985. The resulting scan­dal caused the resignation of Frances minister of defense and the firing of the head of Frances intelligence service.

Greenpeace has played an important role in preserving the environment, which is proved by its successful achievements:

1. A ban on toxic waste exports to less developed countries.
2. A moratorium on commercial whaling.
3. A United Nations convention providing for better management of world fisheries.
4. A Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.
5. A 50-year moratorium on mineral exploitation in Antarctica.
6. Ban on the dumping at sea of radioactive and industrial waste and disused oil installations.
7. An end to high-sea, large-scale driftnet fishing.
8. A ban on all nuclear weapons testing their first ever campaign.

Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)—India:

WWF is an international organization for wildlife conservation with its focus on protecting particular species of wildlife fauna. As its range of activities broadened, the international organization believed that its name no longer reflected the scope of its activities and became the Worldwide Fund for Nature in 1986. But the affiliated groups in the United States and Canada retained the original name. The organization is now simply, referred to as WWF.

WWF-India is committed to protecting and saving the already degraded and threat­ened natural bounties in the country. The organization is today dedicated to the con­servation of natural habitats and ecosystems in India.

WWF-India was established as a Charitable Trust in 1969. With its network of State/Divisional and Field Offices spread across the country to implement its programs, WWF-India is the largest and one of the most experienced conservation organizations in the country.

The Secretariat of the orga­nization functions from New Delhi. The organization is part of the WWF family with 27 independent national organizations. The coordinating body, the WWF International, is located at Gland in Switzerland.

In order to suit India’s specific ecological and socio-cultural situation, WWF-India articulated its mission in 1987 as follows: “The promotion of nature conservation and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and equitable development.”

The WWF-India Mission has five broad program components:

1. Promoting India’s ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.
2. Conserving biological diversity.
3. Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.
4. Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption, promoting sustainable lifestyles.

WWF-India implements its conservation programs through Field Programs, Public Policy, Education, Communications, NGO Networking, and Resource Mobilization.

The key environmental issues, which WWF-India has involved itself with, are:

The tiger conservation program, fresh-water and wetlands program, river dolphin conservation program, wildlife trade monitoring, managing forests, environmental law, informa­tion management and environmental education.

Some Other Environmental Organizations in India:

1. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):

Founded in 1883, is recog­nized as one of the foremost conservation research organizations in the world. It aims to collect data on the specimens on natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To disseminate knowledge of flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature, expeditions and to study wildlife-related problems and rec­ommend management plans to conserve wildlife and its habitat.

It conducts field research projects on bird migration. It also conducts studies of certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitat and through environmental education imparts the knowledge and awareness of the need to conserve wildlife.

It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction with both local and overseas counter­part organizations on birds, reptiles, mammals, natural history, and the impact of developmental programs on wildlife.

2. Development Alternatives Group:

Development Alternatives Group based in Delhi works in all parts of the country. It was established in 1983 to design options and promote sustain­able development through programs of economic efficiency, equity and social justice, resource conservation, and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire nation: It is working in the field of pollution monitoring and control, waste recycling management, wasteland development, and appropriate technology.

Its objective is to design options and promote sustainable development through programs of:

1. Economic efficiency,
2. Equity and social justice,
3. Environmental harmony,
4. Resource conservation, and
5. Self-reliance.

3. The Energy Research Institute (TERI):

Established in 1974, is a wholly indepen­dent, non-profit research institute. Its mission is to develop and promote technolo­gies, policies, and institutions for efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It has been imparting environmental education through projects, workshops, audio-visual aids, and quiz competitions.

It deals with policy-related works in the energy sector, research on environmental subjects, development of renewable energy technologies and promotion of energy efficiency in the industry and trans­port sector. TERI also has a major program in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented toward increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful products and mitigating the harmful environmental impacts of several economic activities.

TERI established the TERI University in 1998. Initially set up as the TERI School of Advanced Studies, it received the status of a deemed university in 1999. The University is a unique institution of higher learning exclusively for programs leading to PhD and master level degrees. Its uniqueness lies in the wealth of research carried out within TERI as well as by its faculty and students making it a genuinely research oriented University.

