Tag: Financial Statements

Debentures are a common tool used by companies to raise long-term capital without diluting ownership through equity shares. The process of issuing debentures involves selling them to investors who, in return, receive regular interest payments and the promise of repayment of the principal at the maturity date. The redemption of debentures refers to the repayment of the borrowed amount to debenture holders after the debenture’s tenure.

Issue of Debentures

The process of issuing debentures is an important step in corporate financing, as it enables companies to meet their capital needs without affecting their equity structure. Below are the various aspects of issuing debentures:

Methods of Issuing Debentures:

Debentures can be issued in different ways depending on the needs of the company and the preferences of the investors. The primary methods:

• Public issue:

Companies can offer debentures to the public by issuing a prospectus that details the terms and conditions of the debenture. The public can then apply to purchase these debentures, just like in a public offering of shares.

• Private Placement:

Debentures can be issued privately to a select group of investors, usually large institutions or high-net-worth individuals. This method is faster than a public issue and involves fewer regulatory requirements.

• Rights issue:

Existing shareholders are offered the right to subscribe to debentures in proportion to their existing shareholding. This method ensures that current shareholders have an opportunity to participate in the company’s debt issuance.

• Preference issue:

Debentures can be issued to selected investors (often existing stakeholders) with preferential terms, such as higher interest rates.

Types of Debentures Issued:

Companies issue different types of debentures based on their capital requirements and investor preferences:

• Secured Debentures:

These debentures are backed by specific assets of the company. In the case of default, secured debenture holders have a claim on these assets.

• Unsecured Debentures:

These are not backed by any collateral and are riskier for investors. However, they may offer higher interest rates to compensate for the added risk.

• Convertible Debentures:

These can be converted into equity shares after a certain period or at the discretion of the debenture holder. This gives the holder the potential to benefit from any increase in the company’s share price.

• Non-Convertible Debentures:

These cannot be converted into shares and remain a fixed income instrument throughout their tenure.

Key Elements of Debenture Issuance:

When issuing debentures, companies must clearly outline the following key terms:

• Interest Rate:

Interest rate is usually fixed and is paid to debenture holders periodically (annually or semi-annually). The rate reflects the company’s creditworthiness and the overall market conditions.

• Maturity Period:

This is the time frame over which the debenture will exist, typically ranging from 5 to 20 years. At the end of the maturity period, the principal amount is repaid to debenture holders.

• Redemption Terms:

These outline when and how the debentures will be redeemed, which may include specific options like early redemption or repayment in installments.

• Issue Price:

Debentures can be issued at par (face value), at a premium (above face value), or at a discount (below face value). The issue price influences the yield that investors will earn.

Redemption of Debentures

Redemption refers to the repayment of the principal amount to debenture holders once the debenture matures. There are various methods of redemption, and the specific method is typically outlined in the terms of the debenture issue.

Methods of Redemption:

• Lump Sum Payment:

This is the most common method, where the company repays the entire principal amount to debenture holders at the maturity date in one single payment.

• Installment Payments:

Instead of paying the entire principal at once, the company repays a portion of the principal periodically over the debenture’s term. This reduces the financial burden at the time of maturity.

• Redemption by Purchase in the Open Market:

The company may buy back debentures in the open market before their maturity date if they are available at a lower price than face value. This allows companies to retire debt at a lower cost.

• Conversion into Shares:

If the debentures are convertible, they can be converted into equity shares of the company at a pre-determined rate. This method is attractive for investors who wish to switch from debt instruments to equity if the company performs well.

• Call and Put Options:

Some debentures come with a call option, allowing the company to redeem the debentures before the maturity date. Similarly, a put option allows the investor to demand early repayment from the company.

Sources of Redemption Funds:

Companies need to arrange for funds to redeem debentures. Common sources:

• Sinking Fund:

Many companies set up a sinking fund specifically for debenture redemption. A portion of the company’s profits is periodically transferred to this fund, ensuring that the company has sufficient resources to repay the debentures at maturity.

• Fresh Issue of Debentures or Shares:

Company may issue new debentures or shares to raise funds for the redemption of existing debentures. This method helps companies avoid liquidity crunches at the time of redemption.

• Profit Reserves:

If a company has sufficient profits and reserves, it can use these resources to redeem debentures. This is a common practice among financially sound companies.

• Loans from Banks or Financial Institutions:

If the company does not have sufficient internal resources, it may take out a loan to redeem debentures. While this transfers the debt from debenture holders to financial institutions, it ensures that the debentures are repaid on time.

Premium on Redemption:

In some cases, companies agree to redeem debentures at a price higher than their face value. This is known as redemption at a premium. The premium acts as an additional incentive for investors to subscribe to the debentures at the time of issue, especially if the interest rate is relatively low.

Legal Requirements for Redemption:

The Companies Act, 2013, governs the redemption of debentures in India. Companies are required to comply with certain regulations, such as:

• Creation of Debenture Redemption Reserve (DRR):

Companies must set aside a portion of their profits in a Debenture Redemption Reserve (DRR) to ensure they have funds available for repayment. However, certain classes of companies are exempt from this requirement.

• Maintenance of Records:

Companies must maintain accurate records of debenture holders and the terms of redemption. These records are essential for transparency and regulatory compliance.

Bonus Shares are additional shares issued by a company to its existing shareholders, typically free of charge. They are distributed in proportion to the shares already held, meaning that shareholders receive a certain number of bonus shares for each share they own. Bonus shares are often issued as a way to distribute retained earnings, allowing companies to reward shareholders without depleting cash reserves. This practice can enhance liquidity in the market and may indicate the company’s strong financial position and growth potential.

Objects of Bonus Issue:

1. Rewarding Shareholders:

One of the primary objectives of a bonus issue is to reward existing shareholders for their loyalty and investment in the company. By providing additional shares, companies acknowledge shareholders’ trust and commitment.

2. Utilizing Retained Earnings:

Companies often have substantial retained earnings or reserves. Issuing bonus shares is a way to capitalize these profits, converting them into equity without distributing cash. This helps maintain a strong capital base while still providing value to shareholders.

