Category: Management Notes

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established on 19 December 1966, which is headquartered in the Ortigas Center located in the city of Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines. The company also maintains 31 field offices around the world to promote social and economic development in Asia. The bank admits the members of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East or ECAFE) and non-regional developed countries. From 31 members at its establishment, ADB now has 68 members.

The ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank, and has a similar weighted voting system where votes are distributed in proportion with members’ capital subscriptions. ADB releases an annual report that summarizes its operations, budget and other materials for review by the public. The ADB-Japan Scholarship Program (ADB-JSP) enrolls about 300 students annually in academic institutions located in 10 countries within the Region. Upon completion of their study programs, scholars are expected to contribute to the economic and social development of their home countries. ADB is an official United Nations Observer.

As of 31 December 2016, Japan holds the largest proportion of shares at 15.677%, closely followed by United States with 15.567% capital share. China holds 6.473%, India holds 6.359%, and Australia holds 5.812%.

Functions of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

1. Economic and Social Advancement

This bank has a membership program under which there are various benefits available for the members’ countries.

These benefits include providing loan and investment at a concessional rate. One of the functions of the ADB is to provide loans and equity investments for the economic and social upgrade of developing member countries.

2. Technical Assistance

Most of the countries require a lot of services like advisory services. Moreover, they while operating at the international level, most of the countries require technical support too.

One of the functions of the Asian Development Bank is to provide technical assistance for the preparation and implementation of development projects and advisory services.

3. Investment Promotion

Firstly, the Asian Development Bank provides a lot of services to the member countries in the form of investments. At the same time, they also provide some specific sort of investment facilities for development purposes.

4. Support in Policies and Plans

Plans and policies play an important role in any country. There are various domestic agencies providing help to the authorities while framing various policies.

But there is a need for some international agencies at the same time for the same function. One of the main functions of the ADB is to provide help to the member countries in framing policies and plans at the international level.

Objectives of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

• Firstly, its objective is to help the member countries in countering poverty. Hence, it helps them in poverty reduction and country development.
• If both the social as well as the economic aspects of a country is rising, then it leads to economic growth. One of the objectives is to help the countries to go towards economic growth.
• Thirdly, their objective is to support human development.
• Moreover, they believe in preserving and protecting the environment.
• Lastly, they work and wish to continue working towards empowering women and improving their status in society.

Organization of Asian Development Bank (ADB)

The highest policy-making body of the bank is the Board of Governors, composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the twelve members of the Board of Directors and their deputies. Eight of the twelve members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the others come from non-regional members.

The Board of Governors also elect the bank’s president, who is the chairperson of the Board of Directors and manages ADB. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be reelected. Traditionally, and because Japan is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the president has always been Japanese.

The current president is Masatsugu Asakawa. He succeeded Takehiko Nakao on 17 January 2020, who succeeded Haruhiko Kuroda in 2013.

The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines, and it has 31 field offices in Asia and the Pacific and representative offices in Washington, Frankfurt, Tokyo and Sydney. The bank employs about 3,000 people, representing 60 of its 67 members.

History of Asian Development Bank (ADB)

ADB was conceived amid the postwar rehabilitation and reconstruction of the early 1960s. The vision was of a financial institution that would be Asian in character and foster economic growth and cooperation in the region then one of the poorest in the world.

A resolution passed at the first Ministerial Conference on Asian Economic Cooperation held by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East in 1963, set that vision on the way to becoming reality.

The Philippines capital of Manila was chosen to host the new institution, the Asian Development Bank which opened on 19 December 1966, with 31 members to serve a predominantly agricultural region. Takeshi Watanabe was the first President.

For the rest of the 1960s, ADB focused much of its assistance on food production and rural development. The next three years saw ADB’s first technical assistance, loans (including a first on concessional terms in 1969) and bond issue (in Germany).

In 1970s

Assistance expanded in the 1970s into education and health and then to infrastructure and industry. The gradual emergence of Asian economies in the late 1970s spurred demand for better infrastructure to support economic growth. ADB focused on improving roads and providing electricity.

When the world suffered its first oil price shock, ADB shifted more of its assistance to support energy projects, especially those promoting the development of domestic energy sources in member countries.

Co-financing operations began to provide additional resources for ADB projects and programs. 1970 saw ADB’s first bond issue in Asia worth $16.7 million in Japan.

