by Price:
Another essential element of a contract of sale is that there must be some price for the goods. That means, the goods must be sold for some price. According to Sec. 2(10) of the Sale of Goods Act, the term price means “the money consideration for a sale of goods“.
Thus the price is the consideration for contract of sale which should be in terms of money. If the ownership of the goods is transferred for any consideration other than the money, that will not be a sale but an exchange. However, consideration can be paid partly in money and partly in goods.
For e.g., A delivered to B 10 cows valued at Rs.2,000 per cow. B delivered to A 20 bags of rice at Rs.750 per bag and paid the balance of Rs.5,000 in cash in exchange of the cows. This is a valid contract of sale.
Conditions:
In the context of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, a condition refers to a fundamental stipulation that forms the essence of a contract of sale. It is a term that is so essential to the contract that its breach entitles the aggrieved party to repudiate the contract and refuse to accept the goods.
According to Section 12(2) of the Act, “A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of the contract, the breach of which gives the aggrieved party a right to repudiate the contract.”
For example, if a buyer purchases a new diesel generator and it is delivered as a petrol generator instead, the buyer can reject the goods and cancel the contract since the term breached is a condition related to the core purpose of the transaction.
Conditions may be express (explicitly agreed upon by both parties) or implied by law. Common implied conditions include:
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Condition as to title (seller has the right to sell),
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Condition as to description,
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Condition as to quality or fitness for purpose,
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Condition as to sample.
A breach of condition allows the buyer to reject the goods, terminate the contract, and/or claim damages. However, under some circumstances, the buyer may choose to treat the breach of condition as a breach of warranty and claim damages without repudiating the contract.
Types of Conditions:
- Express Conditions
Express conditions are those explicitly mentioned in the contract of sale, either orally or in writing. These are agreed upon by both parties and are binding. For example, if a buyer specifies that goods must be delivered by a certain date or must be of a particular brand, failure to comply constitutes a breach of condition. Such conditions form the basis of the agreement and must be fulfilled for the contract to remain valid. Breach of an express condition entitles the buyer to reject the goods and repudiate the contract entirely.
- Implied Condition as to Title
Section 14(a) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 implies a condition that the seller has the right to sell the goods. This means that the seller must possess ownership or authority to transfer the title. If a seller sells stolen goods unknowingly, the buyer can reject the goods and recover the price paid. The buyer is not obligated to retain goods if the seller’s title is defective. This condition protects the buyer’s legal ownership and ensures that no third party can rightfully claim the goods sold.
- Implied Condition as to Description
When goods are sold by description, it is an implied condition that they must match the description provided. This condition ensures that the buyer gets what was promised. For example, if a seller describes a phone as a “Brand New iPhone 14 Pro,” and a different or used model is delivered, it constitutes a breach. The buyer is entitled to reject the goods. This type of condition is especially crucial in cases where the buyer has not seen the goods physically and relies solely on the seller’s representation.
- Implied Condition as to Quality or Fitness
If a buyer informs the seller about the specific purpose for which goods are required, it is an implied condition that the goods should be suitable for that purpose. This applies when the buyer relies on the seller’s skill and judgment. For instance, if a buyer asks for paint suitable for outdoor use, and it peels off within days, the buyer can claim breach of condition. However, this does not apply when the buyer does not rely on the seller’s expertise or buys goods based on their own judgment.
- Implied Condition as to Merchantable Quality
When goods are bought by description from a seller who deals in such goods, there is an implied condition that they must be of merchantable quality. This means the goods must be fit for general use and free from latent defects. For example, if a person buys a washing machine and it breaks down within a day, it would not be considered of merchantable quality. The buyer has the right to reject such goods. This protects consumers from defective or substandard products.
Warranty:
A warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of the contract, that is to say, it is a subsidiary promise. Its breach does not entitle the aggrieved party to repudiate the contract. He can only claim damages. Where there is a breach of warranty on the part of the seller, the buyer must accept the goods and claim damages. Where A purchases 100 bags of wheat from B. Wheat must be fit for human consumption. This is an essential stipulation. Hence it is called as condition. Other stipulations like packing, etc., is a minor one, hence called as warranty. Conditions and warranties may be express or implied. An express condition or warranty is one stated definitely in so many words as the basis of the contract. Implied conditions or warranties are those which attach to the contract by operation of law. The law incorporated them into the contract unless the parties agree to the contrary. A sold to B timber to be properly seasoned before shipment. It was agreed between the parties, that in case of dispute the buyer would not reject the goods but accept or pay for them against documents. It was held that the provision as to seasoning was not a condition but only a warranty. If the timber was not properly seasoned B had to accept it and claim damages for the breach of warranty.
The points of distinction between a condition and warranty can be summed up as under:
(1) A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of a contract while a warranty is astipulation collateral to the main purpose of contract.
