Tag: Cash Accounting

Inter-branch reconciliation is a major activity for banks and financial institutions looking to create a balanced co-ordination between their various branches and their activities.

Inter-branch Reconciliation

These are:

• Comments on the system/ procedure and records maintained.
• Test check for any unusual entries put through inter-branch/ head office accounts.
• Position of outstanding entries; system for locating long outstanding items of high value.
• Steps taken or proposed to be taken for bringing the reconciliation upto- date.
• Compliance with the RBI guidelines with respect to provisioning for old outstanding entries.

Inter-branch accounts are normally reconciled by each bank at the central level. While practices with various banks may differ, the inter-branch accounts are normally sub-divided into segments or specific areas, e.g., ‘Drafts paid/ payable’, ‘inter-branch remittances’, ‘H.O. A/c’, etc. The auditor should report on the year-end status of inter-branch accounts indicating the dates up to which all or any segments of the accounts have been reconciled. The auditor should also indicate the number and amount of outstanding entries in the interbranch accounts, giving the relevant information separately for debit and credit entries. The auditor can obtain the relevant information primarily from branch audit reports. Where, in the course of audit, the auditor comes across any unusual items in inter-branch/head office accounts, he should report the details of such items, indicating the nature and the amounts involved. The auditor should examine the procedure for identifying the high-value items remaining outstanding in inter-branch reconciliation. He should review the steps taken or proposed to be taken by the Management for clearing the outstanding entries in inter-branch accounts, particularly the high-value items. If he has any specific suggestions for expeditious reconciliation of inter-branch accounts including any improvements in the systems to achieve this objective, the same may be incorporated in the report. In the new CBS environment the branch reconciliation is done of IT department at H.O. in most of the banks.

Importance of Reconciling

A regular review of your accounts can help you identify problems before they get out of hand.

1. Catch Fraud before it’s too Late

Signs of fraud should be your priority when reconciling transactions in your bank account.

A few things to consider include:

• Were legitimate checks that you issued duplicated or changed, resulting in more money leaving your checking account?
• Were checks issued without authorization?
• Are there unauthorized transfers out of the account, or did anybody make unauthorized cash withdrawals?
• Does the account have any missing deposits?

2. Prevent Administrative Problems

Reconciling your account also helps you identify internal administrative issues that need attention. For example, you might need to reevaluate how you handle cash flow and accounts receivable, or perhaps change your record-keeping system and the accounting processes you use.

Proper processes for managing your banking transactions result in outcomes such as:

• Knowing how much cash you really have available in your accounts
• Avoiding bounced checks (or failing to make electronic payments) to partners and suppliers
• Avoiding bank fees for insufficient funds or using lines of credit when you don’t really need to
• Knowing if customer payments have bounced or failed, and determining if any action is needed
• Keeping track of your outstanding checks and following up with payees
• Making sure every transaction gets entered into your accounting system properly
• Catching any bank errors

How Bank Reconciliation Works?

To reconcile your accounts, compare your internal record of transactions and balances to your monthly bank statement. Verify each transaction individually, making sure the amounts match perfectly, and note any differences that need more investigation.

Make sure that your bank statements show an ending account balance that agrees with your internal records. If the amounts don’t match, you need an explanation for the difference.

The process can be as formal or informal as you’d like, and some businesses create a bank reconciliation statement to document that they regularly reconcile accounts. If you don’t complete the process monthly, you can perform it daily, quarterly, or for any other period you choose.

Best Time to Reconcile

It’s wise to review your accounts at least monthly. For high-volume businesses or situations with a higher risk of fraud, you may need to reconcile your bank transactions even more often. Some companies reconcile their bank accounts daily.

You can also build protection into your bank accounts, and your bank can provide useful ideas. For example, many banks offer a solution called Positive Pay, which prevents your bank from approving payments out of your account unless you specifically provide instructions to approve individual payments in advance.

Life cycle costing is a system that tracks and accumulates the actual costs and revenues attributable to cost object from its invention to its abandonment. Life cycle costing involves tracing cost and revenues on a product by product base over several calendar periods.

The Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of an asset is defined as:

“The total cost throughout its life including planning, design, acquisition and support costs and any other costs directly attributable to owning or using the asset”.

Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of an item represents the total cost of its ownership, and includes all the cots that will be incurred during the life of the item to acquire it, operate it, support it and finally dispose it. Life Cycle Costing adds all the costs over their life period and enables an evaluation on a common basis for the specified period (usually discounted costs are used).

This enables decisions on acquisition, maintenance, refurbishment or disposal to be made in the light of full cost implications. In essence, Life Cycle Costing is a means of estimating all the costs involved in procuring, operating, maintaining and ultimately disposing a product throughout its life.

Life cycle costing is different from traditional cost accounting system which reports cost object profitability on a calendar basis (i.e. monthly, quarterly and annually) whereas life cycle costing involves tracing costs and revenues of a cost object (i.e. product, project etc.) over several calendar periods (i.e. projected life of the cost object).

Thus, product life cycle costing is an approach used to provide a long-term picture of product line profitability, feedback on the effectiveness of the life cycle planning and cost data to clarify the economic impact on alternative chosen in the design, engineering phase etc.