A major landmark was the establishment in 1974, of the Asian Development Fund to provide concessional lending to ADB’s poorest members.

At the close of the decade, some Asian economies had improved considerably and graduated from ADB’s regular assistance.

In 1980s

It was also becoming clear that the private sector was an important ally in driving growth. ADB thus in the 1980s made its first direct equity investment. ADB also began to use its track record to mobilize additional resources for development from the private sector.

In the wake of the second oil crisis, ADB continued its support in the 1980s to infrastructure development, particularly energy projects. ADB also increased its support to social infrastructure, including gender, microfinance, environmental, education, urban planning and health issues.

In 1982, ADB opened its first field office, a Resident Mission in Bangladesh to bring operations closer to their intended beneficiaries. Later in the decade, ADB approved a policy supporting collaboration with non-government organizations to address the basic needs of disadvantaged groups in its developing member countries.

In 1990s

The start of the 1990s saw ADB begin promoting regional cooperation, forging close ties among neighboring countries through an economic cooperation program.

In 1995, ADB became the first multilateral organization to have a Board-approved governance policy to ensure that development assistance fully benefits the poor. Policies on the inspection function, involuntary resettlement and indigenous peoples designed to protect the rights of people affected by a project were also approved.

ADB’s membership, meanwhile, continued to expand, with the addition of several Central Asian countries following the end of the Cold War.

But in mid-1997, a severe financial crisis hit the region, setting back Asia’s spectacular economic gains. ADB responded with projects and programs to strengthen financial sectors and create social safety nets for the poor. ADB approved its largest single loan-a $4 billion emergency loan to the Republic of Korea and established the Asian Currency Crisis Support Facility to accelerate assistance.

A milestone came in 1999 when, recognizing that development was still bypassing so many in the region, ADB adopted poverty reduction as its overarching goal.

Into the 21^st Century

The new century brought hope and tragedy, as well as a new focus on helping its developing members achieve the Millennium Development Goals and to enhance development effectiveness.

In 2003 saw severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) hit the region, making it clear that fighting infectious diseases was a public good that required regional cooperation. ADB began providing support at national and regional levels to help countries more effectively respond to HIV/AIDS and the growing threat of.

ADB had to respond to other unprecedented natural disasters, committing more than $850 million for recovery in areas of India, Indonesia, Maldives and Sri Lanka hit by the Asian tsunami disaster of December 2004 and a $1 billion line of assistance to help victims of the October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.

As 2007 drew to a close, ADB celebrated 41 years of fruitful cooperation with the governments and peoples of the Asia and Pacific region, looking back on phenomenal economic growth in the region alongside abiding development challenges.

Now in 2008, it is looking to the future with its Strategy 2020 that will determine the organization’s future direction and vision for the next dozen years.

As you know finance plays prime role in any business, even in Export also. Each exporter of any country is highly supported by the government in all means to earn foreign exchange, one of the major indicators of wealth of nation.

Some of the export financial assistance provided by government agencies to promote export business. These financial assistance to exporters varies from country to country depends up on their policy adopted time to time. However most of countries extend a good financial support to exporters to earn foreign exchange from other countries to strengthen each country’s foreign exchange reserves, in turn financial strength.

Some of the major benefits supported by government are given below. These financial benefits to exporters may vary from country to country. I provide below the following financial benefits in general. You may cross check with your government authorities to get authenticated information. These details of financial assistance to exporters are given to let you know an idea on ‘how government supports exporters in assisting financial support’.

Finance up to 90% of FOB value of exports

Financial support to exporters up to 90% of FOB value of exports are provided by most of the banks based on the instruction of government to boost exports. Some of the banks extend a financial support of 100% export value, with a narrow interest rate fixed by government time to time.

Interest rate as low as below 6% per year

Most of the banks provide financial assistance to exporters with a low interest rate as 6% per annum. This rate of interest is very nominal which helps exporters to procure materials, packing or for other export related purposes.

Credit period up to 270 days

Extending credit period up to 270 days is one of the supports under financial assistance to exporters by government through authorized bank. A credit of almost 10 months is a good period for an exporter with least rate of interest on financial assistance to help him to utilize this fund for export purpose. During this period of 270 days, an exporter can procure material, export, and collects his amount of sale of exports to repay such loan amount.