Environmental clearances are required for 29 types of projects specified in Schedule 1 of the Environment Impact Assessment Notification, 2006.

Moreover, the Central Pollution Control Board introduced a colour codification for industries depending on their impact on the environment. Industries were classified on a pollution potential index as red, orange, green and white industries. Only ‘white’ industries can function without seeking environmental clearances.

Environmental clearances are also required regardless of the type of project in areas which are ecologically fragile, such as-

• Religious and historic places
• Archaeological monuments
• Scenic areas
• Hill resorts
• Beach resorts
• Coastal areas rich in mangroves, corals, breeding grounds of specific species
• Estuaries
• Gulf areas
• Biosphere reserves
• National parks and sanctuaries
• National lakes and swamps
• Seismic zones
• Tribal settlements
• Areas of scientific and geological interest
• Defence installations, especially those of security importance and sensitive to pollution
• Border areas (international)

Early Legislation

Pre-Independence

Environmental regulations in India received a began during British times, with the coming of the Industrial Revolution. These laws, however, were less protective of the environment and more oppressive for the native Indians. The Forest Acts of 1865 and 1927, for example, were the first laws protecting the forests, but focussed more on curtailing the customary rights of the local forest communities.

Criminal sanctions for water and atmospheric pollution were also introduced under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, along with a number of legislations in different Presidencies. Again, the aim of these laws was not to conserve the environment, but to restrict their use by the natives and allow their exploitation by the British.

Post-Independence

After Independence and before the 1970’s, the only environmental regulation in India was done by a few scattered regulations, a few Central and various State Acts.

• Factories Act, 1948

The Factories Act, 1948 required factories to effectively manage waste disposal and gave State governments the ability to make rules under it.

• River Boards Act, 1956

Under the River Boards Act, 1956, river boards were established to deal with the problem of pollution of rivers spanning multiple states.

• State Acts

Some states also took steps to remedy environmental degradation by enacting their own legislation, such as the Orissa River Pollution Prevention Act, 1953 and the Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969.

Regulatory Framework

The 1970’s saw, for the first time. The formulation of comprehensive policies and legislation for the preservation of the environment.

Legislations

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was aimed at a modern and rational management of wildlife.

The Act established a network of ecologically-important protected areas where industrial activity was absolutely banned and provided protection to listed species of flora and fauna. The government was given the power to-

• Declare any area as a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area
• Regulate the hunting of wild animals. This led to a prohibition on the hunting of animals except with prior permission when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or disabled beyond recovery.
• Restrict trade in animals and animal artifacts.

A permit is required for any activity such as mining, industry or infrastructure that is likely to destroy or harm any wildlife or their habitat in a Protected Area, or divert, stop or enhance the flow of water in a Protected Area.

Global Warming is the increase in Earth’s mean surface temperature because of the effect of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb long wave radiations and warm the atmosphere, and this process is called as Greenhouse effect. It had led to many changes on the planet, such as rise in sea level; massive melting of snow and land ice, elevated heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, change in the timings of seasonal events, and many others. The main greenhouse gases, namely:Carbon dioxide (CO2); Methane (CH4); Nitrous oxide (N2O); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Global Warming is the increase in Earth’s mean surface temperature because of the effect of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb long wave radiations and warm the atmosphere, and this process is called as Greenhouse effect. For both land and ocean, the global mean surface temperature indicates warming of 0.85°C during 1880 to 2012. During the period 1906-2005, the Earth’s mean surface temperature had increased by 0.74±0.18°C. Hence, it is seen that the rate of warming approximately doubled for the last half of that duration (0.13±0.03°C per decade, as compared to 0.07±0.02°C per decade).

It had led to many changes on the planet, such as rise in sea level, massive melting of snow and land ice, elevated heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, change in the timings of seasonal events, and many others.

Effects of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) on Global Warming

The main greenhouse gases, namely:Carbon dioxide (CO₂); Methane (CH₄); Nitrous oxide (N₂O); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆). The impact of any GHG is based on the magnitude of the rise in its concentration, its duration in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that is absorbs.