3. Enhancing Liquidity:

Bonus shares increase the number of shares in circulation, which can enhance the liquidity of the company’s stock. Higher liquidity may make it easier for investors to buy and sell shares, potentially attracting more investors and improving marketability.

4. Improving Share Price:

Issuing bonus shares can help lower the market price per share by increasing the number of shares outstanding. This may make the shares more affordable for small investors, potentially broadening the shareholder base and increasing demand.

5. Creating a Positive Market Sentiment:

Bonus issue is often perceived as a positive signal about a company’s financial health and growth prospects. It can boost investor confidence and improve the company’s image in the market, encouraging both current and potential investors.

6. Encouraging Long-Term Investment:

Bonus shares can serve as an incentive for shareholders to hold onto their shares for the long term. This can help stabilize the share price and reduce market volatility, as more investors may choose to retain their shares to benefit from future growth.

7. Aligning Interests of Employees and Shareholders:

Companies may issue bonus shares to employees as part of an incentive plan, aligning their interests with those of shareholders. This helps to motivate employees by giving them a stake in the company’s success and fostering a sense of ownership.

8. Improving Financial Ratios:

Bonus issues can improve certain financial ratios, such as earnings per share (EPS) and return on equity (ROE). While EPS may decrease due to the increase in the number of shares, it can also reflect a more significant total equity, contributing to a more favorable perception of financial health.

Types of Bonus Issue:

1. Fully Paid Bonus Shares:

These are shares issued to existing shareholders without any additional cost. The company capitalizes its reserves or profits to issue fully paid bonus shares, increasing the number of shares in circulation while maintaining the same overall value of equity.

2. Partly Paid Bonus Shares:

In this type, bonus shares are issued with a requirement for shareholders to pay a portion of the share price. The company may decide to issue partly paid bonus shares as a way to raise additional capital while rewarding existing shareholders.

3. Pro-rata Bonus Issue:

A pro-rata bonus issue is where the bonus shares are issued to shareholders in proportion to their existing holdings. For example, if a company issues a bonus share for every four shares held, a shareholder with four shares would receive one additional share.

4. Bonus Shares from Reserves:

Companies may issue bonus shares by capitalizing reserves or profits. This approach allows companies to convert their retained earnings into equity shares, enhancing liquidity without affecting cash reserves.

5. Bonus Shares for Employee Stock Options (ESOPs):

Some companies issue bonus shares to employees as part of an employee stock ownership plan or ESOP. These shares serve to motivate and retain key personnel by giving them a stake in the company’s success.

6. Reverse Bonus Shares:

In contrast to traditional bonus shares, reverse bonus shares involve consolidating shares into fewer units. This type of issuance typically occurs when a company aims to increase its share price or comply with stock exchange listing requirements.

7. Free Shares:

This category includes shares given as a reward to existing shareholders without requiring any payment. Free shares are often issued as part of an incentive plan to enhance shareholder loyalty and boost investor sentiment.

Source of Bonus Issue:

1. Retained Earnings:

The most common source for issuing bonus shares is retained earnings. This represents the cumulative profits that a company has retained rather than distributed as dividends. By capitalizing retained earnings, a company can issue bonus shares to its shareholders without affecting its cash flow.

2. General Reserve:

Companies can also use their general reserves, which are created out of profits not earmarked for any specific purpose. General reserves serve as a cushion for unforeseen expenses or losses, and utilizing them for bonus shares can help improve shareholder value while maintaining financial stability.

3. Capital Redemption Reserve:

If a company has redeemed its preference shares, it may create a capital redemption reserve. This reserve can be used to issue bonus shares to ordinary shareholders, ensuring that the equity base remains strong after redeeming preference shares.

4. Securities Premium Account:

When shares are issued at a premium, the amount received over and above the face value is credited to the securities premium account. Companies can utilize this account to issue bonus shares, provided they comply with the relevant legal provisions and regulations.

5. Profit and Loss Account:

Companies can capitalize amounts from their profit and loss account, which reflects the net earnings after expenses and taxes. Issuing bonus shares from this account indicates that the company has sufficient profits to convert into equity.

6. Other Reserves:

In addition to the above sources, companies may utilize other reserves, such as the revaluation reserve (created when assets are revalued to reflect current market value) or specific reserves set aside for particular purposes. These reserves can be capitalized to issue bonus shares, subject to regulatory compliance.

SEBI Guidelines for Issue of Bonus Shares:

1. Eligibility Criteria:

Only companies that have a track record of consistent profits and are compliant with the listing requirements can issue bonus shares.

Companies must ensure that they have adequate reserves or profits to capitalize for issuing bonus shares.

2. Board Resolution:

The issuance of bonus shares requires the approval of the Board of Directors. A board resolution must be passed detailing the number of shares to be issued, the proportion in which they will be issued, and the source of capitalization.

3. Shareholder Approval:

Companies are required to obtain approval from shareholders through a special resolution in a general meeting before issuing bonus shares. The resolution must specify the number of shares and the rationale behind the issuance.

4. Pro-rata Basis:

Bonus shares must be issued on a pro-rata basis to existing shareholders. This means that shareholders receive additional shares in proportion to their existing holdings, ensuring equitable treatment.

5. Disclosure Requirements:

Companies must disclose the details of the bonus issue in their annual reports, including the rationale, source of capitalization, and any impact on the earnings per share (EPS) and other financial ratios. Additionally, companies should provide adequate information to shareholders and the stock exchanges regarding the bonus issue.

6. Lock-in Period:

There is no specific lock-in period mandated by SEBI for bonus shares. However, the company may impose a lock-in period as part of its internal policies or based on the terms of the bonus issue.

7. Credit of Shares:

Upon approval, the bonus shares must be credited to the demat accounts of shareholders within the stipulated timeframe, ensuring prompt delivery and compliance with market regulations.

8. No Cash Consideration:

Bonus Shares are issued without any cash consideration. This means that shareholders do not have to pay for the additional shares they receive.

9. Regulatory Compliance:

Companies must comply with all applicable provisions of the Companies Act, 2013, and SEBI regulations while issuing bonus shares. Any non-compliance can lead to penalties or legal consequences.

10. Impact on Share Capital:

Companies must assess the impact of the bonus issue on their share capital and provide necessary disclosures regarding the revised capital structure post-issuance.