Pre shipment finance – Packing credit

Packing credit is one of the other financial assistance to exporters provided by bank. Getting financial assistance before shipment of goods is a great help for any exporter is concerned. Here, an exporter can avail finance before shipment which is called Packing Credit. Packing credit is pre shipment financial assistance to exporters allotted by banks on the basis of export stocks available for exports. The exporter has to produce copy/original of necessary export orders along with the details of stocks available for exports. The bank authorities inspect the exporter’s premises and collect data of such stock ready for export and assess the value. Based on such valuation of stock, the exporter is allotted packing credit loan by banks with a very narrow interest rate.

Short term credits

Exporters are also eligible to avail financial assistance in the form of short term credits from authorized banks. Short term credits are provided by banks on the basis of instructions provided by government time to time to help exporters to meet their financial requirements.

Post shipment finance – Bill discounting/Bill Negotiation etc

Financial assistance to exporters after exports in the form of Bill discounting/negotiation is provided by banks with a low interest rate. This financial support also helps exporters to procure/manufacture new products for exports for next export consignment. Once after completing the procedures of an export consignment, the exporter submits all required documents to send to overseas buyer. If the export sale contract between buyer and seller is on credit basis, normally the export bills are sent to buyer for collection of payment on maturity date, mutually agreed. When submitting such documents, if the exporter requires finance for upcoming export consignments, he can apply for post shipment finance by discounting of export bills already exported. In the case of Letter of credit, negotiation procedures are followed to avail post shipment finance.

In short, as per government’s policy, no exporter should suffer for want of funds to export goods. Most of the government supports up to 90% of FOB value of goods with very least rate of interest up to 270 days. This is a great chance for any business man to be attracted to earn foreign exchange.

Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) is an apex body under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, responsible for the export promotion of agricultural products.

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act passed by the Parliament in December, 1985. The Act (2 of 1986) came into effect from 13th February, 1986 by a notification issued in the Gazette of India: Extraordinary: Part-II [Sec. 3(ii): 13.2.1986). The Authority replaced the Processed Food Export Promotion Council (PFEPC)

At present, APEDA, an autonomous body under the commerce department, is responsible for export promotion and development of 14 agricultural and processed food product groups besides monitoring the import of sugar. India’s exports in 2018-19 were $331 billion of which those under APEDA were $18.8 billion.

In a recent meeting, the commerce ministry asked the industry associations whether product-specific export promotion councils for processed food were required to boost exports, said persons in the know.

A representative of an association who was part of the meeting in the commerce ministry on Moday said that the government is keen to increase exports from the country and is looking at different mechanisms. Most of the discussions are in initial stages, he said.

The Indian Dairy Association, Soyabean Processors Associations and the All India Dal Mill Association said that they are in favour of more export promotion councils, while the All India Rice Exporters’ Association and All India Meat and Livestock Exporters Association favoured status quo, he said.

“Higher minimum support price of agri commodities in India is making it unviable for us to compete in the international market and we all are looking at export subsidy from the government,” said a president of an agri trade association.

An Export Processing Zone (EPZ) is a Customs area where one is allowed to import plant, machinery, equipment and material for the manufacture of export goods under security, without payment of duty. The imported goods are subject to customs control at importation, through the manufacturing process, to the time of sale/export, or duty payment for home consumption.

Q: Who is the licensing authority for EPZs?

EPZs are licensed by the Ministry of Trade in the different Partner States.

Q: What are the importation procedures followed by an importer in the EPZ? (Reg. 169)

The importer should:

• Make a declaration of the imported goods in the prescribed Form C17
• Execute a security bond using Form CB4. The bond secures the duty amount that would have otherwise been payable at the time of importation. The bond also takes care of the taxes due in the event the goods are consumed elsewhere other than the EPZ or disposed off in the domestic market without authority
• Present the imported goods together with Form C17 to the proper officer in charge of the EPZ for receipt and deliveries recording
• Provide examination facilities within the EPZ where imported goods are examined or verified. The Commissioner may on reasonable grounds direct a Customs officer to carry out examination of the goods at the port of entry.

Q: Who keeps records of goods that go in or out of the EPZ? (Reg. 170)

• An operator of an enterprise within an EPZ shall maintain stock records of the raw materials and the finished products in a monthly return register and produce the same for inspection by a Customs officer as requested and on a monthly basis before the fifteenth day of the following month.
• If goods are found missing on inspection, the operator shall be liable to a penalty equivalent to twice the amount of duty payable.