(2) Breach of condition gives the right to treat the contract as repudiated while the breach of warranty gives the right to claim for damages alone. The contract cannot be repudiated because the breach of warranty does not defeat the purpose of contract.
(3) A breach of condition may be treated as breach of warranty but a breach of warranty cannot be treated as breach of condition. Let us take an example to make these two terms clear. So where a man buys a particular horse which is warranted quiet to ride. The horse, turns out to be a vicious one. Buyers remedy is to claim damages unless he has expressly reserved the right to return the horse. Suppose instead of buying a particular horse, he specifically asks for a quiet horse-that stipulations is a condition. Now the buyer can either return the horse or retain the horse and claim damages. (Hartley v. Hymans)
Types of warranties:
- Express Warranty
An express warranty is a specific assurance or promise made by the seller regarding the quality, performance, or condition of the goods. It can be stated in writing or spoken at the time of sale. These warranties are clearly agreed upon by both parties and form part of the contract. For instance, a seller may claim a refrigerator will function properly for five years. If the goods fail to meet these conditions, the buyer is entitled to claim compensation or replacement. However, breach of a warranty does not void the contract; it only allows for damages.
- Implied Warranty of Quiet Possession
This warranty implies that the buyer will enjoy undisturbed use and possession of the goods. Under Section 14(b) of the Sale of Goods Act, the seller guarantees that no third party will interfere with the buyer’s possession or claim ownership. For example, if a person buys a car and later someone claims legal ownership, the buyer can sue the seller for breach of this implied warranty. The aim is to protect the buyer’s right to use the goods peacefully without facing legal challenges or possession issues from others.
- Implied Warranty of Freedom from Encumbrances
According to Section 14(c) of the Sale of Goods Act, there is an implied warranty that the goods are free from any undisclosed charges or encumbrances. This means the buyer should receive goods that are not subject to any third-party claim, lien, or mortgage. If the buyer discovers an undisclosed lien on the goods, they are entitled to damages. For example, if a person buys a second-hand laptop that is still under EMI liability, the buyer can sue the seller for breach of warranty if not informed prior.
- Implied Warranty as to Quality or Fitness (in Specific Cases)
Though generally treated as a condition, in some cases, fitness for a particular purpose may be treated as a warranty, especially when the buyer has not fully relied on the seller’s skill or when goods are purchased under one’s own judgment. If the buyer does not expressly communicate the intended use or does not depend on the seller’s expertise, the fitness becomes a mere warranty. This protects sellers from extensive liability while still giving buyers the right to claim damages if the goods turn out defective under usual use.
- Warranty Arising from Usage of Trade
In certain trades or industries, regular practices establish standard warranties. These are known as warranties arising from usage of trade. Even if not explicitly mentioned, such warranties are enforceable due to consistent industry practices. For example, in the textile industry, it might be a trade practice that dyed fabrics must not bleed color on first wash. If this expectation is not met, the buyer may claim damages under this warranty. It emphasizes how commercial customs and business traditions influence obligations between buyers and sellers.
- Voluntary or Collateral Warranty
A collateral warranty is an additional assurance provided voluntarily by the seller without being a formal part of the sale contract. It may relate to future performance, durability, or after-sales service. These warranties are usually given to enhance customer confidence and are often supported with service commitments or return policies. For instance, a seller might offer a “30-day free replacement guarantee” as a collateral warranty. Though not legally mandatory, once stated, it becomes enforceable and a buyer can seek remedies if the seller fails to honor it.
When condition to be treated as Warranty
Section 13 of the Sales of Goods Act mentions 3 cases in which a condition sinks or descends to the level of a warranty. A condition descends to the level of a warranty in the following cases:
(1) Where the buyer waives the condition;
(2) Where the buyer treats the breach of condition as breach of warranty;
(3) Where the contract is indivisible and the buyer has accepted the goods or part of the goods.
In all the above three cases the breach of a condition is deemed to be a breach of a warranty and buyer can only claim damages or compensation for the breach of the condition. He cannot repudiate the contract or refuse to take delivery of the goods. In the first two cases, a condition is treated a warranty. at the will of the buyer; but in the third case the breach of condition can be treated only as breach of warranty; for once the buyer has accepted the goods he cannot reject them on any ground. If on subsequent inspection a breach of condition is disclosed, he can treat that as breach of warranty and sue for damages.
Example: Suppose A promises to deliver 100 bales of cotton to B on 1st August, 80. A delivers the bales of cotton on 10th of August. Now in this contract, time is the essence of contract. B can refuse to accept the delivery. But he can also waive this right. He may treat this breach of condition as breach of warranty by accepting the goods and claim damages instead.
Warranties from the Seller
Buyers often overlook the warranties being made by the seller. There is no such thing as “standard warranties.” Warranties vary across industries and from company to company, so be sure to closely review the seller’s promises. Are the goods being sold “as-is”? Is the seller disclaiming the warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose? If so, this might undo any verbal promises about the goods made by the seller.