The formation of a company in India is a meticulous process governed by the Companies Act, 2013, which outlines the rules, regulations, and procedures. This law provides the legal framework for the establishment of different types of companies such as private, public, one-person companies, etc. The formation process can be divided into several stages, each of which requires compliance with specific legal formalities.

Promotion Stage:

Promotion is the first stage in the formation of a company, where the idea of starting a company takes shape, and the necessary actions are initiated by the promoters.

Who is a Promoter?

Promoter is a person or a group of persons who conceive the idea of forming a company and take the necessary steps to incorporate it. They are responsible for:

• Identifying Business Opportunities: Promoters identify the potential opportunities for starting a new business and devise strategies for utilizing those opportunities.
• Feasibility Study: This involves the evaluation of the commercial, financial, and technical viability of the proposed company. The promoter assesses whether the business idea will succeed.
• Business Plan Preparation: The promoter prepares a detailed business plan, outlining the company’s objectives, strategies, resources, and funding needs.
• Arrangement of Capital: The promoter identifies the potential sources of capital, whether through personal savings, loans, or investor funding.
• Appointment of Directors: The promoter nominates the directors who will oversee the company’s operations after incorporation.
• Legal Compliances: The promoter is responsible for ensuring that all necessary legal formalities, such as obtaining licenses, are completed.

Selection of Company Name:

The next significant step in company formation is selecting an appropriate name for the company. This is governed by the guidelines of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA).

• Reserve Unique Name (RUN):

The promoter must submit an application for reserving the company’s name through the MCA’s online service, known as the Reserve Unique Name (RUN) facility. The proposed name should not be identical or similar to any existing company name or trademark.

• Name Approval:

Once the application is submitted, the Registrar of Companies (RoC) will either approve or reject the name within a few working days. If approved, the name is reserved for 20 days during which time the company must proceed with the next steps.

Preparation of Documents:

Once the company’s name is approved, the next step involves preparing and submitting the following key documents:

Memorandum of Association (MoA)

Memorandum of Association outlines the company’s constitution and defines its relationship with the outside world. It contains essential clauses such as:

• Name Clause: States the company’s registered name.
• Registered Office Clause: Specifies the location of the company’s registered office.
• Object Clause: Defines the objectives for which the company is being formed.
• Liability Clause: Indicates the extent of the liability of the members.
• Capital Clause: Mentions the authorized capital of the company.

Articles of Association (AoA)

Articles of Association detail the internal management of the company, including rules related to the conduct of business, rights and responsibilities of directors, and procedures for meetings and resolutions.

Application for Incorporation:

Once the MoA and AoA are prepared, the promoter must file the Incorporation Application (Form SPICe+). This is the most crucial stage in the formation process, as it involves the actual registration of the company with the Registrar of Companies (RoC).

Required Documents for Incorporation:

• MoA and AoA: Duly signed by the promoters and subscribers.
• Declaration of Compliance: A declaration signed by the promoters, affirming that all legal requirements of company formation have been complied with.
• Identity Proofs of Directors and Subscribers: PAN, passport, Aadhar card, or other acceptable ID proofs.
• Address Proof: Utility bills or other documents for the company’s registered office.
• Digital Signature Certificate (DSC): The directors must obtain DSCs, which are used to sign documents electronically.
• Director Identification Number (DIN): Every proposed director must have a DIN, which can be applied for during the incorporation process.

Filing SPICe+ (Simplified Proforma for Incorporating Company Electronically):

SPICe+ is a comprehensive online form provided by the MCA for the incorporation of companies. The form integrates multiple services including PAN, TAN, EPFO, ESIC, and bank account opening.

Payment of Fees:

At the time of filing the incorporation documents, the promoter must pay the necessary government fees. These fees vary depending on the authorized capital of the company and the type of company being registered. For instance:

• For a Private Limited Company, the fees are based on the share capital.
• For a One Person Company (OPC), the fees are typically lower.

Certificate of Incorporation (COI):

Once all the documents and forms are submitted, and the prescribed fees are paid, the RoC reviews the application. If the RoC finds the documents in order, it issues the Certificate of Incorporation (COI). The COI is conclusive evidence that the company has been legally registered and is a recognized entity under Indian law.

The Certificate of Incorporation contains:

• The company’s name.
• The CIN (Company Identification Number).
• The date of incorporation.
• The name of the RoC who issued the certificate.

Post-Incorporation Formalities:

Even after the company is registered, several formalities must be completed to ensure the smooth operation of the company:

• Opening a Bank Account: The company needs to open a bank account in its name, which will be used for all financial transactions.

• Registered Office Address: The company must ensure that it has a registered office within 30 days of incorporation and submit the address to the RoC.
• Issuance of Share Certificates: The company must issue share certificates to the subscribers within two months of incorporation.
• Statutory Books: The company must maintain statutory books such as a register of members, a register of directors, minutes of meetings, and other records required by law.
• Compliance with Tax and Regulatory Requirements: The company needs to register for GST, Professional Tax, and any other applicable taxes. It must also file its annual returns and financial statements with the RoC.

Commencement of Business:

Once the above formalities are completed, the company can start its business operations. However, for companies incorporated with share capital, a Declaration for Commencement of Business must be filed within 180 days of incorporation. This declaration affirms that the subscribers have paid for the shares they agreed to take and is mandatory for the company to begin its business activities.

Articles of Association (AoA) is a key legal document required for the incorporation of a company. It outlines the internal regulations and governance structure of the company, setting the rules for how it will be managed and controlled. While the Memorandum of Association (MoA) defines the company’s relationship with the external world, the AoA focuses on its internal functioning. Together, these documents form the company’s constitution, determining its objectives and operational framework.

AoA must be submitted to the Registrar of Companies (RoC) during incorporation and must align with the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013 in India. It governs aspects like the conduct of board meetings, the appointment of directors, share transfers, and the rights and duties of shareholders.

Meaning of Articles of Association:

Articles of Association is a legal document that outlines the rules for a company’s internal management and procedures. It defines the responsibilities of the directors, the processes for making decisions, the rights and duties of shareholders, and the company’s rules for issuing and transferring shares. The AoA provides a framework for running the company’s day-to-day operations and ensuring smooth governance.