1. Carbon dioxide is the GHG which is present in the largest concentration in the atmosphere. Its emission chiefly comes from fossil fuel combustion. It is showing a rise of about 0.5% per annum.
2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are produced due to anthropogenic activity. Ozone is present in the stratosphere where ultraviolet (UV) radiations convert oxygen into ozone. Hence, the UV rays do not reach the Earth’s surface. The CFCs which goes into the stratosphere destroys the ozone, which is evidently seen over Antarctica. The reduction of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is known as the ozone hole. This permits the UV rays to pass through the troposphere.
3. Nitrous oxide is naturally produced by oceans and rainforests. Man-made sources of nitrous oxide include nylon and nitric acid production, the use of fertilisers in agriculture, cars with catalytic converters and the burning of organic matter.
4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used as refrigerants, especially after the ozone-destroying CFCs had been under the Montreal Protocol.
5. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs): Emitted as a result of production of flourites, they have an atmospheric lifetime of more than 1,000 years.
6. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆): The most powerful greenhouse gas yet discovered, it is emitted as result of production of flourites.

Global efforts have been started for decreasing the emission of GHGs into the atmosphere. Of the many initiatives, the most important one is the Kyoto protocol declared in 1997, and came into effect in 2005, authorized by 141 countries. Kyoto protocol controlled 35 industrialised nations to reduce the emission of GHGs by the year 2012 to 5% less than the levels present in the year 1990.

The concentrations of greenhouse gases are not larger than oxygen and nitrogen, because neither has more than two atoms per molecule, and so they lack the internal vibrational modes that molecules with more than two atoms possess. Both water and CO₂ have these “internal vibrational modes”, and these modes of vibrations can consume and resend infrared radiation, which causes the greenhouse effect. 

Impacts of Global Warming

1. Rising Sea level: Flooding of fresh water marshlands, low-lying cities, and islands with marine water is one of the major effects of global warming.
2. Changes in rainfall patterns: In some areas, droughts and fires happen, whereas in other areas, flooding takes place. This all is due to changes in rainfall pattern.
3. Melting of the ice peaks: Due to melting of the ice peaks, there is loss of habitat near the poles. Now the polar bears are considered to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season because of declining ice packs. 
4. Melting glaciers: There is a significant melting of old glaciers.
5. Spread of disease: There is spread of diseases like malaria due to migration to newer and currently warmer regions.
6. Thinning of Coral Reefs: due to warming seas as well as acidification because of carbonic acid formation: Almost one-third of coral reefs are now severely damaged by warming seas.
7. Loss of Plankton owing to warming seas: The large (900 miles long) Aleutian island ecosystems consisting of whales, sea lions, sea urchins, kelp beds, fish, and other aquatic animals, has now reduced due to loss of plankton.

Ozone layer depletion, is simply the wearing out (reduction) of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere. Ultra violet radiation from the sun breaks up these CFCs. The breaking up action releases Chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms react with Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in that area.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth’s Polar Regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar troposphere ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, Freon, and Halons). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloro ethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean’s photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1920s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by-products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been identified for these compounds — their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone-depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time

The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33% of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50% of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. And when the spring comes the sunshine acts as a catalyst and helps in the chemical reaction which leads to Ozone Hole formation.

Consequences of ozone layer depletion:

• Increased UV
• Basal and squamous cell carcinomas- he most common forms of skin cancer in humans
• Malignant melanoma-Another form of skin cancer
• Cortical cataracts
• An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on Cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase.

Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is the main agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another, sometimes reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in another.

Causes of Air Pollution

Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.

• Industrialization: Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while burning release toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.
• Automobiles: To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible for about sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the automobiles pollutes the air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has ill-effects on human health.
• Chlorofluorocarbons: Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased concentration of chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the atmosphere. These substances are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer causing unwanted imbalance in the heat budget. These are produced by modern gadgets such as air conditioners, refrigerators, dyers, etc.

The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.

The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO₂ ), carbonic acid (H ₂SO₂), water (H₂O), nitric acid (HNO₃O ), and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄ ).

Air pollution has harmful effects on natural vegetation and human health such as respiratory illnesses. Acidic precipitation is highly fatal for aquatic flora and fauna, monuments, and also for natural vegetation.

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic approaches to control air pollution. They are as follows.

Preventive Approach

It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance of vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and shifting cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.