It is also considered as a way to enhance the control of manufacturing costs. It is important to track and measure costs during each stage of a product’s life cycle.

Characteristics of Life Cycle Costing

1. Product life cycle costing involves tracing of costs and revenues of a product over several calendar periods throughout its life cycle.
2. Product life cycle costing traces research and design and development costs and total magnitude of these costs for each individual product and compared with product revenue.
3. Each phase of the product life-cycle poses different threats and opportunities that may require different strategic actions.
4. Product life cycle may be extended by finding new uses or users or by increasing the consumption of the present users.

Stages of Product Life Cycle Costing

Following are the main stages of Product Life Cycle:

(i) Market Research

It will establish what product the customer wants, how much he is prepared to pay for it and how much he will buy.

(ii) Specification

It will give details such as required life, maximum permissible maintenance costs, manufacturing costs, required delivery date, expected performance of the product.

(iii) Design

Proper drawings and process schedules are to be defined.

(iv) Prototype Manufacture

From the drawings a small quantity of the product will be manufactured. These prototypes will be used to develop the product.

(v) Development

Testing and changing to meet requirements after the initial run. This period of testing and changing is development. When a product is made for the first time, it rarely meets the requirements of the specification and changes have to be made until it meets the requirements.

(vi) Tooling

Tooling up for production can mean building a production line; building jigs, buying the necessary tools and equipment’s requiring a very large initial investment.

(vii) Manufacture

The manufacture of a product involves the purchase of raw materials and components, the use of labour and manufacturing expenses to make the product.

(viii) Selling

(ix) Distribution

(x) Product support

(xi) Decommissioning

When a manufacturing product comes to an end, the plant used to build the product must be sold or scrapped.

Benefits of Product Life Cycle Costing

Following are the main benefits of product life cycle costing:

(i) It results in earlier action to generate revenue or lower costs than otherwise might be considered. There are a number of factors that need to be managed in order to maximise return in a product.

(ii) Better decision should follow from a more accurate and realistic assessment of revenues and costs within a particular life cycle stage.

(iii) It can promote long term rewarding in contrast to short term rewarding.

(iv) It provides an overall framework for considering total incremental costs over the entire span of a product.

Life Cycle Costing Process

Life cycle costing is a three-staged process. The first stage is life cost planning stage which includes planning LCC Analysis, Selecting and Developing LCC Model, applying LCC Model and finally recording and reviewing the LCC Results. The Second Stage is Life Cost Analysis Preparation Stage followed by third stage Implementation and Monitoring Life Cost Analysis.

The Three stages are:

Life Cycle Costing Process

LCC Analysis is a multi-disciplinary activity. An analyst, involved in life cycle costing, should be fully familiar with unique cost elements involved in the life cycle of asset, sources of cost data to be collected and financial principles to be applied.

He should also have clear understanding of methods of assessing the uncertainties associated with cost estimation. Number of iteration may be required to perform to finally achieve the result. All these iterations should be documented in detail to facilitate the interpretations of final result.

Stage 1: LCC Analysis Planning:

The Life Cycle Costing process begins with development of a plan, which addresses the purpose, and scope of the analysis.

The plan should:

1. Define the analysis objectives in terms of outputs required to assist a management decision.

Typical objectives are:

1. Determination of the LCC for an asset in order to assist planning, contracting, budgeting or similar needs.
2. Evaluation of the impact of alternative courses of action on the LCC of an asset (such as design approaches, asset acquisition, support policies or alternative technologies).
3. Identification of cost elements which act as cost drives for the LCC of an asset in order to focus design, development, acquisition or asset support efforts.
4. Make the detailed schedule with regard to planning of time period for each phase, the operating, technical and maintenance support required for the asset.
5. Identify any underlying conditions, assumptions, limitations and constraints (such as minimum asset performance, availability requirements or maximum capital cost limitations) that might restrict the range of acceptable options to be evaluated. Identify alternative courses of action to be evaluated.
6. Identify alternative courses of action to be evaluated. The list of proposed alternatives may be refined as new options are identified or as existing options are found to violate the problem constraints.
7. Provide an estimate of resources required and a reporting schedule for the analysis to ensure that the LCC results will be available to support the decision-making process for which they are required.

Next step in LCC Analysis planning is the selection or development of an LCC model that will satisfy the objectives of the analysis. LCC Model is basically an accounting structure which enables the estimation of an asset components cost.

Stage 2: Life Cost Analysis Preparation

The Life Cost Analysis is essentially a tool, which can be used to control and manage the ongoing costs of an asset or part thereof. It is based on the LCC Model developed and applied during the Life Cost Planning phase with one important difference: it uses data on real costs.

The preparation of the Life Cost Analysis involves review and development of the LCC Model as a “real-time” or actual cost control mechanism. Estimates of capital costs will be replaced by the actual prices paid. Changes may also be required to the cost breakdown structure and cost elements to reflect the asset components to be monitored and the level of detail required.

Targets are set for the operating costs and their frequency of occurrence based initially on the estimates used in the Life Cost Planning phase. However, these targets may change with time as more accurate data is obtained, from the actual asset operating costs or from the operating cost of similar other asset.

Stage 3: Implementing and Monitoring

Implementation of the Life Cost Analysis involves the continuous monitoring of the actual performance of an asset during its operation and maintenance to identify areas in which cost savings may be made and to provide feedback for future life cost planning activities.