While the MoA defines the company’s objectives and limits, the AoA allows for flexibility in how those objectives are achieved. It acts as a contract between the company and its members (shareholders), as well as among the members themselves, ensuring that the company is managed in accordance with agreed rules and practices.

Contents of Articles of Association:

Companies Act, 2013, provides significant flexibility in drafting the Articles of Association, allowing companies to customize their internal regulations.

1. Share Capital and Variation of Rights

AoA outlines the company’s share capital structure, including the different classes of shares (e.g., equity shares, preference shares), and their respective rights and restrictions. It also specifies the process for issuing new shares, altering share capital, and varying the rights attached to different classes of shares.

2. Transfer and Transmission of Shares

This section of the AoA provides the rules for transferring shares between shareholders, including the procedure for the sale or gift of shares. It also covers the transmission of shares in the event of the death or insolvency of a shareholder. The AoA may include restrictions on share transfers, especially in the case of private limited companies, where shares cannot be freely transferred.

3. Board of Directors

AoA specifies the composition of the Board of Directors, their powers, and the procedures for their appointment and removal. It may include details about the minimum and maximum number of directors, the qualifications required to become a director, and the process for filling vacancies on the board. Additionally, it governs the roles and responsibilities of the board in managing the company’s affairs.

4. Meetings and Voting Rights

AoA outlines the rules for holding meetings of the board and shareholders, including the notice period, quorum requirements, and procedures for passing resolutions. It also specifies the voting rights of shareholders and directors, including whether decisions are made by simple majority or special resolution.

5. Dividends and Reserves

AoA defines the procedure for declaring and distributing dividends to shareholders. It includes the company’s policy on retaining profits for reserves, the amount to be distributed as dividends, and the process for calculating and paying dividends to shareholders.

6. Borrowing Powers

This section defines the borrowing powers of the company, including the authority of the Board of Directors to raise loans or issue debentures. It outlines the terms and conditions under which the company can borrow funds, including any limitations on borrowing.

7. Accounts and Audits

AoA specifies the rules regarding the maintenance of accounts, auditing of financial statements, and the appointment of auditors. It may also detail the financial year of the company and the process for approving and filing annual financial statements.

8. Winding Up

AoA includes provisions for the winding up of the company, detailing the process for liquidation and the distribution of assets in the event of the company’s dissolution. It may outline how assets are to be distributed among shareholders, creditors, and other stakeholders.

9. Indemnity

AoA may include an indemnity clause that provides protection to the company’s officers and directors against liabilities incurred in the course of performing their duties, provided they act in good faith.

Forms of Articles of Association:

AoA can take various forms depending on the type and structure of the company. While there is no prescribed form for the AoA under the Companies Act, 2013, the following are the common types of companies that need to customize their Articles:

1. Private Limited Companies

Private companies tend to have more restrictive Articles, particularly concerning the transfer of shares and the maximum number of shareholders. The AoA of a private limited company often includes specific provisions limiting the right to transfer shares, setting out processes for director appointments, and defining the company’s internal governance structure.

2. Public Limited Companies

AoA of public limited companies is generally more flexible compared to private limited companies, particularly in areas like share transfer and raising capital. Public companies must comply with additional regulatory requirements, and their AoA typically includes provisions that align with listing agreements and stock exchange rules.

3. One Person Companies (OPC)

In the case of One Person Companies, the AoA is relatively simple, as the company has only one shareholder and fewer compliance requirements. The AoA of an OPC will typically focus on the limited role of the single shareholder in managing the company’s affairs.

Alteration of Articles of Association:

Companies Act, 2013, allows for the alteration of the AoA as long as the changes comply with legal requirements and are approved by the shareholders. The AoA is a flexible document, and companies often need to update it to reflect changes in their business environment or governance needs.

Process for Altering the Articles of Association

1. Board Resolution:

The process for altering the AoA begins with the Board of Directors passing a resolution to propose changes to the Articles. The resolution must specify the reasons for the proposed alteration and schedule a general meeting of the shareholders.

2. Special Resolution:

The alteration of the AoA requires approval from the shareholders by passing a special resolution in the general meeting. A special resolution requires at least 75% of the shareholders to vote in favor of the changes.

3. Filing with the Registrar of Companies (RoC):

Once the special resolution is passed, the company must file the altered AoA with the RoC using the prescribed forms (e.g., Form MGT-14). The alteration becomes effective only after the RoC registers the modified AoA.

4. Approval by Regulatory Authorities:

In certain cases, the alteration may require approval from other regulatory bodies. For example, changes to the AoA of a public company listed on a stock exchange must be approved by the stock exchange or the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

Limitations on Alteration:

• Consistency with the Memorandum of Association:

AoA cannot contain provisions that are inconsistent with the MoA. The MoA takes precedence, and any changes to the Articles must be in alignment with the company’s objectives as set out in the MoA.

• Statutory Restrictions:

Certain statutory provisions, such as those related to the rights of minority shareholders, cannot be altered without complying with the provisions of the Companies Act.

Memorandum of Association (MoA) is a fundamental legal document required for the incorporation of a company. It serves as the company’s constitution, defining its relationship with the external world and outlining the scope of its operations. Every company in India, whether public or private, must have a Memorandum of Association to be registered under the Companies Act, 2013. The MoA sets the foundation for a company’s legal existence and binds the company, its shareholders, and all those who interact with the company to the terms contained within it.

Meaning of Memorandum of Association:

Memorandum of Association is essentially a charter or a framework that outlines the objectives, powers, and scope of the company. It defines the company’s boundaries and specifies what the company can and cannot do. The MoA acts as a contract between the company and the shareholders, as well as between the company and the external parties it deals with.

The purpose of the MoA is to ensure that the company operates within its defined objectives, and it provides clarity to shareholders, creditors, and third parties regarding the nature and scope of the company’s business. Any action taken by the company beyond the scope of the MoA is considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) and may be deemed invalid.