Dispersal Approach

We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to release the pollutants high into the atmosphere.

Collection Approach

Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants before they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been re-designed and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter, which changes the pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air pollution from car exhaust has also been reduced.

Legislation Approach

There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of the world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are carried by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be global initiatives agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air pollution.

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human and animal life.

Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise) tends to become a health and environmental hazard.

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines
• Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties
• Places of worship
• Commercial activities
• Construction activities
• Industrial activities
• Automobiles and transport system
• Power generators
• Agricultural equipment

Noise Pollution Control

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), of all the environmental pollution, noise is the easiest to control.

Noise pollution can be checked at home by:

• Turning off sound-making appliances when they are not in use.
• Shutting the door when noisy machines are being used.
• Lowering the volume of appliances such as television to a desirable level.
• Using earplugs while listening to music.

At mass level it can be checked by:

• By planting trees in large number to create vegetation buffer zones, which absorb noise.
• Public awareness about the need of control of noise pollution.
• Application of engineering control techniques such as alteration and modification of design to reduce noise from equipment and machinery, and by construction of sound barriers or the use of sound absorbers in industrial and factory sites can reduce exposure to noise to a great extent.
• Construction of institutions and hospitals away from airports, railways, and highways.
• Improved building design may also reduce the impact of noise pollution.
• Stringent legislations at central and state levels to check air pollution at workplaces, urban centers, etc.

Nature has gifted us some precious and valuable resources and water is one of them and is our basic need. All living beings need water for their survival and to carry out their survival and to carry out their vital life processes. Our Planet, Earth, has 3/4th of its surface area covered with water and only one- fourth has land masses. Life originates in water. Even today, millions of year later, water continues to be an essential requirement of life.

Sources of Water

Amongst most of the water, 97% is found in oceans and seas. The remaining, about 3% is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, etc. Air also contains water.

Importance of Water

All plants, animals and human beings need water to stay alive. But human beings depend on water more than plants and animals. We need water for many other purposes such as: 

• We need water for the day -to- day activities such as bathing, cleaning, drinking, washing, etc.
• Water helps in the dispersal of seeds and fruits.
• It helps needed for irrigation.
• All industries use a large amount of water for cleaning, heating, cooling, generating electricity, as a raw material, etc.
• Water is used for transport and recreation too.

Water has properties of fluidity and solubility. These properties make it useful in the process of digestion, blood circulation and excretion. Water also helps in regulation of our body temperature by the process of sweating.

Scarcity of Water

Now the world is heading towards water crises due to the excessive and uneconomical use of water by the large human population. Human beings waste tons of water while brushing teeth, bathing, washing clothes, vehicles, and utensils etc. Overuse of water has led to a decrease in the supply of water available for human use.

Polluting water, deforestation and overpopulation have also disturbed the water cycle which, in turn, the annual rainfall varies in different parts of our country. If efforts are not made for managing and saving water, we are going to have an acute water crisis.

Conservation of Water

Conservation of water means a careful and economical use of water. We should conserve water as it is a precious natural resource. Conservation of water can happen in the following ways:

• Aforestation can help water to penetrate into the soiland replenish the water table
• Use of efficient watering systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers to reduce water consumption by plants and help in conservation of water.
• Building Dams and hydropower projects which help in checking flood and regulating the supply of water to agriculture.
• Irrigation hours and frequency can be reduced.
• Treatment of industrial and domestic wastewater in sewage plants before its disposal in water bodies help in conservation of water. It reduces the water pollution.

Rainwater harvesting: In this system, the rainwater is collected by allowing it to flow from the rooftop through pipes in a storage tank. This water may contain some soil particles from the roof. So it should be filtered before use.

It is allowed to flow into a pit in the ground to recharge or refill the groundwater. Besides these, we should take the following steps for avoiding wastage of water at home:

• While taking water for drinking, we should take only just enough to quench our thirst.
• We should make economical use of water while taking a bath or washing clothes.
• The tap should be turned off immediately after the water is used.
• Inform the civic authorities on finding any water leak in public place.

Remember that the need of the hour is that every individual uses water economically and judiciously. We should celebrate 22 March as World Water Day every year. It will remind us of the importance of this wonder of liquid called water.