For example, it may be better to replace an expensive building component with a more efficient solution prior to the end of its useful life than to continue with a poor initial decision.

Fund Flow Statement is a financial report that explains the movement of funds within a business during a specific period. It shows the sources from which funds were obtained and the ways in which those funds were utilized. Unlike the income statement, which focuses on profitability, or the balance sheet, which reflects financial position at a given date, the Fund Flow Statement highlights changes in working capital and long-term financial planning.

The statement is particularly useful in analyzing how operational activities, investments, and financing decisions impact the financial health of the organization. For example, it reveals whether funds were generated from internal operations like profits or from external sources such as loans or equity. Similarly, it shows whether funds were applied to purchase fixed assets, repay debts, or increase working capital.

By identifying these movements, the Fund Flow Statement helps managers evaluate liquidity, financial stability, and the effectiveness of capital utilization. It also supports decision-making regarding investments, dividend policies, and future financing requirements. Thus, it serves as a bridge between the balance sheet and income statement, providing a dynamic view of how resources are managed within the business.

Objectives of Fund Flow Statement:

• Analyzing Sources and Applications of Funds

The primary objective of a fund flow statement is to explain where the business obtained its funds and how they were utilized during a given period. It identifies sources such as profits, loans, or equity and applications such as asset purchases, debt repayment, or dividend distribution. This clarity enables managers, investors, and stakeholders to understand the flow of resources. By analyzing both inflows and outflows, the statement provides a comprehensive view of financial management practices.

• Assessing Changes in Working Capital

The fund flow statement focuses on movements in working capital, which includes current assets and liabilities. It highlights whether operations have increased or decreased liquidity. For instance, if funds are tied up in inventories or receivables, working capital may decline. Conversely, efficient collections or reduced liabilities may improve liquidity. This assessment helps managers identify areas of concern in short-term financial management and ensures sufficient working capital is maintained for smooth operations.

• Supporting Long-Term Financial Planning

Another important objective of the fund flow statement is to assist in long-term financial planning. It reveals how funds are raised and applied to long-term uses such as purchasing fixed assets, expanding capacity, or restructuring debt. By showing how operations and financing decisions affect long-term stability, the statement becomes a tool for evaluating strategic initiatives. This information allows management to plan investments, funding strategies, and future capital needs with greater accuracy and foresight.

• Evaluating Financial Stability and Strength

The fund flow statement helps in evaluating a company’s overall financial strength and stability. By examining how funds are generated and applied, it indicates whether the business relies too heavily on external borrowing or sustains itself through internal operations. It also highlights repayment capacity and ability to finance growth. Investors and creditors use this information to assess risk and financial soundness, while management relies on it to safeguard the company’s long-term financial position.

• Identifying Causes of Financial Changes

One of the key objectives of the fund flow statement is to explain why a company’s financial position has changed between two balance sheet dates. It identifies specific factors such as increased borrowing, asset purchases, repayment of liabilities, or retained earnings that contributed to financial changes. By pinpointing exact causes, management can evaluate whether changes were beneficial or harmful to the business. This makes the statement a valuable diagnostic tool for financial analysis.

• Facilitating Decision-Making

The fund flow statement aids management in making informed financial decisions. By showing the movement of funds, it allows managers to decide on future investments, borrowing needs, or dividend policies. For instance, if funds are largely used for fixed asset purchases, management may delay dividends to preserve liquidity. Conversely, if internal operations generate sufficient funds, expansion plans can be pursued confidently. This decision-making support is one of the statement’s most practical and impactful objectives.

• Ensuring Efficient Utilization of Funds

Efficiency in utilizing available funds is crucial for business success. The fund flow statement helps assess whether resources are being applied productively or wasted. For example, funds used excessively in idle inventories reflect inefficiency, whereas investment in profitable ventures demonstrates effective use. By highlighting such patterns, the statement encourages better allocation of resources. Management can reallocate funds toward more productive areas, ensuring that capital contributes to growth, profitability, and sustainable business performance.

• Enhancing Communication with Stakeholders

The fund flow statement also serves as a communication tool between management and external stakeholders such as investors, creditors, and regulators. It provides transparency by disclosing how the business manages its financial resources. Stakeholders gain confidence when they see funds being generated and applied prudently. This enhances credibility and trust in the organization. By fulfilling this objective, the fund flow statement not only improves internal management control but also strengthens external stakeholder relationships.

Steps in Preparing a Fund Flow Statement:

Step 1. Collecting Financial Statements

The first step in preparing a fund flow statement is to collect the necessary financial information, primarily the balance sheets of the current year and the previous year. Additional data such as the income statement and schedules of non-current assets and liabilities may also be required. These documents provide the foundation for identifying changes in assets, liabilities, and equity. Without accurate and complete financial statements, preparing a reliable fund flow statement is not possible, making this step essential.

Step 2. Preparing a Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

After collecting data, the next step is to prepare a schedule of changes in working capital. This involves listing current assets and current liabilities from two consecutive balance sheets. The difference between them indicates an increase or decrease in working capital. An increase in current assets or decrease in current liabilities increases working capital, while the opposite reduces it. This schedule helps highlight how day-to-day operations and financial activities affect liquidity, forming the basis for analysis.