Q: What are the export procedures followed by an operator in the EPZ? (Reg. 171)

• Goods intended for exportation from EPZ should be entered using Form C17
• A bond for the removal of goods from an EPZ to the port of exportation shall be executed using Form CB4
• The goods together with a copy of the export entry shall be taken to the port of exportation. If the seals placed by the EPZ officer have been tampered with, re-examination of goods shall be done by the Customs officer at the border.
• A certified copy of Form C17 confirming that exportation of the goods has taken place shall be given to the owner for the purposes of security bond cancellation.

Q: What are the procedures followed when moving goods from one EPZ to another (Reg. 172)

• Enter the goods to be moved from one EPZ to another EPZ using Form C17
• Execute a bond for the movement of goods from one EPZ to another EPZ using Form CB4
• Obtain a certified/endorsed copy of Form C17 from the officer at the receiving EPZ for the purposes of bond cancellation
• If the movement of goods is within the EPZ, the person in charge of an enterprise shall inform the proper officer of such movements of goods.
• Execute a Security bond using Form CB4

Q: What are the procedures followed when moving plant and machinery from an EPZ to any other area? (Reg. 173)

• Plant, machinery and equipment may be removed for repair, servicing or maintenance, from an EPZ to a Customs territory this seems to be incorrect, where they shall be accorded temporary importation facilities and shall be entered using Form C17.
• The form used to execute a security bond in respect of the plant, machinery and equipment, is Form CB10.

Q: What is the procedure for waste disposal and destruction? (Reg. 175)

• Waste disposal or destruction may be carried out within an EPZ under the supervision of the Customs officer. A certificate of destruction must be issued thereafter by the officer.
• Normal import procedures are to be applied for waste that the importer may wish to sell in the home market.

Q: Are there specific conditions when transporting EPZ goods (Reg. 177/178)

Goods shall be transported in sealed vehicles, except those of exceptionally heavy or bulky objects authorized by the Commissioner. Small packages and samples may be transported in any vehicle, in locked boxes made of steel, sealed by the Customs.

A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country. SEZs are located within a country’s national borders, and their aims include increased trade balance, employment, increased investment, job creation and effective administration. To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced. These policies typically encompass investing, taxation, trading, quotas, customs and labour regulations. Additionally, companies may be offered tax holidays, where upon establishing themselves in a zone, they are granted a period of lower taxation.

The creation of special economic zones by the host country may be motivated by the desire to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). The benefits a company gains by being in a special economic zone may mean that it can produce and trade goods at a lower price, aimed at being globally competitive. In some countries, the zones have been criticized for being little more than labor camps, with workers denied fundamental labor rights.

Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a specifically delineated duty-free enclave and shall be deemed to be foreign territory for the purposes of trade operations and duties and tariffs. In order words, SEZ is a geographical region that has economic laws different from a country’s typical economic laws. Usually the goal is to increase foreign investments. SEZs have been established in several countries, including China, India, Jordan, Poland, Kazakhstan, Philippines and Russia. North Korea has also attempted this to a degree.

SEZ in India

At present there are eight functional SEZs located at Santa Cruz (Maharashtra), Cochin (Kerala), Kandla and Surat (Gujarat), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Falta (West Bengal) and Noida (Uttar Pradesh) in India. Further an SEZ in Indore (Madhya Pradesh) is now ready for operation.

In addition 18 approvals have been given for setting up of SEZs at Positra (Gujarat), Navi Mumbai and Kopata (Maharashtra), Nanguneri (Tamil Nadu), Kulpi and Salt Lake (West Bengal), Paradeep and Gopalpur (Orissa), Bhadohi, Kanpur, Moradabad and Greater Noida (UP), Vishakhapatnam and Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh), Vallarpadam/Puthuvypeen (Kerala), Hassan (Karnataka), Jaipur and Jodhpur (Rajasthan) on the basis of proposals received from the state governments.

State governments will have a very important role to play in the establishment of SEZs. Representative of the state government, who is a member of the inter-ministerial committee on private SEZ, is consulted while considering the proposal. Before recommending any proposals to the ministry of commerce and industry (department of commerce), the states must satisfy themselves that they are in a position to supply basic inputs like water, electricity, etc.

Are SEZ’s controlled by the government?