Soil pollution refers to an undesirable decrease in the quality of soil, either by man-induced sources or natural sources or by both.

Soil is vital not only for the growth of plants and growing food but also cultivating raw materials for agro-based industries. Health soil is a significant prerequisite for human survival.

Causes of Soil Erosion

• Deforestation at large scale
• Over-grazing
• Mining
• Decrease in soil microorganisms
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
• Excessive use of irrigation
• Lack of humus content
• Improper and unscientific rotation of crops

Soil pollution leads to many harmful consequences such as decrease in agricultural production; reduced nitrogen fixation; reduction in biodiversity; silting of tanks, lakes and reservoirs; diseases and deaths of consumers in the food chain due to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, etc.

Soil Pollution Control

• Adoption of soil-friendly agricultural practices.
• Use of compost manures in place of chemical fertilizers; Use of bio-fertilizers and natural pesticides help in minimizing the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
• Scientific rotation of crop to increase soil fertility.
• Proper disposal of industrial and urban solid and liquid wastes.
• Planting of trees to check soil erosion in slopes and mountainous regions.
• Controlled grazing.
• Reduction in the heaps of garbage and refuse.
• The principles of three R’s − Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce− help in minimizing generation of solid waste.
• Formulation and effective implementation of stringent pollution control legislation.
• Improved sewage and sanitation system in urban areas.

Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded or is no longer useful. Solid waste management is an important aspect of urban area management. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, which can lead to environmental pollution and the outbreak of vector-borne disease.

The task of solid waste management presents complex technical challenges. They also pose various economic, administrative, and social problems which need urgent attention.

The major sources of solid waste are households; agricultural fields; industries and mining, hotels and catering; roads and railways; hospitals and educational institutions; cultural centers and places of recreation and tourism, etc. Plastic waste is also a solid waste.

Classification of Solid Wastes

• Municipal Waste
• Hospital Waste
• Hazardous Waste

Effective Solid Waste Management can be carried out in the following ways:

• Sanitary landfills
• Composting
• Landfills
• Incineration and pyrolysis (a process of combustion in the absence of oxygen)
• Vermiculture or earthworm farming
• Bioremediation or the use of micro-organism (bacteria and fungi)
• Reuse, reduce, and recycle

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:

Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community including themselves.

This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site. Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause changes in physicochemical and biological characteristics thereby affecting productivity of soils.

Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing, the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes segregation and disposal all the more difficult and risky.

Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or mercury), radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials produces dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause various types of ailments including cancer.

Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:

1. Sanitary Landfill
2. Incineration
3. Composting
4. Pyrolysis

i. Sanitary Land Filling:

In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being contaminated due to percolation of leachate.

Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. Sanitary Landfills Site Selection:

1. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
2. Preferably located in clay or silt.
3. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in rocks into a water fracture system.
4. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately, most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after they were no longer being used.
5. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.

A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These impacts can vary:

1. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
2. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
3. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill closure).
4. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants of an area).
5. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated landfills.

ii. Incineration:

The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is a unit or facility used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to ash. An incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off extreme amounts of external heat.

The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the original volume.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as “thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

iii. Composting:

Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil conditions and fertility.

Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which is very rich in nutrients.

Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.

The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of disposable garbage.

The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.

Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.

To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.

Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter is ready to be used. Composting: some benefits

1. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
2. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
3. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of chemical fertilizer.
4. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
5. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
6. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
7. vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.

iv. Pyrolysis:

Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).

In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.

Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace. These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with less air supply.

Limitations and Concerns:

1. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.
2. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are extremely toxic in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not produce dioxins and furans.

iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be hazardous and require special care in disposal.

1. pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products containing heavy metals may require stabilization before final disposal.
2. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment, storage, and disposal.

Types and Characteristic Features:

(a) Temperate Forest Ecosystem:

The temperate forest ecosystem is very important on Earth. Temperate forests are in regions where the climate changes a lot from summer to winter. Tropical rain forests are in regions where the climate stays constant all year long. Temperate forests are almost always made of two types of trees, deciduous and evergreen. Deciduous trees are trees that lose their leaves in the winter.