Step 3. Identifying Non-Current Items

The third step involves identifying non-current items such as fixed assets, long-term investments, long-term loans, and reserves. These items directly affect the flow of funds but are not part of working capital. For example, the purchase of machinery requires funds, while issuing long-term debentures generates funds. By isolating these items, businesses can evaluate how long-term financing and investment activities have influenced overall financial movement, providing a broader perspective beyond just operational working capital changes.

Step 4. Calculating Funds from Operations

Funds from operations represent the internal source of funds generated through business activities. To calculate this, the net profit from the income statement is adjusted for non-cash expenses like depreciation, amortization, and provisions, as well as non-operating incomes such as profit from asset sales. The adjusted figure reflects the actual cash flow generated from operations. This step ensures that only operating performance, free from accounting adjustments, is considered in the fund flow statement for accuracy.

Step 5. Determining Sources of Funds

After calculating operational funds, the next step is to list all sources of funds. These may include issuance of shares, raising long-term loans, sale of fixed assets, or internal accruals. Identifying sources is important because it reveals how the organization has financed its activities. By analyzing these sources, management can evaluate whether the company relies more on internal generation or external borrowing, which directly impacts long-term financial stability and strategic planning decisions.

Step 6. Determining Applications of Funds

Once sources are identified, the next step is to determine how those funds have been applied. Applications may include purchasing fixed assets, repaying loans, paying dividends, or increasing working capital. This step ensures that every inflow of funds is matched with a corresponding outflow. By listing applications, the statement highlights whether funds are used for growth, debt reduction, or operational needs. This analysis helps managers assess the efficiency and appropriateness of fund utilization within the business.

Step 7. Preparing the Fund Flow Statement

At this stage, the actual fund flow statement is prepared in a tabular format, clearly showing sources of funds on one side and applications of funds on the other. The statement also reconciles changes in working capital, ensuring that the net increase or decrease is fully explained. This structured presentation provides clarity on how funds have moved within the organization. It serves as a comprehensive financial summary that can be used by management, investors, and creditors.

Step 8. Analyzing and Interpreting Results

The final step is analyzing and interpreting the fund flow statement to draw meaningful conclusions. Managers examine whether funds were raised from internal or external sources and whether they were applied effectively. For example, heavy reliance on loans may signal financial risk, while investment in fixed assets may indicate expansion. This interpretation supports decision-making regarding future financing, cost control, and investment strategies. Without this step, the statement remains only a record rather than a decision-making tool.

Importance of Fund Flow Statement in Business Decision-Making:

• Evaluates Financial Health

A fund flow statement highlights the changes in financial position by showing sources and applications of funds. It helps in understanding whether funds are being generated from operations or borrowed from external sources. This evaluation provides a clear picture of the organization’s financial health. Business leaders use this information to assess liquidity, solvency, and financial strength. By examining how funds flow, managers can determine the long-term sustainability of operations and make strategic decisions for future growth.

• Assists in Working Capital Management

Effective working capital management is essential for ensuring smooth day-to-day operations. The fund flow statement provides insights into how working capital is increasing or decreasing and the reasons behind such changes. Managers can use this information to avoid liquidity crises, maintain an adequate cash balance, and manage current assets and liabilities effectively. This helps businesses balance short-term obligations with available resources, reducing financial stress and improving operational efficiency, which is vital for sustaining market competitiveness.

• Supports Investment Decisions

The fund flow statement helps businesses identify whether funds have been effectively utilized in long-term investments, such as purchasing fixed assets or expanding capacity. By analyzing applications of funds, managers can determine whether investments are productive and aligned with business goals. It also highlights the availability of surplus funds that can be reinvested for future growth. This clarity ensures that decisions regarding expansion, modernization, or diversification are based on reliable financial insights, reducing investment risks significantly.

• Guides Financing Decisions

Financing is a critical area in business decision-making. A fund flow statement shows the extent to which a company depends on external borrowings or internal accruals. It highlights how funds are raised through equity, debentures, or loans. This helps management decide on the most suitable financing mix. Understanding reliance on debt versus equity enables businesses to control financial risk, reduce interest costs, and maintain an optimal capital structure, ensuring long-term financial stability and investor confidence.

• Measures Operational Efficiency

By analyzing funds generated from operations, the fund flow statement reflects the efficiency of the core business activities. If a company consistently generates positive funds from operations, it signals strong performance. On the other hand, negative funds may indicate inefficiencies or over-dependence on external financing. This measure allows managers to evaluate profitability beyond accounting profits by focusing on actual cash flows. Thus, it plays an important role in monitoring operational efficiency and improving performance strategies.

• Aids in Strategic Planning

The fund flow statement provides a comprehensive overview of financial movements, making it a powerful tool for long-term strategic planning. Managers can use the insights to decide on future investments, debt restructuring, or cost-cutting measures. For example, if the statement shows excessive funds spent on debt repayments, strategies can be made to strengthen internal cash generation. By aligning fund flows with business objectives, management ensures that strategic plans are realistic, sustainable, and financially feasible.