Contents of the Memorandum of Association:

Companies Act, 2013, specifies the mandatory contents of the MoA, and each clause plays a significant role in determining the company’s structure and operational framework. The key components of a Memorandum of Association are:

1. Name Clause

The name clause specifies the name of the company. The name must be unique and not identical or similar to any existing registered company. The name must also comply with naming guidelines under the Companies Act:

• For a Private Limited Company, the name must end with “Private Limited.”
• For a Public Limited Company, the name must end with “Limited.”

Additionally, the name should not infringe on any trademarks or offend public morality.

2. Registered Office Clause

This clause specifies the registered office of the company, which serves as its official address. It is the location where legal documents, notices, and other communications can be sent. The company must provide the complete address of the registered office upon incorporation, and any changes to the address must be notified to the Registrar of Companies (RoC).

3. Object Clause

The object clause is one of the most critical sections of the MoA, as it outlines the main objectives for which the company is formed. The object clause is divided into:

• Main Objects: The primary activities the company will undertake. Any business conducted by the company must be aligned with these objects.
• Ancillary or Incidental Objects: Activities necessary to achieve the main objects.

The object clause restricts the company’s activities to those mentioned in the MoA. Any business conducted outside the scope of this clause is considered ultra vires.

4. Liability Clause

This clause defines the extent of the liability of the company’s shareholders. In a company limited by shares, the liability of shareholders is limited to the unpaid amount on their shares. If the company is limited by guarantee, the liability is limited to the amount each member agrees to contribute in the event of liquidation.

5. Capital Clause

The capital clause specifies the company’s authorized share capital. It mentions the total amount of capital with which the company is registered and the division of this capital into shares of a fixed value. This clause sets a limit on the amount of share capital that the company can issue unless it is altered through a formal process.

6. Subscription Clause

Subscription clause lists the names of the initial subscribers to the Memorandum, who agree to take up shares in the company. It also indicates the number of shares each subscriber agrees to take. Each subscriber must sign the MoA in the presence of at least one witness.

7. Association or Declaration Clause

This clause includes a declaration by the original members, stating their intent to form the company and agree to become its first shareholders. The subscribers to the MoA declare that they wish to associate themselves with the company.

Forms of Memorandum of Association:

Under the Companies Act, 2013, companies can be formed in various categories, and the MoA must reflect the company’s type. The MoA can be drafted in different forms depending on the type of company:

1. Table A: For companies limited by shares.
2. Table B: For companies limited by guarantee but not having share capital.
3. Table C: For companies limited by guarantee and having share capital.
4. Table D: For unlimited companies.
5. Table E: For unlimited companies having share capital.

Each form provides a template for the drafting of the MoA according to the specific type of company being incorporated.

Alteration of Memorandum of Association:

Although the MoA is a rigid document that outlines the company’s operational limits, it can be altered under specific circumstances. The process for altering the MoA is governed by the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013. The alteration is allowed only if it is approved by a special resolution of the shareholders and is registered with the RoC.

1. Alteration of the Name Clause

The name of the company can be changed by passing a special resolution in the general meeting. However, if the company is changing its status from a private company to a public company or vice versa, it must also obtain approval from the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT). The change must be registered with the RoC, and a fresh certificate of incorporation must be issued.

2. Alteration of the Registered Office Clause

The registered office can be changed:

• Within the same city or town: By passing a board resolution and informing the RoC.
• From one city or town to another within the same state: By passing a special resolution and informing the RoC.
• From one state to another: Requires approval from both the shareholders and the Regional Director, and a special resolution must be passed. After approval, the RoC must be notified, and the alteration registered.

3. Alteration of the Object Clause

The object clause can be altered by passing a special resolution in the general meeting. Additionally, if the alteration affects the rights of existing creditors, their consent is required. The revised object clause must be filed with the RoC within 30 days of passing the resolution.

4. Alteration of the Liability Clause

The liability clause can be altered only if the company is converting from an unlimited liability company to a limited liability company, or vice versa. Such a change requires the approval of shareholders through a special resolution and must be registered with the RoC.

5. Alteration of the Capital Clause

The authorized share capital of the company can be increased by passing an ordinary resolution at the general meeting. The company must file the relevant forms with the RoC and pay the requisite fees. The change is effective once the alteration is registered.

Allotment of Shares refers to the process by which a company distributes its shares to applicants who have subscribed during an offering, such as an Initial Public Offering (IPO) or private placement. Once the subscription period ends, the company reviews the applications, determines the allocation of shares, and officially assigns them to the investors. Allotment is done based on the availability of shares and the demand. If the offering is oversubscribed, shares may be distributed on a proportionate basis or through a lottery system, ensuring fairness to applicants.

Types of Allotment of Shares:

1. Public or Initial Allotment:

This occurs when a company issues shares for the first time through an Initial Public Offering (IPO) or a Follow-on Public Offer (FPO). Shares are allotted to the public based on their applications and may be determined through a fixed price or book-building process. If oversubscribed, allotment is done proportionally.

2. Private Placement:

Shares are allotted to a select group of investors, such as institutional investors, private equity firms, or wealthy individuals. It doesn’t involve public participation and is often quicker and subject to fewer regulatory hurdles.

3. Rights Issue Allotment:

Existing shareholders are given the opportunity to purchase additional shares in proportion to their current shareholding, often at a discounted price. Shares are allotted based on the shareholder’s entitlement and their decision to take up the offer.

Rules Regarding Allotment of Shares:

1. Minimum Subscription Rule:

A company can allot shares only if it receives a minimum subscription of 90% of the total issue within a specified period. If the company fails to achieve this, the issue must be canceled, and the application money is refunded to investors.

2. SEBI Guidelines (for Public issues):

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) sets rules for public issues, including requirements for disclosing financial details, ensuring fair pricing, and the process for allotting shares. Companies must follow these guidelines when issuing shares through IPOs or public offers.

3. Time Limit for Allotment:

Shares must be allotted within a prescribed time frame, usually 60 days from the date of receiving the application. If the company fails to allot shares within this period, it must refund the application money within 15 days. Otherwise, the company is liable to pay interest on the amount.

4. Return of Allotment:

After allotting shares, the company must file a Return of Allotment (Form PAS-3) with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 30 days. This document details the number of shares allotted, the shareholders, and the allotment process.