In all SEZs the statutory functions are controlled by the government. Government also controls the operation and maintenance function in the seven central government controlled SEZs. The rest of the operations and maintenance are privatised.

Are SEZs exempt from labour laws?

Normal labour laws are applicable to SEZs, which are enforced by the respective state governments. The state governments have been requested to simplify the procedures/returns and for introduction of a single window clearance mechanism by delegating appropriate powers to development commissioners of SEZs.

Who monitors the functioning of the units in SEZ?

The performance of the SEZ units are monitored by a unit approval committee consisting of development commissioner, custom and representative of state government on an annual basis.

What are the special features for business units that come to the zone?

Business units that set up establishments in an SEZ would be entitled for a package of incentives and a simplified operating environment. Besides, no license is required for imports, including second hand machineries.

Will it be possible to supply to other units in SEZ?

Yes. Inter-unit sales are permitted as per the SEZ policy. A buyer procuring from another unit pays in foreign exchange.

How do SEZs help a country’s economy?

SEZs play a key role in rapid economic development of a country. In the early 1990s, it helped China and there were hopes (perhaps never very high ones, admittedly) that the establishment in India of similar export-processing zones could offer similar benefits — provided, however, that the zones offered attractive enough concessions.

Traditionally the biggest deterrents to foreign investment in India have been high tariffs and taxes, red tape and strict labour laws. To date, these restrictions have ensured that India has been unable to compete with China’s massively successful light-industrial export machine. India’s goods exports in 2004 were an estimated $68 bn compared with $594 bn for China, and the stock of inward FDI, at $42 bn, was less than a tenth of China’s $544 bn.

Real-World Example

In the case of China, mainstream economists agree that the country’s SEZs helped liberalize the once traditional state. China was able to use the SEZs as a way to slowly implement national reform that would have been otherwise impossible. Studies have also found that SEZs elsewhere increase export levels for the implementing country and other countries that supply it with intermediate products. However, there is a risk that countries may abuse the system and use it to retain protectionist barriers in the form of taxes and fees. SEZs also create an excessive bureaucracy that funnels money away from the system, which makes it less efficient.

As the economy grows slowly at home, your business may have to look at selling internationally to remain profitable. Before examining foreign markets, you have to be aware of the major trends in international business so you can take advantage of those that might favor your company. International markets are evolving rapidly, and you can take advantage of the changing environment to create a niche for your company.

Growing Emerging Markets

Developing countries will see the highest economic growth as they come closer to the standards of living of the developed world. If you want your business to grow rapidly, consider selling into one of these emerging markets. Language, financial stability, economic system and local cultural factors can influence which markets you should favor.

Population and Demographic Shifts

The population of the industrialized world is aging while many developing countries still have very youthful populations. Businesses catering to well-off pensioners can profit from a focus on developed countries, while those targeting young families, mothers and children can look in Latin America, Africa and the Far East for growth.

Speed of Innovation

The pace of innovation is increasing as many new companies develop new products and improved versions of traditional items. Western companies no longer can expect to be automatically at the forefront of technical development, and this trend will intensify as more businesses in developing countries acquire the expertise to innovate successfully.

More Informed Buyers

More intense and more rapid communications allow customers everywhere to purchase products made anywhere around the globe and to access information about what to buy. As pricing and quality information become available across all markets, businesses will lose pricing power, especially the power to set different prices in different markets.

Increased Business Competition

As more businesses enter international markets, Western companies will see increased competition. Because companies based in developing markets often have lower labor costs, the challenge for Western firms is to keep ahead with faster and more effective innovation as well as a high degree of automation.

Slower Economic Growth

The motor of rapid growth has been the Western economies and the largest of the emerging markets, such as China and Brazil. Western economies are stagnating, and emerging market growth has slowed, so economic growth over the next several years will be slower. International businesses must plan for profitability in the face of more slowly growing demand.

Emergence of Clean Technology

Environmental factors are already a major influence in the West and will become more so worldwide. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their normal operations. They can try to market environmentally friendly technologies internationally. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy.

Marketing is defined as the set of activities which are undertaken by the companies to provide satisfaction to the customers through value addition and making good relations with them, to increase their brand value. It identifies and converts needs into products and services, so as to satisfy their wants. There are two types of marketing namely, domestic and international marketing. Domestic marketing is when commercialization of goods and services are limited to the home country only.