• Enhances Stakeholder Confidence

Investors, creditors, and financial institutions rely on fund flow statements to evaluate the company’s financial management practices. A well-prepared fund flow statement demonstrates transparency in fund utilization and effective financial control. This enhances the confidence of stakeholders, encouraging them to invest or extend credit. It assures them that funds are not misused but allocated to productive areas. Building such trust strengthens business relationships and supports long-term growth by securing financial support when needed.

• Identifies Financial Risks

The fund flow statement is valuable in identifying potential financial risks, such as excessive reliance on borrowings or inefficient use of funds. By analyzing mismatches between sources and applications, management can detect early warning signs of financial distress. This allows corrective measures to be taken before issues escalate into crises. For example, if funds are being used primarily for debt repayment instead of expansion, it may signal liquidity problems. Early identification ensures timely and effective risk management.

Fund Flow Statement vs Cash Flow Statement

Maintenance of Accounts of Educational Institutions

A large number of educational institutions are registered under the India Society Registration Act, 1860. The purpose behind the formation of educational institutions is to spread education and not just earn profits. The following table lists out the sources for collection of amount and also the different types of expenses incurred by the educational institutions:

Main Source of Collection

• Admission fees, tuition fees, examination fees, fines, etc.
• Securities from students.
• Donations from public
• Grants from Government for building, prizes, maintenance, etc.

Types of Expenses / Payments

• Salary, allowances and provident fund contribution for teaching and non-teaching staff.
• Examination expenses
• Stationery & printing expenses
• Distribution of scholarships and stipends
• Purchase and repair of furniture & fixture
• Prizes
• Expenses on sports and games
• Festival and function expenses
• Library books
• Newspaper and magazines
• Medical expenses
• Audit fees and audit expenses
• Electricity expenses
• Telephone expenses
• Laboratory running & maintenance
• Laboratory equipment
• Building Repair & maintenance

Preliminary Audit of Educational Institutions

Following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of educational institutions:

• It is to be confirmed whether the letter of his appointment (the Auditor’s) is in order.
• The Auditor should obtain a list of books, documents, register and other records as maintained by the educational institutions.
• He should examine the audit report of last year and should note down the observation and qualification, if any.
• He should note down the important provisions regarding to accounts and audit from the Trust Deed, Charter of Regulations.
• He should examine the Minutes of Meetings of the Board of Trustee or the Governing Body for important decisions regarding the sale or purchase of fixed assets, investments or delegation of finance power.
• In case of colleges and university, the Grants Commission provides Grants to them subject to certain conditions. The Auditor should study all the conditions concerning grants.
• The Auditor should examine the Code of State regarding grant-in-aid.
• He should be aware of all the provisions and rules of related laws concerning books of account and audit.

Internal Control System

The Auditor should independently check the internal control system regarding authorization procedures, record maintenance, safeguarding of assets, rotation and division of staff duty, etc. Following are some of the important aspects that need to be considered by an Auditor to keep a check on the internal control system −

• Whether internal control and internal check system is working, if yes, how effectively.
• Is there is any system to physically verify the fixed assets, stores and consumables at regular interval.
• An Auditor should verify the control system concerning proper authorization, obtaining quotations, proper maintenance of accounts and record regarding purchase of fixed assets, purchase of material, investment, etc.
• Whether bank reconciliation statement is prepared at regular intervals and what kind of action is taken for uncleared cheque which were pending since long.
• Whether waiver of fees is properly sanctioned by appropriate authorities.
• The person who is collecting fees and the cashier should not be the same person.
• Class wise fees receivable and the actual fees received reconcile or not.
• Whether collected fees is deposited in bank on a daily basis.
• Fees collection register should be maintained on a daily basis.
• Whether approved list of supplier of sports material, stationery, lab items are readily available.
• Whether control system for payment is adequate or not.
• The system of letting out conference hall and class rooms, etc. for seminars and conventions.
• Whether fees structure is properly authorized along with change in fee structure if any.

Audit of Assets and Liabilities

The following points need to be considered while conducting an audit of Assets and Liabilities −

• Verification of Assets register should be done considering grants on purchase of assets, if any received from State Government/ University Grant Commission (UGC).
• Verification of depreciation is very important; it should be according to useful life of assets or as per the Companies Act, whichever is applicable.
• If educational institution is running under Indian Public Trust Act, it is must for an Auditor to check, where investments have been made, because as per the Indian Public Trust Act, investment can be made in specific securities only.
• If donation is received in the form of investment, an Auditor has to check all related correspondence with the donor.
• All the applicable requirements of law should be fulfilled for the purchase of investments and fixed assets.
• An Auditor should read and note down the state code and provisions relating to the conditions and procedures of Grants. He should also verify the requirements of State/UGC which are to be fulfilled by educational institutions for receiving Grants and also for continuations of Grants.

Audit of Income of Educational Institutions

The following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of the Income of Educational Institutions:

• Fees and charges received on account of admission fees, tuition fees, sports fees, examination fees etc. should be verified based on the approved fees structure.
• Verification of counterfoil copies of fees receipt with fees received register should be done.
• Prescribed conditions by the State Government and the University Grants Commission should be verified whether fulfilled or not.
• Cash book should be verified with counterfoil of receipt book and fees register.
• Fees receivable and actual fees received should be reconciled.
• Charges and fees received and receivable should be examined on account of hostel accommodation, mess, housekeeping and clothing, etc.
• Cash book should be verified with the donation received register.
• Donation received should be accounted for according to the nature of donation means careful distinction should be there for revenue nature donation and capital nature donations; the same procedure is to be followed for Grants received.
• The purpose and utilization of grant should be same.
• Investment register and cash book should be verified for income received on account of interest on investment and dividends, etc.