5. Listing Requirements:

If the shares are issued through an IPO or public offer, the company must ensure that the shares are listed on a recognized stock exchange. The allotment must comply with the rules and regulations of the stock exchange as well.

6. Proper Allotment Procedures:

The company must follow proper procedures during the allotment, including board approval, maintaining proper records of applicants, and ensuring fairness in case of oversubscription (proportional allotment or lottery system).

7. Non-Payment of Allotment Money:

If a shareholder fails to pay the allotment money, the company has the right to forfeit the shares after providing due notice.

Restrictions on Allotment of Shares:

1. Minimum Subscription:

Company cannot proceed with the allotment of shares unless it receives at least 90% of the total issue as a minimum subscription. If this threshold is not met, the company must refund the application money to investors. This ensures that the company raises adequate capital to meet its objectives.

2. Approval by Regulatory Authorities:

In the case of public offers, companies must receive approvals from regulatory authorities such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and comply with its guidelines. Any non-compliance can lead to a restriction on the allotment process.

3. Time Limit for Allotment:

Shares must be allotted within 60 days from the date of receiving the share application. If the company fails to allot shares within this period, the application money must be refunded to the investors within the next 15 days. If not, the company must pay interest at a specified rate.

4. Prohibition on Allotment Before Filing the Prospectus:

Companies issuing shares to the public must file a prospectus with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) before making any allotment. Allotment without issuing or filing a prospectus is prohibited and can be declared void.

5. Return of Allotment:

After allotment, companies are required to file a Return of Allotment (Form PAS-3) with the ROC within 30 days of the allotment. If this form is not filed, further allotments may be restricted, and penalties may be imposed.

6. Oversubscription and Proportional Allotment:

In cases of oversubscription (when applications exceed the number of shares available), the company is restricted from issuing more shares than initially offered. It must allocate shares on a proportionate basis or through a fair method, such as a lottery system, to ensure equitable distribution.

7. Restrictions on Allotment to Certain Investors:

• Foreign Investors: Allotment to foreign investors must comply with the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) guidelines. Companies cannot allot shares to foreign nationals or institutions without adhering to these rules.
• Restricted Categories: Allotments may be restricted for certain categories of investors, such as related parties or company insiders, without appropriate board approvals or shareholder resolutions.

8. Non-Payment of Allotment Money:

If the allotment money is not paid by the applicant within the specified time, the company has the right to forfeit the shares. The allottee loses their entitlement to the shares and any amount already paid.

9. SEBI Regulations (for Listed Companies):

For listed companies, allotment of shares must comply with SEBI’s guidelines, including transparency, proper disclosures, and fair pricing. Failure to adhere to these regulations can restrict further share allotments.

10. Lock-in Period:

For certain types of shareholders, especially promoters and institutional investors in private placements, a lock-in period may apply. During this period, these shareholders are restricted from selling or transferring their shares.

Reputed companies require the applicants to send the full value of the shares along with the applications. This is because, the Companies Act does not prohibit companies to collect the entire amount at the time of issue itself. But the usual practice of the companies is to collect a certain percentage of the face value of the shares on application and allotment and the balance in one or more installments known as calls.

A call may be defined as a demand made by the company on its shareholders to pay a part or the whole of the unpaid balance within a specified time. Lord Lindley says that the expression “Call” denotes both the demand for money and also the sum demanded.

The following points should be noted, in this context, so that the reader can understand what a call really means.

1. Time for Making the Call: The call can be made at any time during the life time of the company or during the course of winding up. During the life time, the call should be made by the Board of Directors and during the course of winding up, it should be made by the liquidator.
2. Obligatory: Each shareholder is obliged to pay the amount of call as and when the call is made. But, this liability arises only when the call is made and not before.
3. Debt Due: As soon as a call is made, the call amount shall become a debt due from the shareholders to the company.
4. Consequences of Default: If a shareholder fails to pay the call amount, the company can enforce payment of the amount together with interest or can forfeit the shares.
5. Calls and Other Payments: A call is different from other payments made by a shareholder. The amounts paid on application and allotment are not calls. Similarly, if a company requires the shareholders to pay the entire amount either on application or on allotment, it is not a call under this Act.

Legal Provisions Relating to the Calls

The statutory provisions relating to the making of calls can be summed up as follows:

1. Call should Bona fide: The power to make call is generally in nature of a trust and so it can be exercised bona fide and for the benefit of the company. It should not be made for private ends. It means the directors or the liquidator can make the call only when there is a bona fide need for funds.
2. Uniformity: The calls should be made on an uniform basis on all the shares falling under the same class. If a call is made only on some shareholders of the same class but not on others or a greater amount is demanded from some shareholders and a lesser amount from others of the same class, the call is not valid.
3. Provisions of the Articles: The calls should be made strictly in accordance with the provisions of the Articles. If this is not done, the call will be invalid.

Procedure for making Calls

Generally, the procedure for making calls is incorporated in the Articles of most companies. If a company has its own Articles, it should follow the provisions of its Articles. If not, the regulations specified in Table A of the Act shall apply.

The following provisions of Table A can be noted at this stage.

1. The power to make calls generally vests in the Board of Directors.
2. The calls should be made by passing a resolution at the meeting of the Board.
3. The call money should not exceed 50% of the face value of the share at one time. However, companies may have their own Articles and raise this limit.
4. There must be at least 30 days interval between two successive calls.
5. When a call is made a letter known as “Call Letter” or “Call Notice” should be sent to all the shareholders of the same class.
6. The notice should also specify the amount of the call, place of payment etc. and should be sent at least 14 days before the last date for payment.
7. The Board of directors has the power to revoke or postpone a call after it is made.
8. Joint shareholders are jointly and severally liable for payment of calls.
9. If a member fails to pay call money, he is liable to pay interest not exceeding the rate specified in the Articles or terms of issue. The directors are free to waive the payment of interest.
10. If any member desires to pay the call money in advance, the directors may at their discretion accept and pay interest not exceeding the rate specified in the Articles.
11. A defaulting member will not have any voting right till call money is paid by him.