On the other hand, International marketing, as the name suggests, is the type of marketing which is stretched across several countries in the world, i.e. the marketing of products and services is done globally.

Domestic Marketing

Domestic Marketing refers to the marketing activities employed on a national scale. Marketing strategies were undertaken to cater customers of a small area, generally within the local limits of a country. It serves and influences the customers of a specific country only.

Domestic Marketing enjoys a number of privileges like easy to access data, fewer communication barriers, deep knowledge about consumer demand, preferences and taste, knowledge about market trends, less competition, one set of economic, social & political issues, etc. However, due to the limited market size, the growth is also limited.

International Marketing

International Marketing is when the marketing practices are adopted to cater the global market. Normally, the companies start their business in the home country, after achieving the success they proceed their business to another level and become a transnational company, where they seek to enter in the market of several countries. So, the company must be known about the rules and regulations of that country.

International marketing enjoys no boundaries, keeping the focus on the worldwide customers. However, some disadvantages are also associated with it, like the challenges it faces on the path of expansion and globalization. Some of which are socio-cultural differences, changes in foreign currency, language barriers, differences in buying habits of customers, setting and international price for the product and so on.

The significant differences between domestic and international marketing are explained below:

1. The activities of production, promotion, advertising, distribution, selling and customer satisfaction within one’s own country is known as Domestic marketing. International marketing is when the marketing activities are undertaken at the international level.
2. Domestic marketing caters a small area, whereas International marketing covers a large area.
3. In domestic marketing, there is less government influence as compared to the international marketing because the company has to deal with rules and regulations of numerous countries.
4. In domestic marketing, business operations are done in one country only. On the other hand, in international marketing, the business operations conducted in multiple countries.
5. In international marketing, there is an advantage that the business organisation can have access to the latest technology of several countries which is absent in case domestic countries.
6. The risk involved and challenges in case of international marketing are very high due to some factors like socio-cultural differences, exchange rates, setting an international price for the product and so on. The risk factor and challenges are comparatively less in the case of domestic marketing.
7. International marketing requires huge capital investment, but domestic marketing requires less investment for acquiring resources.
8. In domestic marketing, the executives face less problem while dealing with the people because of similar nature. However, in the case of international marketing, it is quite difficult to deal with customers of different tastes, habits, preferences, segments, etc.
9. International marketing seeks deep research on the foreign market due to lack of familiarity, which is just opposite in the case of domestic marketing, where a small survey will prove helpful to know the market conditions.

After digging the differences in the two subjects, we came to the conclusion that the world itself is a market, and that is why the guiding principles are versatile. It does not make any change that where the principles are applied i.e. in a local or a global market. The basic cause of the difference between domestic and international marketing is the area of its implication and the market conditions.

The attainment of business exercises monitoring, directing and controlling the channel of a company’s products and services to its customers at the global level to earn profit and satisfy the demands internationally is the motto of international marketing.

The advantages of international marketing

1. Provides higher standard of living

International marketing ensures high standard life style & wealth to citizens of nations participating in international marketing. Goods that cannot be produced in home country due to certain geographical restrictions prevailing in the country are produced by countries which have abundance of raw material required for the production and also have no restrictions imposed towards production.

2. Ensures rational & optimum utilization of resources

Logical allocation of resource & ensuring their best use at the international level is one of the major advantages of international marketing. It invites all the nations to export whatever is available as surplus. For example, raw material, crude oil, consumer goods & even machinery & services.

3. Rapid industrial growth

Demand for new goods is created through international market. This leads to growth in industrial economy. Industrial development of a nation is guided by international marketing. For example, new job opportunities, complete utilization of natural resources, etc.

4. Benefits of comparative cost

International marketing ensures comparative cost benefits to all the participating countries. These countries avail the benefits of division of labor & specialization at the international level through international marketing.

5. International cooperation and world peace

Trade relations established through international marketing brings all the nations closer to one another and gives them the chance to sort out their differences through mutual understanding. This also encourages countries to work collaboratively with one another. This thereby designs a cycle wherein developed countries help developing countries in their developmental activities and this removes economic disparities and technological gap between the countries.

6. Facilitates cultural exchange

International marketing makes social & cultural exchange possible between different countries of the world. Along with the goods, the current trends and fashion followed in one nation pass to another, thereby developing cultural relation among nations. Thus, cultural integration is achieved at global level.