Audit of Expenses of Educational Institutions

The following points need to be considered by an Auditor while conducting audit of Expenses of Educational Institutions:

• Electricity expenses, telephone expenses, water charges, stationery and printing, purchase of sports items should be properly verified with quotation, purchase bills, inward register and Bills received from service providers, etc. All purchases should be authorized by appropriate person.
• In case where hostels purchase food items, provisions, clothing, etc. should be properly verified.
• Verification of Tax Deducted at Source, Employee State Insurance and Provident Fund should be checked. It is also very important that all deducted amount should be deposited in appropriate Government accounts well within time without any default. These can be verified from relevant bank challans.
• Payment made on account of salary should be verified from terms of appointment and increment policy. Auditor should verify the computation of salary and check whether all required deductions are made out of it or not like advance salary, loan installment, absence from duty, ESI (Employee State Insurance), PF (Provident Fund), etc. The Net Salary Payable amount will be verified from cash book and bank pass book for salary paid.
• Terms and conditions, cash book, voucher and receipts should be the basis for the verification of scholarship paid.
• Appropriate provision should be made on account of outstanding payments.

In vouching, payments shown on cash book, an auditor should see that payment has been made wholly and exclusively for the business of the client and that it is properly authorized by the person who is competent to do so.

Vouching of Cash Transaction

In a business concern, cash book is maintained to account for receipts and payments of cash. It is an important financial book for a business concern. Errors and frauds arise mostly in connection with receipts and payments of cash by making misappropriations wherever possible. Hence the auditor should see whether all receipts have been recorded in cash book and no fictitious payment appears on the payment side of cash book.

General Points to be Considered while Vouching Cash Transactions

The auditor should consider the following general points while vouching the cash transactions:

1. Internal Check System

Before starting the vouching of cash book, the auditor should enquire about the internal check system in operation. If there is no well organized internal check system, there are lot of chances of misappropriation of cash. He should study carefully the internal check systems regarding cash sales and other receipts. The internal control needs to be revised periodically and suitable modification is done to make it more effective.

2. The auditor should verify and test the system of accounting

The system of accounting should be tested for its accuracy of recording cash transactions. By suppressing the receipt of cash and overstatement of payments, fraud can be committed.

3. Examination of Test Checking

As far as possible, all cash transactions are to be checked elaborately. However, if the auditor is satisfied that there is an efficient internal check system, he can resort to test checking. In such a case, he may check a few items at random and if he finds that they are all in order and free from irregularities, he has reason to assume that the remaining transactions will be correct.

4. Comparison of rough Cash Book with the Cash Book

Usually, cash receipts are entered first in the rough cash book before they are entered in the cash book. The auditor should examine the entries in the rough cash book and main cash book and then compare them to detect whether there is any error or irregularity.

5. Examine the Method of Depositing Cash Receipts Daily

The auditor should examine the method adopted for depositing daily cash receipts in bank. The pay in slip should invariably be used for this purpose. Accounting of receipts should not be delayed. Adjusting customer’s account with allowances and rebates are not actually allowed. Misappropriation of cash is possible to the extent of adjustment.

6. Preparing of Bank Reconciliation Statement

The auditor should prepare a Bank Reconciliation Statement verifying the bank balance with cash book and pass book and find out the reasons for the difference between the bank balance as per Pass Book and that of in the Cash Book.

7. Verification of Cash in Hand

The auditor should verify the cash in hand by actually counting it and see whether it agrees with cash book balance.

8. Ensuring Proper Control of Receipts Book

The auditor should see whether receipt books are kept under proper control. While doing so, he should enquire as to whether all receipts are in printed forms, whether counterfoil receipts are used or a system of carbon copy is used, and all receipt books and all receipts are separately and consecutively numbered.

He should compare the particulars as regards to date, amount, name, etc. with cash book entries. If there are certain entries in cash book for which receipts have been issued, they should be carefully checked. The receipts have to be signed by a responsible officer, and not by the cashier.

The unused receipt book should be kept in safe custody with some responsible officials. Along with cash receipt, the rule for granting cash discount should be examined. If there is a system under which a receipt accompanies the receipt of cash, such a receipt, usually known as delivery note should be properly signed and returned to the customer.

Audit Note Book is a register maintained by the audit staff to record important points observed, errors, doubtful queries, explanations and clarifications to be received from the clients. It also contains definite information regarding the day-to-day work performed by the audit clerks. In short, audit note book is usually a bound note book in which a large variety of matters observed during the course of audit are recorded. The note book should be maintained clearly, completely and systematically. It serves as authentic evidence in support of work done to protect the auditor against any legal charge initiated against him for negligence. It is of immense help to the auditor in preparing audit report. It also acts as a valuable guide for conducting audit for future years.