Sec. 2(36) of the Companies Act describes a prospectus as “any document issued as a prospectus and includes any notice, circular, advertisement or other document inviting deposits from the public or inviting offers from the public for the subscription or purchase of any share in, or debentures of a body corporate.”

In other words, it is a document which invites deposits from the public or invites offers from the public for the subscription of shares in, or debentures of, a company. The words “inviting deposits from the public” were added by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1974.

Features and Characteristics of Prospectus:

(i) It is a document issued as a prospectus;

(ii) It is an invitation to the member of the public;

(iii) The public is invited to subscribe to the shares or debentures of the company;

(iv) It includes any notice, circular, advertisement inviting deposits from the public;

(v) It is a document by which the company procures its share capital needed to carry on its activities.

Forms and Contents of the Prospectus:

Sec. 56 states that every prospectus must

1. State the matters specified in Part I of Schedule II, and
2. Set out the reports specified in Part II of Schedule II.

The Statement in Lieu of Prospectus is a document filed with the Registrar of the Companies ( ROC ) when the company has not issued prospectus to the public for inviting them to subscribe for shares. The statement must contain the signatures of all the directors or their agents authorized in writing. It is similar to a prospectus but contains brief information. The Statement in Lieu of Prospectus needs to be filed with the registrar if the company does not issues prospectus or the company issued prospectus but because minimum subscription has not been received the company has not proceeded for the allotment of shares.

If a public company does not invite the public to subscribe for its shares but acquires to have money from private sources it may not issue a prospectus. In the circumstances, the promoters are required to prepare a draft prospectus which is known as ‘Statement in lieu of Prospectus’ which must contain the information required to be disclosed by Schedule III of the Act.

Sec. 70(1) states that a company having a share capital which does not issue a prospectus shall not allot any of its shares or debentures unless at least 3 days before the allotment of shares or debentures there has been delivered to the Registrar for registration a statement in lieu of prospectus.

The statement shall be signed by every person who is named therein as a director or proposed director of the company or by his authorised agent in writing. It shall be in the form and contain particulars set out in Schedule III of the Act.

Sec. 70(4) lays down that, in contravention of Sec. 70(1), the company and every director of the company, who wilfully authorizes or permits the contravention shall be punishable with fine which may extent to Rs. 1,000.

Similarly Sec. 70(5) also states that where the statement in lieu of prospectus contains any untrue statement, the persons responsible, for the issue thereof, may be punished by imprisonment which may extend to 2 years or with fine which may extend to Rs. 5,000, or with both.

Red Herring Prospectus:

A Red Herring Prospectus is a document which is submitted by an issuer company who intents to have public offerings of securities (i.e.; stock or bonds). It is associated with an Initial Public Offering (IPO). It must be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The term Red herring comes from the tradition where young hunting dogs in Great Britain were trained in order to follow a scent by the use of ‘Red’ (i.e. salted and smoked) herring (i.e., kipper).

It is interesting to note that this pungent fish would be dragged across a trail until the puppy learned to follow the scent. But the term is used in prospectus simply due to disclosure statement which is printed in red ink on the cover which clearly states that the issuing company is not attempting to sell its shares.

Contents of Red Herring Prospectus:

(a) Purpose of the issue;

(b) Proposed offering Price Range;

(c) Promotion expenses;

(d) Copy of the underwriting agreement;

(e) Underwriter’s commission and discount;

(f) Disclosure of any option agreement;

(g) Balance Sheet;

(h) Net proceeds to the issuing company;

(i) Earning statement for .last three years;

(j) Legal option on the issue;

(k) Copies of the Articles of Incorporation of the issuer; and

(l) Names and addresses of all offices, underwriters, directors and stockholders owning 10% or more of the existing outstanding stock.

Share Warrant is a negotiable instrument issued by a company that entitles the holder to acquire a specific number of shares at a predetermined price within a certain period. It is often used by companies as a means of raising capital or offering incentives to investors. Share warrants can be traded on the stock market like shares, but they do not carry voting rights or entitle the holder to dividends until the warrant is exercised, i.e., converted into shares.

Key Characteristics of Share Warrants:

• Negotiable Instrument:

Share warrant is a transferable instrument that can be freely traded. The holder of a share warrant can sell it in the market, offering flexibility in investment decisions.

• Right to Subscribe to Shares:

Share warrant grants the holder the right, but not the obligation, to purchase shares at a specified price (called the exercise price) within a set time frame. This option is attractive to investors because they can benefit from price fluctuations of the company’s shares.

• No Ownership Rights:

Share warrant holders do not own the shares until they exercise the warrant. They are not considered shareholders and do not have voting rights or dividend entitlements.

• Specified Time Period:

Warrants have an expiration date by which they must be exercised. After this period, the warrant becomes void, and the holder loses the opportunity to purchase shares at the pre-agreed price.

• Issued by the Company:

Share warrants are issued by the company directly and are different from other market instruments like options, which are often issued by financial institutions or traded in the derivatives market.

• Discounted Pricing:

Companies sometimes offer warrants at a price lower than the market price to make them attractive to investors. This can be particularly beneficial if the company’s share price increases before the warrant’s expiration, as the holder can buy the shares at a lower price.

Advantages of Share Warrants:

• Capital Raising:

Companies can raise capital without immediately diluting shareholder equity. If warrants are exercised, the company will receive the exercise price as additional capital.

• Incentive for Investors:

Share warrants can serve as a sweetener for investors, providing an additional benefit that increases the attractiveness of the investment.

• Leverage Opportunity:

Investors can potentially gain leverage through warrants by buying shares at a lower price, benefiting from future appreciation in the company’s stock price.

Disadvantages of Share Warrants:

• No Immediate Shareholder Rights:

Until exercised, the warrant holder has no claim to dividends or voting rights, limiting their influence in the company.

• Expiration Risk:

If the company’s stock price does not rise above the exercise price before the warrant’s expiration, the warrant can become worthless.

Legal Provisions in India:

Under the Companies Act, 2013, the concept of share warrants is not commonly used by private companies, as the Act mandates all securities to be fully paid up before being issued. However, listed companies often use share warrants as part of capital raising or financial restructuring strategies.