7. Better utilization of surplus production

Goods produced in surplus in one country are shipped to other countries that have the need for the goods in international marketing. Thus, foreign exchange of products between exporting country & importing countries meets the needs of each other. This is only possible if all the participating countries effectively use surplus goods, service, raw material, etc. In short, the major advantages of international marketing include effective utilization of surplus domestic production, introduction of new varieties of goods, improvement in the quality of production & promotion of mutual co-operation among countries.

8. Availability of foreign exchange

International marketing eases the availability of foreign exchange required for importing capital goods, modern technology & many more. Essential imports of items can be sponsored by the foreign exchange earned due to exports.

9. Expansion of tertiary sector

International marketing promotes exports of goods from one country to another encouraging industrial development. Infrastructure facilities are expanded through international marketing. It indirectly facilitates the use of transport, banking, and insurance in a country ensuring additional benefits to the national economy.

10. Special benefits at times of emergency

Whenever a country faces natural calamities like floods & famines, it is supported by other countries in the international market. The international market provides emergency supply of goods and services to meet urgent requirements of the country facing the calamity. This distribution can only be facilitated by a country which has surplus imports.

A company exporting goods to other foreign countries earns substantial profit through export operation as domestic marketing is less profitable than international marketing. The loss a company suffers in domestic marketing can be compensated from the profit earned through exports in international marketing. Foreign exchange can be earned by exporting goods to foreign countries. Thus, the profit earned can be used for the import of essential goods, new machinery, technology, etc. This would further facilitate large-scale export in future.

Unless customers are buying a product directly from the company that makes it, sales are always facilitated by one or more marketing intermediaries, also known as middlemen. Marketing intermediaries do much more than simply take a slice of the pie with each transaction. Not only do they give customers easier access to products, they can also streamline a manufacturer’s processes. Four types of traditional intermediaries include agents and brokers, wholesalers, distributors and retailers.

In an age where it is easy for any company to set up shop with an e-commerce website, it may be tempting for a small business to eliminate intermediaries to maximize profit. For a scaling business, however, this can create a lot of work in logistics and customer support.

For example, if 1,000 customers were to buy a product directly from the producer in a single month, this would entail 1,000 separate shipments to 1,000 locations, and with a minimum of 1,000 customer interactions. If you added customer inquiries about the product, returns and after-sale support – and all the customers who initiate a purchase without following through – you would have several thousand interactions with customers for every 1,000 sales. Selling through three or four intermediaries with a weekly shipping schedule, the manufacturer would have only a dozen shipments to schedule each month with a fraction of the interactions.

1. Agents and Brokers

Agents and brokers are nearly synonymous in their roles as intermediaries. In fact, when it comes to real estate transactions, they are synonymous to any client, despite the differences in their roles in the industry. In most cases, however, agents serve as an intermediary on a permanent basis between buyers and sellers, while brokers do this on a temporary basis only. Both are paid in commission for each sale and do not take ownership of the goods being sold.

In addition to real estate, agents and brokers are also common in the travel agency. Companies routinely use agents and brokers when importing or exporting products across the border.

2. Merchant Wholesalers and Resellers

Merchant wholesalers, which are also simply called wholesalers, buy products from manufacturers in bulk and then resell them, usually to retailers or other businesses. Some carry an extensive range of different products, while others specialize in a few products but carry a large assortment. They may operate cash-and-carry outlets, warehouses, mail order businesses or online sales, or they may simply keep their inventories in trucks, and travel to their customers.

3. Distributors and Functional Wholesalers

Also called functional wholesalers, distributors do not buy products from the producers. Instead, they expedite sales between the manufacturer and retailers or other businesses. Like agents and brokers, they can be paid by commission, or they can be paid in fees from the manufacturer.

4. Traditional and Online Retailers

Whenever a consumer buys a product from anyone other than the company that makes it, the consumer is dealing with a retailer. This includes corner stores, shopping malls and e-commerce website. Retailers may buy directly from the producers or from another intermediary. In some markets, they may stock items and pay for them only after they make a sale, which is common for most bookstores today.

Any e-commerce website that’s not owned by the company that makes a product, which it then sells to a consumer, can also be called a retailer. However with companies such as Amazon, which make their own products and sell them directly to customers in addition to products made by other companies the line between producers and retailers is becoming increasingly blurry.