E.L. Kohler formulated a detailed definition for the term. According to him,

“Audit note book is a record, used chiefly in recurring audits, containing data of work done and comments outside the regular subject matter of working papers. It generally contains such items as the audit programme, notations showing how sections of the audit are carried out during successive examinations, information needed for the auditor’s office and for staff administration, personnel assignment, time requirements and notations for use in succeeding examination”.

Contents of Audit Note Book

An audit notebook generally consists of the following information:

1. The nature of the business and summary of important documents relating to the constitution of the business such as Memorandum of Association, Articles of Association or Partnership Deed, etc.
2. A list of the books of accounts maintained.
3. Particulars as to the system of accounts followed and the system of internal check in force.
4. Names of principal officers, their duties and responsibilities.
5. Progress of audit work together with the dates on which the work was undertaken and completed.
6. Extracts from correspondence with different authorities.
7. Audit programme.
8. Allocation of work among different audit staff.
9. All queries which have not been clarified so far.
10. Lists of missing receipts, vouchers, bills, etc.
11. Any special point arising during the course of audit to which the attention of the auditor must be drawn.
12. Particulars of cash balances, investments, fixed deposits, and the reconciliation statements of principal bank accounts.
13. Extracts of the minutes and contracts affecting the accounts.
14. Record of audit work done with dates of commencement and of completion.
15. Particulars regarding the financial policies followed by the business.
16. All mistakes and errors discovered.
17. Points to be incorporated in the audit report.
18. Points, which need further explanations and clarifications.
19. All important matters for future reference at subsequent audits.
20. Information of permanent nature relating to the business and notes of all important technical transactions.

These matters are very useful in preparing the audit programmes for subsequent audits.

Advantages of Audit Note Book

1. Facilitates Audit Work

It facilitates the work of an auditor as all important details about the audit are recorded in the note book which the audit clerk cannot remember everything at all the time. It helps in remembering and recalling the important matters relating to the audit work.

2. Preparation of Audit Report

Audit note book helps in providing required data for preparing the audit report. An auditor examines the audit note book before preparing and finalizing the audit report

3. Serves as Documentary Evidence

Audit note book serves as a documentary evidence in the court of law when a suit is filed against the auditor for his negligence.

4. Serves as a Guide

When a audit assistant is changed before the completion of audit work, audit note book serves as a guide in completion of balance work. It also acts as a guide for carrying on subsequent audits.

5. Evaluating Work of Audit Staff

It helps to assess the work performed by the audit staff and helps in evaluating their level of efficiency.

6. Fixation of Responsibility

Audit note book helps in fixing responsibility on concerned clerk who is responsible for any undetected errors and frauds in the course of audit.

7. No Dislocation of Audit Work

An audit note book contains all important details about audit hence any change in the audit staff will not disturb or dislocate the audit work.

Disadvantages of Audit Note Book

1. Fault-finding Attitude

It leads to development of a fault-finding attitude in the minds of the staff.

2. Misunderstanding

Very often maintenance of audit note book creates misunderstanding between the client’s staff and the audit staff.

3. Improper Preparation

Since it serves as evidence in the court of law, it needs to be prepared with great caution. When the note book is prepared without due care it cannot be used as evidence against the auditor for negligence.

4. Adverse Effects on Subsequent Audits

Since audit note book is used in performing subsequent audits, any mistakes in the note book may have adverse impacts on the next audit.

Bills receivable book is a subsidiary book used to record all bills of exchange and promissory notes received by a business from its customers. These financial instruments serve as evidence of a customer’s obligation to pay a specified amount at a future date. The bills receivable book captures essential details, including the date of receipt, customer name, amount, due date, and any discounts applicable. This systematic record helps businesses manage their receivables, monitor cash flow, and track payments effectively, ensuring timely collection of funds and accurate financial reporting.

Features of Bills Receivable Book:

• Detailed Record Keeping

The bills receivable book captures detailed information about each bill received, including the date of receipt, the name of the customer, the amount, the due date, and any applicable discounts. This thorough documentation aids in precise tracking and management of receivables.

• Facilitates Cash Flow Management

By maintaining a bills receivable book, businesses can monitor their expected cash inflows effectively. It provides visibility into when payments are due, allowing companies to plan their cash flow and manage working capital more efficiently. This is crucial for maintaining financial stability and ensuring that the business can meet its obligations.

• Tracking of Due Dates

The bills receivable book enables businesses to track the due dates of various bills. This feature is vital for ensuring timely collection of payments. By being aware of upcoming due dates, businesses can follow up with customers and reduce the risk of late payments, which can impact cash flow.

• Identification of Discounts

The bills receivable book allows businesses to record any discounts that may be applicable to the bills received. This feature helps businesses optimize their cash collections by ensuring they take advantage of any early payment discounts offered by customers, enhancing profitability.

• Management of Customer Relationships

By systematically recording bills receivable, businesses can improve their communication and relationships with customers. The book serves as a reference point for discussions about outstanding payments, fostering transparency and trust between the business and its clients.

• Integration with Accounting Systems

The bills receivable book is often integrated with a company’s accounting software. This integration ensures that all receivables are accurately reflected in the financial statements, allowing for seamless reconciliation of accounts and better financial reporting.

• Facilitates Financial Analysis

The information recorded in the bills receivable book can be used for financial analysis. Businesses can analyze their receivables turnover ratio, assess customer payment behaviors, and make informed decisions regarding credit policies and risk management. This analytical capability supports strategic planning and enhances overall business performance.