Share Certificate

Share Certificate is an official document issued by a company that certifies ownership of a specific number of shares in that company. It serves as evidence of the title of a shareholder and acts as a legal proof of the ownership of shares. Share certificates are issued to shareholders after the shares have been allotted and fully paid up.

Key Characteristics of Share Certificates:

• Proof of Ownership:

Share certificate is the primary document that certifies ownership of shares in a company. It acts as proof that the shareholder owns the shares mentioned in the certificate.

• Physical or Dematerialized Form:

In the past, share certificates were issued in physical form, but with the rise of dematerialization, most companies now issue shares in electronic form. However, in cases where shares are still held in physical form, a physical certificate is provided.

• Essential Information:

A share certificate contains key information such as:

1. The name and address of the shareholder.
2. The number of shares held by the shareholder.
3. The unique share certificate number.
4. The distinctive numbers of the shares.
5. The face value of each share.
6. The date of issue of the certificate.

• Legal Document:

Share certificates are legal documents that can be presented in court as evidence of ownership. They must be signed by authorized company officers (usually the company secretary and one director) and bear the company’s seal.

• Transferability:

Shares represented by share certificates are transferable, and the certificate plays a role in the transfer process. When shares are transferred, the old certificate is typically surrendered to the company, and a new certificate is issued to the new owner.

• Issuance Timeline:

Under Indian law, the company is required to issue the share certificate within two months from the date of allotment of shares or within one month from the date of transfer of shares.

Advantages of Share Certificates:

• Legal Recognition:

Share certificate legally proves that a shareholder owns a part of the company. This is crucial in situations like litigation or disputes over ownership.

• Ease of Transfer:

In the case of physical shares, the certificate facilitates the transfer process, as it must be surrendered and reissued when ownership changes.

• Historical Importance:

Before dematerialization, physical share certificates were important records of ownership and were often kept for long periods.

Disadvantages of Share Certificates:

• Risk of Loss:

Physical share certificates can be lost, stolen, or damaged, leading to complications in proving ownership and requiring reissuance by the company.

• Cumbersome Transfer Process:

In the case of physical share certificates, the transfer process can be time-consuming, as it requires physical handling and verification by the company.

Legal Provisions in India:

Under the Companies Act, 2013, companies are required to issue share certificates within the prescribed time frame (as mentioned above). Share certificates must be signed by authorized officers and stamped with the company’s seal. If a shareholder loses a certificate, the company must follow due legal procedures for reissuing a duplicate certificate.

SECTION 152 OF THE COMPANIES ACT, 2013: APPOINTMENT OF DIRECTOR

An individual who is appointed or elected as the member of the board of Directors of a Company, who, along with the other directors, has the responsibility for determining and implementing the policies of the company.

Director is an individual who directs, manages, oversees or controls the affairs of the Company.

A director is a person who is appointed to perform the duties and functions of a company in accordance with the provisions of The Company Act, 2013.

As per Section 149(1): Every Company shall have a Board of Directors consisting of Individuals as director.

They play a very important role in managing the business and other affairs of Company. Appointment of Directors is very crucial for the growth and management of Company.

APPOINTMENT OF DIRECTORS UNDER COMPANIES ACT 2013: 

TYPE OF COMPANY	APPOINTMENT MADE
Public Company or a Private Company subsidiary of a public company	1. 2/3 of the total Directors appointed by the shareholders. 2.Remaining 1/3 appointment is made as per Articles and failing which, shareholders shall appoint the remaining.
Private Company which is not a subsidiary of a public company	1. Articles prescribe manner of appointment of any or all the Directors. 2. In case, Articles are silent, Directors must be appointed by the shareholders

 *Nominee Directors can be appointed by a third party or by the Central Government in the case of oppression or mismanagement.

REQUIREMENT OF A COMPANY TO HAVE BOARD OF DIRECTORS: 

Private Limited Company	Minimum Two Directors
Public Limited Company	Minimum Three Directors
one person Company	Minimum One Director

 * A company may appoint more than (15) fifteen Directors after passing a special resolution.

*Further, every Company should have one Resident Director (i.e. a person who has lived at least 182 days in India during the financial year)

Director’s appointment is covered under section 152 of Companies Act, 2013, along with Rule 8 of the Companies (Appointment and Qualification of Directors) Rules, 2014.

QUALIFICATIONS FOR DIRECTORS:

According to The Companies Act no qualifications for being the Director of any company is prescribed. The Companies Act does, however, limit the specified share qualification of Directors which can be prescribed by a public company or a private company that is a subsidiary of a public company, to be five thousand rupees (Rs. 5,000/-).

New Categories of Director

Resident Director:

 This is one of the most important changes made in the new regime, particularly in respect of the appointment of Directors under section 149 of the Companies Act, 2013. It states that every Company should have at least one resident Director i.e. a person who has stayed in India for not less than 182 days in the previous calendar year.

Woman Director

Now the legislature has made mandatory for certain class of the company to appoint women as director. As per section 149, prescribes for the certain class of the company their women strength in the board should not be less than 1/3. Such companies either listed company and any public company having-

1. Paid up capital of Rs. 100 cr. or more, or
2. Turnover of Rs. 300 cr. or more.

Foreign National as a Director under Companies Act, 2013

Under Indian Companies Act, 2013, there is no restriction to appoint a foreign national as a director in Indian Companies along with six types of Directors which are appointed in a company, i.e., Women Director, Independent Director, Small Shareholders Director, Additional Director, Alternative and Nominee Director. By complying with the Companies Act, 2013 (hereinafter referred as “The Act”) read along with the Companies (Appointment and Qualifications of Directors) Rules, 2014 (hereinafter referred as “The Rules”)

Restrictions on number of Directorships

The Companies Act prevents a Director from being a Director, at the same time, in more than fifteen (15) companies. For the purposes of establishing this maximum number of companies in which a person can be a Director, the following companies are excluded:

A “pure” private company;

An association not carrying on its business for profit, or one that prohibits the payment of any dividends; and

A company in which he or she is only appointed as an Alternate Director.

Failure of the Director to comply with these regulations will result in a fine of fifty thousand rupees (Rs. 50,000/-) for every company that he or she is a Director of, after the first fifteen (15) so determined.