Ever­greens are trees that keep them all year long, like pine trees. Forests can either be one or the other, or a combination of both. A fourth kind of forest is a temper­ate rain forest. These are found in California, Oregon and Washington in the United States.

These forests are made of redwoods and sequoias, the tallest trees in the world. The amount of rainfall in an area determines if a forest is present. If there is enough rain to support trees, then a forest will usually develop. Otherwise, the region will become grasslands.

(b) The Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem:

Tropical rain forests are one of the most important areas on Earth. These spe­cial ecosystems are homes to thousands of species animals and plants. Contrary to popular belief, rain forests are not only densely packed plants, but are also full of tall trees that form a ceiling from the Sun above. This ceiling keeps smaller plants from growing. Areas where sunlight can reach the surface are full of interesting plants.

Do you know where rain forests get their name? They are so named because they receive a lot of rain – an average of 80 inches a year. The temperature doesn’t change very much during the year. It is always warm and muggy. The famous Amazon jungle is located in Brazil, in South America. This particular forest is called the Neotropics. Other large blocks are located in Central and West Africa.

(i) Insects of the Tropical Rain Forest:

The most feared and well known spider in the world resides in the jungle. Ta­rantulas are one of the creepiest animals you will ever see. Most species of tarantula have poisonous fangs for killing prey and for protection.

Although some are life-threatening to humans, others are harmless. Army ants are just one species of ant in the rain forest. They are called army ants because they march in a long, thick line through the jungle. They only stop when the young larvae reach pupil stage. Once the queen lays its eggs, the ants start marching again.

Beautiful butterflies fill the forest, but at one time these insects weren’t so pretty. Butterflies start out as caterpillars, which tend to be a tad on the ugly side. They go through metamorphosis, which is the process of changing into a butterfly. Centipedes aren’t so lucky. They don’t turn into butterflies, but in­stead roam the forest looking for food. Some centipedes use poison to kill their prey.

(ii) Tropical Rain Forest Birds:

The birds of the rain forest are the most beautiful in the world. A wide range of colors can be seen darting through the trees as the forest tops come to life. Many species of tropical birds are kept as pets because of their looks.

Hundreds of species of parrot live in the rain forest. The scarlet macaw is just one of these. It is also one of the longest, stretching to a length of 3 feet from its head to the tip of its tail. When these macaws eat a poisonous fruit, they eat a special type of clay that neutralizes the poison.

Toucans are also very interesting birds. They have large beaks that they use to reach fruit they can’t get to. Scientists estimate there are 33 species of toucan in the rain forest. Not every tropical bird was blessed with looks. The hoatzin looks more like a peacock without the pretty tail.

Hoatzins are terrible flyers – crash landings are common practice. The brown kiwi is a flightless bird that looks more like a rodent with a long beak and feathers. Kiwis live on the ground instead of the trees. They have special claws used for running, digging and defence.

(iii) Tropical Rain Forest Mammals:

Birds aren’t the only creatures that fly through the rain forests. Several species of flying mammals live in the jungle. From the harmless fruit bat to the unique flying squirrel, the tropical rain forests are full of surprises.

The Indian flying fox is one of the largest bats in the world. Its wings can spread out to 5 feet in width. Unlike bats in other parts of the world, these bats do not live in caves. They prefer to .hang in trees during the day. Hundreds or even thousands of bats can be spotted in a single tree.

Vampire bats live in the Amazon jungle in South America. The famous stories of blood-sucking bats probably originated here. These bats do in fact drink the blood of their victims. They usually attack farm animals, but have also enjoyed the blood of humans. But vampire bats only drink a very small amount of fluid.

(iv) Tropical Rain Forest Reptiles:

The tropical rain forests of the world are full of reptiles. Reptiles are cold blooded, which means their body temperature depends on their environment. So, it is important for them to stay in warm climates. Snakes are reptiles, and the rain forests are home to many. The mamba family is the most poisonous of all. They kill their prey by injecting poison with their sharp fangs.

Anacondas make up another snake family. They are some of the longest crea­tures in the world, as they can reach 30 feet in length. Anacondas prefer to wrap themselves around their prey and squeeze, rather than inject poison. Anacon­das swallow their prey whole and sleep while the food is digesting. Chameleons are interesting lizards that can change color.