Example Entries of Bills Receivable Book

Bills Payable Book

Bills Payable Book is a subsidiary book used to record all bills of exchange and promissory notes that a business has issued to its suppliers. These documents represent the business’s obligation to pay a specified amount at a future date. The bills payable book captures crucial details, including the date of issuance, supplier name, amount, due date, and any discounts applicable. This systematic record helps businesses manage their liabilities, track payment schedules, and ensure timely payments to suppliers. By maintaining an accurate bills payable book, businesses can enhance cash flow management and uphold strong supplier relationships.

Features of Bills Payable Book:

• Comprehensive Record Keeping

The bills payable book meticulously documents all details related to bills payable, including the date of issuance, supplier name, amount owed, due date, and any applicable discounts. This thorough documentation facilitates accurate tracking and management of outstanding liabilities, ensuring that the business remains organized and informed about its financial obligations.

• Effective Cash Flow Management

Maintaining a bills payable book aids businesses in managing their cash flow more effectively. By keeping track of upcoming payments, businesses can better plan their cash outflows and allocate funds accordingly. This feature is essential for maintaining liquidity, as it helps ensure that the business can meet its financial obligations on time, thus avoiding late fees or penalties.

• Due Date Tracking

One of the most critical features of the bills payable book is its ability to track due dates for each bill. By having a clear record of when payments are due, businesses can prioritize their payments and ensure timely settlements. This helps to build positive relationships with suppliers and can lead to better credit terms in the future.

• Management of Supplier Relationships

The bills payable book supports the management of supplier relationships by providing a reliable reference for payment schedules. By consistently honoring payment commitments, businesses can foster goodwill with suppliers, which may lead to favorable credit terms or discounts in future transactions. Maintaining healthy supplier relationships is crucial for the ongoing success of any business.

• Integration with Accounting Systems

Typically, the bills payable book is integrated with the business’s accounting software. This integration allows for seamless updates to the general ledger, ensuring that all liabilities are accurately reflected in financial statements. This feature enhances the overall efficiency of financial reporting and facilitates better decision-making.

• Facilitation of Financial Analysis

The information contained within the bills payable book can be invaluable for financial analysis. Businesses can assess their payment patterns, evaluate their liabilities, and analyze the accounts payable turnover ratio. This analysis supports informed decision-making regarding credit policies, supplier negotiations, and cash management strategies.

• Control Over Credit Limits

By maintaining a detailed bills payable book, businesses can monitor their outstanding obligations and ensure they do not exceed their credit limits with suppliers. This feature aids in avoiding over-leveraging and helps maintain financial discipline. By keeping track of all payables, businesses can make informed decisions regarding additional purchases and manage their credit risk effectively.

Example Entries of Bills Payable Book:

Key differences between Bills Receivable Book and Bills Payable Book

Accounting refers to the systematic process of recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting financial transactions of a business or organization. It provides essential information about financial performance and position, aiding in decision-making and compliance with regulations. Key elements include assets, liabilities, equity, revenues, and expenses.

Functions of Accounting

1. Keeping Systematic Records

Accounting is to report the results of most business events. Hence, its main function is to keep a systematic record of these events. This function embraces recording transactions in journal and subsidiary books like cashbook, sales book etc., posting them to ledger accounts and ultimately preparing the financial statements [final accounts].

2. Communicating the Results

The second main function of accounting is to communicate the financial facts of the enterprise to the various interested parties like owners, investors, creditors, employees, government, and research scholars, etc.

The purpose of this function is to enable these parties to have better understanding of the business and take sound and realistic economic decisions.

3. Meeting the Legal Requirements

Accounting aims at fulfilling the legal requirements, especially of the tax authorities and regulators of the business. It discharges this function in accordance with certain fundamental truths and uniform enforcement of generally accepted accounting principles.

4. Protecting the Properties of the Business

Accounting helps protecting the property of the business.

5. Planning and Controlling the Business Activities

Accounting also helps planning future activities of an enterprise and controlling its day-to-day operations. This function is done mainly to promote maximum operational efficiency.

Attributes of Accounting

1. Accounting is both an art and science

Analysis, interpretations and communication of financial results are the art of accounting requiring special knowledge, experience and judgment. As a science, accounting is governed by certain principles, concepts, conventions and policies. But it is not an exact science like other physical sciences; rather it is an exacting science.

2. It involves recording, classifying, and summarizing

Recording means systematically writing down in account books the transactions and events reasonably soon after their occurrence.

Classifying is the process of grouping of transactions or entries of one nature at one place. This is done by opening accounts in a book called ledger. Summarizing involves the preparation of reports and statements from the classified data [i.e., ledger]. This involves the preparation of final accounts.

3. It records transactions in terms of money

This provides a common measure of recording and increases the understanding of the state of affairs of the business.

4. It records only those transactions and events, which are financial in character.

Non-financial events, howsoever important they may be for the business, are not recorded in accounting.

5. It is the art of interpreting the results of operations

It aids to determine the financial position of the enterprise, the progress it has made, and how well it is getting along.

6. It involves communication

The results of analysis and interpretation are communicated to the management and other interested parties.