This enables them to blend in with their surroundings. Not only is this a great disguise from predators, it is also an easy way to sneak up on their prey. Chameleons only eat insects. Geckos are very neat creatures. The flying gecko can glide from tree to tree to escape from predators. Their grip is so strong, that if you tried to pull one off a window, the glass would break before the gecko would let go.

(v) Tropical Rain Forest Primates:

Monkeys and their cousins are all primates. Humans are also primates. There are many species of monkeys in the tropical rain forests of the world. Monkeys can be divided into two groups: new world monkeys and old world monkeys. New world monkeys live only in South and Central America. Spider monkeys live in the rain forests in the Andes Mountains.

They look very strange with their long noses. Spider monkeys eat mostly fruit and nuts, so they are called frugivores. They are joined by the howler monkeys. These primates are so named because they have a special sac that makes their sounds louder.

Old world monkeys live only in Africa and Asia. The colobus monkey is one such kind. These monkeys are called foliovores because they eat leaves. They live in small groups of 15, but other primates live in larger groups of up to 200. There are too many species. Chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas are all called pongids. These primates are more famous than the others. Gorillas are too big to climb trees, so they are found on the forest floor.

(c) Boreal or Taiga Forests:

The boreal forest ecosystem is the contiguous green belt of conifer and decidu­ous trees that encircles a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the boreal forest stretches across most of northern Canada and into Alaska. It has long been identified as one of the world’s great forest ecosystems.

This forest ecosystem covers roughly 35% of Canada’s land mass and is the single largest land based ecosystem in North America. It also contains a signifi­cant proportion of Canada’s biodiversity and has long been recognized as an important global carbon sink.

Although the boreal is relatively unknown, it is important as the “great lung” of North America, “breathing in” carbon dioxide and “exhaling” oxygen into the atmosphere. In short, the boreal forest manages to do what the rain forest of the Amazon does but with only the fraction of the flora and fauna.

This forest ecosystem houses the largest and smallest mammal species (wood bison & pygmy shrews) of the North American continent. The Boreal forest has many things: great lakes and northern rivers; vast bogs, fens and other organic wetlands. The rich wildlife diversity of the Boreal is a joy to behold: woodland caribou and lynx; whooping cranes and wood bison; northern owls; woodpeckers with three rather than four toes; colorful wood warblers.

The Boreal has more than 5,000 species of conspicuous and colorful fungi, celebrated far more in Scandinavia and Siberia than in North America. Then there are the precious old-growth forests, the richest and most biologically diverse of the Boreal forest communities that are essential for so many Boreal species.

Structure of Forest Ecosystems:

Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and their surroundings. Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem.

Some provide food for other organisms; others pro­vide shelter or control populations through predation:

Producers:

All living organisms’ intake energy in order to survive. In a forest ecosystem, trees and other plants get their energy from sunlight. Plants produce their own food, in the form of carbohydrates. Plants are, therefore, called the primary producers, since they produce the basic foodstuffs for other organisms within food chains and food webs. Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that allows plants to produce their own food.

Consumers:

Animals cannot produce their own food. They must consume food sources for die energy they need to survive. All animals, including mammals, insects, and birds, are called consumers. Consumers rely on plants and other animals as a food source. Details of these animals in a forest ecosystem have been given earlier.

Primary consumers only eat plants and are referred to as herbivores. Second­ary consumers are referred to as carnivores and feed on herbivores. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that feed on other carnivores. Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter.

Decomposers:

Leaves, needles, and old branches fall to the forest floor as trees grow. Eventu­ally all plants and animals die. So what happens to all of this plant and animal material? Does it sit on the forest floor forever? Thankfully no. These materials are decomposed by worms, microbes, fungi, ants, and other bugs.

Decomposers break these items down into their smallest primary elements to be used again. Decomposers are important in that they sustain the nutrient cycle of ecosystems.

Humans are part of Forest Ecosystem:

Humans are consumers. We get food and materials from forests. Because of this, we are a part of the forest ecosystem. Human consumption alters forest ecosystems. Human intervention may be necessary to sustain forest communi­ties under the increased pressure of human use.